CHAPTER 13

BIOLOGICAL ENERGY A N D
CHEMICAL ENERGY

13.1. Biomass and Biofuels

Any type of animal or plant material that can be converted into energy is c.r~.ll~t~l
biomass. This includes trees and shrubs, crops and grasses, algae, aquatic ~ I I I . I I ( . H ,
agricultl~raland forest residues plus all forms of human, animal and plant ~ i t i l , I(I ~) .
When the material is used for energy production it becomes a biofuel. Tllc*r.c,t ~ l . c ~
many forms of biofuel, existing in solid, liquid or gaseous categories.
An estimate of the world solid biomass standing in forests in 1979 wiis l .ti i
loz2 J. At that time this figure was comparable with the world's prover1 I ~ ~ I , ~ , I I I . I I . I
gas and oil reserves [2]. The same biomass figure is about 50 times the v i ~ l ~(11' l(>
world primary energy consumption in 2000, recorded in Table 2.3. If thc I)iol~lr~.?i
values of grasslands and crops are included (although these are mainly usccl fir 1;10(1
production - indirectly energy - rather than fuel supply) the solid biorr~i~ss lig111.1,
is about 200 times the global energy consumption.
The main sources of raw material that constitute biofuels include

(a) Natural vegetation

(b) Energy tree plantations
(c) Specific energy crops
(d) Wastes
(e) Water-based biomass
Each of the above five categories is briefly discussed below

13.1.1. Natural vegetation

In harvesting a natural vegetation sitc rio c:norxy c:ost,s ilrc: illvolvc.tl i l l c.lc~n.l.i~~p, I 11.

replanting. Whcre a r m rrlily t)c: 111~11it,i~l1l(: for i~gric:~~Il,l~r(: I,II(, IIS(: 01' 11,sV I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ , I I , ~ ,
for l~ioninsswolilcl c:oiist,il,~~t,c: i~ 11so1'111 I ) O ~ I I I S I ~ i o l ' lS~~~I ~I Il. ( Y' I~ '.l ~ ( ~sl.ill r ( ~ I . ( ~ I I I ~ I . ~ 1,111'
II

r~c:c~ossi~ry
( ~ ) s l ,osf l ~ t ~ r v ( l s l ,t ,il ~~ c~t vg( y y ~ l , ~ ~11,11el
~ l , i eI ,)I ~~ I~I I I S ~ ~ I ~ I ~ iIl , ~ II, I I ~ 11~ , I I S I - I .
:{it,16. A
 ' I ' I I ( % I ( , I:; ; I I ' I I I - I . I I ( . I I I o I . ~ . I I I . I ; I I ~ I I : ; : I . ~ ~ ~ : I I I ~ . ; I l~ ~o > 1.11,.
. I I : ~ . O I I r r r ~ t l I I I I : ; ~ Y ~( . I I I , I J : ~ I ; I I I I I I I I J ~ ,
'1'11(: I l ; ~ . l . t l , ~;1.11(1 l';l.~l,-gl~o~illj: Sl)('(.i(Yi ~ . ( ' ( ~ l l i l - ( ' ( l 101. ('Il(.I]:,y 11:;1. 1 . ( 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! 1 ~ 0 1 1 1 1 ~W I I I l .

~l)r(:i~(I IIII~S;LII(~~ if'; Si,l~(:y(:s(:il,l)t:(I~ ' Y O I I I I,~I(: < . ~ I I I ~ 01.I I (1,11(:

! S ~':II.III. '1'11(%,y 111;l.y I I I . I I
displace native plant species ii~l(iii~ipi~(:I, 011 ii11i111i~l ~ L I I ( Ii~ls(:(.t, lil'(-.Also, I , I I ( * I I I ( , I , I I ( 1 1 1 ; .
necessarily used to control infestations and diseasc ill t,llc: cilcrgy 1)1;~11l,s, c-slI ( Y . I : I I l Y I I
they are monocultures, could have adverse effects on neighhollri~~g fi)ocl I ) I . ( I ~l 1 1 r . 1 1 4 V I I
crops.
The same soil plantation may be used for two species of plants wit.11o r l l . I 1 1 1 11111111.

growth patterns. If both species are in leaf together the leaf canopy c . o v c - ~ 1- 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
is increased. Non-nitrogen-fixing crops can be grown side by side wil.ll II.,:IIIIII.!~ ( 3 1

reduce the need for nitrogenous fertilisers. Mixed cropping of this kiiltl is I(.:,:; : < I I : , I 1 . 1 I
tible to damage by external parasites or predators than monoculturc: I ) I ~ I . I ~ I . I I I . I { , I I : ~1 11
There are some plants that produce high concentratiorls of " I ) ( ~ I . I . O I ~ ~ I I I I I III,.I."
products. These can be grown en masse and the "oils" extracted or scl~~(~*;.,t,tl 0111
I,'ig. 13.1. Co~rlrnercialforestry [lo].
Pilot schemes have been carried out in Mexico.
Widespread energy farming on marginal land implies the need li)r S O I I I I . I ~ . \ , I . I
I I I . . : I ( I \ , ; I . I ~ I . ; I ~ : i~:; ~ 1.1 1;1.1. I:V(*II i l l fcrtilc locations the yields are low
- about one-half of
of overall control. A fast-growing plant that thrived in marginal coiltlil.io~~:i w( 1 1 1 1 1 I
I 111, \ ~ J I ~ I I I1 . I I ; I I . 11rigI11. I)(- ol)t,iiiil~dfro111 customised energy plantations.
create incentives to adapt the plant for food production. This is not ~lc*c,c-ssi~.~ ily I I I I ~ ~
but would create further pressure on land use for purely biomass rca.sor\s. 1 1 1 ( 1 1 1 1 t . 1
words, the food versus biomass competition would increase.
I 'I 1 . 1 . : . I 1 II.II(.I. I,yl )c,s c IF ligrioc:c~llillosematerials may be grown specifically for burn-
; I 111
I t would seem sensible to think in terms of integrated growtll ~ ~ ~ i x c (. , tI lI I ~ I
I I I J , . :I:. I I ~ I I I - I I ~ ~ I s .fly t , I ~ c(.lloi('(>
~ of i~ppropriatespecies, sites, planting densities ant1 ping, in which energy crops are developed alongside crops for food, f(:rt,ilisc.~:; ; t 1 ~ 1

1 1 1 1 1 \ . ( , : , I 1111: s(.II(.(IIII(~s I)ioFr~(~ls (:iLi1 I)(! grown a t competitive costs. This process is chemicals [4].
, I I I I . I IIII(.:; r.c*Ii~r.rc.cl t.o ;I.S "sl~ort, rot,at,ionforestry". An example of coniferous forestry
I I I 1 1 1 1 . I ISA is giv(>11 111 Fig. 13.1. 13.1.4. Use of wastes
The burning and biodegradation of wastes as a source of energy is so siplil i(.:1.11(.
11 1 1

I :I.I .:I. Sl~c,c:ijic:etrc:fyy crops issue that a complete section below (Sec. 13.5) is devoted to this.
( '4.1 I ;I I I I 1.1 1 11 IS Ir;l.vc. I ~ i g c:ilc:r.gy
l~ c~)nvc:rsioncficiency. In appropriate locations crops
..II~ 11 I,r(v!s,r111)l)(:r
:I:, ~ ' I I ( . : I ~ V ~ ) ~ . I I S 1)litllt~or sunflowers might be used because of their 13.1.5. Water-based biomass
1 1 l l ~ 1 J~ :I I O W I , ~ I:I.II(I 11ik:ll (w(:rgy (:o~lf.(:~~t [:3]. Such crops do not have to be consumal)l(:
Aquatic plants do not require irrigation or appreciable rainfall. Wi>.t,trl- I . ~ : I I I: I ~1.11) I~1 . .1 , I
I ) \ , I I I I I I I : I I I : ~ 01. : I I I ~ I I I ;III(I ; I . ~till(:
S , (:~rt,ir(:
crop car1 be used, including leaves, stalks ai~tl
fluctuate less than land temperatures and light absorption is high, givill!: ~risc.1.0 I I I J : I I
I I : ' I ' I ) I ~ s ~ . ( I I . ( Y I c.llc~r~~i(.;iI('11orgy('ill1 1~)cconvcrtcd directly to heat by combustio~r
photosynthetic efficiencies.
( 1 1 1 1 1 I ~ct.,s:<(-(l i111,o l i ( l r ~ i ( lor ~il.s(solls f11(>1s. Li(111i(il)iof~ielsare disc~issedin det,aiI i11
Algae, seaweed and other aquatic lower plants can be i~it~ei~sivoly p,r.ow1 1 i 1 1 1.1.1 I : I 1 1 1
,';(,I I:\ :\ .I l l l ~ l o w .
areas of the sea or in inland lakes or ponds. This wolild elillrilri~t,c:1,11(:(.( ,111 111.1 11 11 I I I
for land with conventional agriculture. On average, t,he nc:c5;Llcii~1.vlow i l l I I I I I I I I 1 1 1 1
trients. Surface waters have low natural product,ivit,y I)11t, so~~I(!l.i~l~('s i1.(.1. 11s1 1 1 11.1 1 1 , 1 1 1

repositories due to runoff from t,hc Ii~ntl.1~)c'cpo(:c:;~i~ w;~t,c:rs;I.I.(. r.ic.11 i 1 1 I I I I ~ . I I * I I ~: I

If such deep water (.a11I)(: p11111~)(:~1 t,o t , 1 1 ~S I I ~ ~ ; I .i(i . lIio111;1.ss
(~ (.1.01) : ~ I I I . ~ I;I:;,:I:IIII I51.ll1

1 O W S L W I ) I I I I I 1 I 1 . Yi('l(ls (11' 1 1 1 ) 1.0 : ; ( ' v I * I . ~ I . ~I I I I I I I I I { . I I 1 1 1 1 1 : ~

1)(%1. :ll.l.l*l ) ( \ l . ,y(-;l,r ;l,I.(* l l ~ ~ s ~ ; i l l l ~ ~ ,
A lyl'ic,;~l; I ~ J : ; I l'i11111 111ij:11l. ( . O I I I I I I I I 1 1 1 1 I I I . I I . 1 1 1 1 : 1 1 1 1 1 , ( . Y ( . I I \ * : I I I Y ~ [ , I , 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
IS I I I ( I I I .I:I .I I,I I I I I Y I , J I I I I I r l I I : f i I I I I I I I I : ~ 1 1 1 1 I O I I I I ( t . 8 1 ' 1 ' 1 1 1 . l ~ g a ~ ~ Wq I Il I I I I I 1 1 8 . 1 I B \ , I , I ~ , , I L V I I 1 1
 l~I~tsl,i(,, / i t , l ~( , I L ~ I I O I I I I I O X I I I ~ ~I I , I I ( ~ I I I I I ~ I I ~ , ~ I , ~ IIII (, ~- ,II ~L I , I , I I ~ ~ I ( : ~01'I L l(( I,(I1 I" l~~ ' ( :
~ I I , ~ ( * I * I . I I (w l ~ , ~ : s ~ ~ i rist ~t , ll ,~ i!Yo( ~~V (~! ~ S I ! ol' l,li(! ~ ) I I ~t,o~,y~~l,I~(*l,i(*
( r ( : ~ ~ ( : l , i111o ~LIII:
~ . rt!s\)i~.~~I~i(
I I I 111' 11
I I H I I I ~ :( H I I . , ~ ) I ) O W I ~ I .sI.ti.l,io~~ ( . o o I i l WII,(,(-I.,
~~ wlli1.11is I I I . I : S I ~ I I ~ . (~I ,I~~ I I I I I I Y i111.o~ rivers. AS plant or aiiii~ialthe col~i\~~ist,ioii ILIICIoxyg~11
o f (:t~r\)ol~y(lrt~l,~:s yi(!l~ls(:~~(:rg,y, (SIL~IIOIL
1,111, I I , I ~ , I I , I ~ is I I ~ I , I ~ V I ~ S I ~ ( VI I~ I I ( I~ I I I ~ , I , ~ I : wi~1~:r I I ~ , - ~IIS(:(~ ~ ( - for~ I krowt;li is K(:I,II~IIC:(I I;() 1,1115
dioxide and water vapour. The rcspiratioi~proc:css of i~ 1)li~llt~ IISI:S t,yl)ic:lllly I L ~ ) O I I ~ ,
1 1 1 ) I I ( 1 l1.1111 ~,~--scsc~ 11-I l 1.0 rc:c:yc.l(:I,I1o ooc:ri~.t,ioii151. one-third of the energy stored by photosynthesis. The basic proc:essos of IIIILIII.
'1'110 I L I ~ I I I I . ~wc-c:tl .~~ I ~ I I O W I I ;I.S w~LI,(:I. l~yi~(:ii~t,l~ has I~(:(:ii studied ils a tropical wi~t,c.r photosynthesis and respiration are depicted in Fig. 13.2 [7].
ria I I I I . ~ .111' ~ ~ I~iokr~.sc:s, ~)ilrl~i(:~iI~~rly 11.y Llie US Nt~tionalA~ronaliticsand Space Adinirl- The value 0.43 for the PAR could only be realised if there was co~riplcl~c! r111(l
~ : : I , I I I . ~ . I ~ I (NASA)
I [(i]. 0 1 1 iL dry wc:iglit I)~Ls(:, 1 kg of water hyacinth can prodricc: continuous radiation of a plant foliage. Such an optimally arranged leaf callcloy IN
11,-1 111:~ 01' I1ioKn.s wit,ll ;I c:;~lorificvalue of 22 M J / ~ %Aquatic weeds are a hazard ill not normally realisable. In practice a plant can absorb, at best, about 80%)or l l l t ?
; i t I I I I I - wr~.l,c:rwrr:ys i ~ i i ( 111;~vc: to be harvested, of necessity. The biofuel value is then a PAR due to shading, shielding, overlap of growth, etc. Combining the pliot,ony~r
II:II*I'III l),v-l)ro(l~~(:l, 111. thetic efficiency with the absorption and respiration factors gives a rnaxiln~~lli
vtrl~~tl
of overall efficiency for the conversion of solar energy into stored chemical c!linrKy
0.123 x 0.8 x 0.667 = 0.066 or 6.6%. The various stage efficiencies are s~inirl~rrr.lnc\~
in Table 13.1 [4].
hlc ):;(. l i v i ~ I l) I ~~ L I I ~ . S ol)t,:~ii~ tl~cirenergy from sunlight. The basic metabolic processes Many figures of photosynthetic efficiency have been suggested, basetl oli ( ! X ~ N ~ I ' -
I I I I . I )l~ol.os,~~rt.l~c:sis i ~ i l ( rc:spiration.
l In photosynthesis solar energy is converted into imental evidence. These are all lower than the theoretical overall rnaxinl~lli~ vlrll~t?
I . I I I - I I I ~ I , I I . I ( ' ~ i ( : rill
~ ytlie plant and stored naturally as carbohydrates, including starch
I ~ l tI l ~.c~lll~l~sc:. Soli~rc:llc:rgy is absorbed by the chlorophyll (i.e. the green material)
I I I I 1~ t11.111-rI ) ~ ~ I . I (:Iiloropli~st
I~. pigments, removing electrons from water molecules and
II~II.III(.~II~ ~ : ~ ~ o l c : (oxygeii.
. ~ ~ l i ~ In
r generalised terms the photosynthetic reaction is

S I I I I I ~ ~ Ii~t)sorhecl
I~, by plant + COz $ H z 0 -,C,(H20), + O2 (13.1)
'1'111- I I I ~ . I - ~ ! ; ( T v;I.II~(~s:I: ant1 :y in (13.1) differ for different plants. Each reaction convcrts

I 1 ,I I ( I ~ I I . I / I I I o I ( ~ (477 kJ/iiiole) of solar energy into stored chemical energy.

Solar
'I'll(, c*r~.rl~ol~ytlrnte may take the form of cane or beet sugar, (C12H22011)n, or radiation
IIII)I.I* IYIIIII)~(:X s t ; i ~ r ~ lori ecell~ilose,
~ (CsHloOs),. Cellulose and starch are the major
( ~ I I I I I I I . I K ~ I I ~ . ~of. S ~)liot,osyiithesis and most of it remains un-utilised, forming a largc:
~ ~ - ~ l c ~ wSOIIK(Y: r ~ . l ) l of c ~cllcinicals and stored energy.
'1'111. I~io('Ii(:~~~iri~l rcaction of photosynthesis, in (13.1), requires a t least ciglit,
~ ~ I I ~ ~ , IoI' I ~ liglil,
, I I cIl1org.y. This ~isirbleinput energy is equivalent to that of monochro-
1 1 1 1 l l . i ( . l i ~ : l l l , o f wi~v(:I(~i~gth 575 nm (0.575 pm). Eight quanta of 0.575 pm radiatioi~
I I I I V I - 11.11 c!~~(:rgy ( . o I I ~ ( : I I ~ of 1665 kJ, giving a maximum theoretical photosynthetic.

c~llic~it~~~c~y of' ~~.l~sorpt,ioi~ of 477/1665 or 0.286 (28.6%). The actual theoretical effi- Fig. 13.2. Basic processes of photosynthesis and respiration 171
t . i c * ~ ~ tis . y lil(oly I,o I)(: Iow~rt l ~ i ~this i i l)e(:aiise experiments indicate that 8--10 q r ~ a n t ~ t ~
I I IcS~lcal.j:yI I I I I . , ~\I(! 11(:0(1(:(1 to iiliLiiit~t h reaction. ~
IU( I W o ~ ~ t.11(: l y visil~l(b1)iut;of tllc: solar spcc:t,rllm, Fig. 11.1, occ~~pying wavcl(:n#tplls Table 13.1. Maximum photosynthetic efficiency of land planls [4].
i l l 1111. 1.11.11p,(' /I00 '700 I ~ I (0.4 I ~ 0.7 p i ~ i )is, l i s ~ din photosynthesis. Ttie photosy~it,h(:t,-
Parameter Factor
I ~ ~ I I >I(,! I I ~ i v I~~ I L ~ I ~ ; I . I , ~(I'AII.) I)I~ (:or~sl,il,~~tos i ~ l ) o43% ~ ~ tof tlie total i~)(:id(:~lt ri~~Iil~t,io~~
0.43
I I O I . l ~ r ~ . lILIII,
. I I I I I . X ~ I I I I I I I Il,l~(:or(!l,i(~t~.I (:o~ivorsio~~ (:ffi(:i(?~~cy f r o ~ ril11)lit
~ r~~(lint,iol~ 1,o I)IILIII, Photosynthetically active radiation/total radiation
0.8
Maximum leaf absorption
I ~ I I I - I , I~< O~I I, I ~~ I - I I I , , I I I I ( ~ I ~ i~l~:t~,l
I, (~o~~(lil,io~is, is 0.43 x 0.286 0.123 or I2.3'X~141.
: :1 O.ZH(i
Maximum efficiency of absorbed light convcrsior~
W ~ I ( -( ~II II . ~ I I O I I ~ ( I ~ I I . t~.r(' I ~ ~ S ~ I I K I ~ S O ( ~ ( I Oy tl11i111t1.l~1,11(! (:II(!rgy is rol(:r~.s(~~l 1,o 110 I I I I I H - (Photosynthesis.-re~pirntion)/~~k~oLofly~~ll~o~ii~ l).(ili7
I , I I ~ I I . I wold(, I , ( ) ~ ~ , I ~ I I I ~ I . II II (~ ~, I~~ V ~OI I I I I I I I S ( ~ JI,II(I I,II I*IIVI,I,(* l)rot,(li~~s [or 1,111:I ) I I ~ I I I ~ I I ~ 01'; Oiren~llc!dicit:ncy :- 0.43 x 0.8x O.2Hfi x O.li(i7 O.O(i(i
I I I ~ W( * I * I I ~171. ~ ' I I I I ~ , I I S . ~ I I ~ , ~ I I ~ H ~ H is I f l 1 ~ ~ r ~ 11,~
I II~ iI ~
I I ~~O.N(iH~
l l w11i1+1 H I I I I I , ~ I ~ I I I ~ I is, ~ IIS(YI
, ~ I,II

'!, I . I ) I \ ~ ~ I 1,- I ~ I I ~ V V , I ~ , I 1I .I 1I 1~, ~ I I I I \ . I , ( * ~ ~ ~ I , I NI I I I , I I orp,r1,11i(.IY,III~I~,IIII(~H,

 W ; ~ S ~ I ~ I [I I~S A ~,~JII, 32
W ; I . S ~ I ~ I I ~[ I ~S ,AO I I , 30 (grain)
Ill<
.I:I.IJ;LII
7 (grain)
26
I Pyrolysis Gasihalian Hydraysilication
reduction
Chemical
rcduclirrn
AIcL>III~III A~~r~t~~
I > I I I , ~ ~ I ~ I ~ D ~ I III~~~IIIIII

(:;~lilornia,USA 33 Eleclnc~ly High-pressure Oils Low-medium Methane Oils l i l l ~ t ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ lM ~ t l t r + ~ r

steam Gas energy gas Ethane
Calilornia, USA 42
Char I Char
I ~ Y P ~ 29

llawaii (2 crops)
Malaysia Methanol Electricity
1111 a . r ~ t H~I I I~. I :l~ I I I I I I ((:,I)
(IIIIIII.IIIII. I.I.II~)~)~II~;) I'hilippines 23 (grain) 0.7
Methane Ammonia
:;II):III 1.11111' (( ! < I ) llawaii 64 1.8
LIIII/,I. ( ( ' , I ) I'cr 11 26 0.8 Fig. 13.3. Biomass energy conversion processes and produc:l,n [ I (
N I I ~ ~ I IIV,I, II \ ~ H( ( ! , I ) 151 Salvador 85 2.4
.

Gas vent
Inlet ~ioe Outlet Cover Gas outlet pipe
I I 111 I V I - I 11' (i.(i'Xl. l4)r optimum field conditions efficiencies in the range 3-5% arc
I 11 t:;:iil~ll$ 1i11.liii~it.(~cl p(:riods. Typical annual conversion efficiencies are 0.5-1.3% for
1 1 . 1 I 11 I I ~ I . ; II, ( , c.l.01)~ ; l ~ i ( 0.5
l 2 . 3 % for tropical and subtropical plants [4]. For large scalc:
I I ~ I ~ I ~ ~ I . I I ~ i1.11
~ ~ ( I I I S il.V(!ragCoverall photosynthetic efficiency value of 1%has been sug- \over-
!:I-:~I 1 . 1 1 171. I4'ig11rc~ for the photosynthetic efficiencies of selected agricultural crops flow
1 1 1 1 - J I , I V ( * I I ~ I 'Il 1 i i I ) l ( ~ 13.2 141.

ase
I :I.:{. Mcat.l~oclsof I n d u s t r i a l B i o m a s s Conversion
Fig. 13.4. Chinese design of biogas plant [lo]
'1'111, I ) ~ . i ~ ~ c . i l ) ~)ro(:(:ss~"s
;~,l for converting biomass material into usable forms of energy
boilers used in the UK coal industry and discussed in Sec. 4.6 of C:~III,I)~,I!I. $1 I I I I . ~
111-1. :illow I I i l l ll'ix. I:1.:I [ill. Soiiic liquid or gaseous biofuels such as methane can hc:
proven to be particularly appropriate for wood and wood wastcs.
I 11 t1.11 i I I I Y l I )y SI'V('I.~~I
tlilfc:rc:~itprocesses, including biodegradation.
Industries that produce solid biomass residues such as rice husks, I~cl.gi~.n~c~ ((.II.III~

sugar residue), corn cobs, cotton stalks and nut shells often burn t>li(!irow11 l . c : t i i c l ~ ~ c ~
as supplementary fuels.
Solid-biomass-fuelled generation systems are usually inost c.oi~~l)ol.il,ivc~ i l l I 1'111

tively small sizes. As system size increases, the convcntiona.l alt.c~r~~i~.t.ivc~ III~I'OIIIIVI
cheaper, transport costs rise disproportiollatcly a i d tlic i~iiioliiit.01' l i ~ i 1 1 11 1 1 ~ t ~ 1 1 1 ~ 11.11 I
supply the biomass becomes vcry large. For c!x;~,~i~pl(~, with 11,11 rlvc,rilgcbII.IIIIIIIII y ~ t b l ~
of 7 t,ons/lioctarc, i~llllost1500 h(:(:t,t~ros(1500 x 2.171 :170(i I I . I . I ' I ~ S T1.H ~ ~ ( ~ I I I I

iiiil(:s) wollltl I)(% i i t r c ! t l ( ~ t l t,o I ) I . O ( ~ I I ( . I > 1 MW (11' I)ow(:I.. 'l'l~isWOIIIII 1.011sl.il,111.t~ 11 V I - I S

1)oor ~ l ) l , i o ~ ~11sc~o1'1.111~
irl io~~, s i ~ N, I~I I ~, I I I'IIOI l ~ l l i l ~ I ~i l lr , woo11
111.11(1. 1 1 1 i ~ . ~ l ( l i l ,i~~(ll~st,l.ii~.l ~
(01 1.o11.l)I ) I I I , I I I I I K 1 ~ 1 . c - 01' low t ~ l l i ( ' ~ ~ ~i1.1111 l ~ ( .~. .y( - I ~ ~ l , i v ( blI l, yi ~ l l(.osI.. 11' S ~ A - I L I I I is 1101, of I.II(* i11i1.il1.l I ~ Y - IIst,o(*l{.'I'III*I.(: 01' I I . I I I ~ I I ~ ~ I (~ NI I I.
is l i l { ( s l . y l,o I)(' Ii)l.l~~r~l.ioll l~.y(I~.t)
I ~ I ~ ( I I I ~ I ~ Ii1.s
~ I I I)II,I.I~ I 11' 1,111- ~ ) r o ( ~ ~ I , I I~I > IsI sl)owq3r
, r ~ ! ( l ~ ~ i r (01'~ ~l~(!low L I I~O I l~ I,, s10 MW,,
~ i ( ~I ~ i ( l o liy(lrogt!i~( : y i ~ l ~( iI ~l(!N),
~ ( : I I s ~ ~ l l ) l ~(l12S), l ( - 11,sWI*II II,H
l ~ - ~ l i ( - r ~ r sI ~) o~~l l~) l ~((i (!OS),
II,I.I* I ) I ~ I , I , I ~II I~I ~ , ~l),y
, I , I I I > I I S ( -01' l),y~.ol,yl,i(. gi~sili(.r~,t,io~~ l)ro(:(:ss(!sl!ll. pllcliols. Leaks of raw gas woultl I)(: i~ I i i ~ ' / r i ~ ri(l l I,II(:il~~l~it:~lii~t,t: lot:ri.lil,y.
Most biomass feedstocks used ill gasificat,ion proc:c:sscs liavc: c:oiic-t:~il,r~~,l,i~ I I I H I 11'

trace elements such as potassium, magnesium, sodium, iroii, boron, I)ruir~ii~, c~rrtl
mium, chromium, copper, lead, strontium and zinc. These levcls of chal~iic-i~.I (*o11(+011
I!' O I ~ , I I . I I ~ ( -1111i.I,t,t:r is lior~I.(!(Iwith ii~sufficientoxygen to support combustion, the tration, plus fly-ash and sulphur content, are much lower than in coal ~ : O I I I ~ ~ I I N ~ + ~ I I
1.1~~1ll1.iliC: r~(*t,io~i is t:;~ll(:dpyrolysis. I t is common to heat in a non-oxygen atmo- Feedstock derived from farm waste may be contaminated with pcsticitlos, Tc~rl,illscj~n
H I I I I ( * I . ( ~ , s1i('11ilS ~iit,rog(:.(:ii. For example, if wood is heated to about 250°C (480°F) and soil [lo].
I . I I ( , ~ ~ ~ o i s li ,~~ 1 iit 1rvoli~lilc
c~ iriaterials evaporate, leaving carbon and inert materials in In biomass gasification water is present in the initial feedstock and is illso I'III.IIII~II
1 . 1 v b 1i ) I . I I I ol' (:l~i~r(:oill ((:liar). Utilisation of the gaseous and liquid products as well during combustion. Biomass storage sites can also leach polluted rail1 wr~t.c~l~. 'I'IIII
1 1 3 \.I\(% (.l\i\.r(.oill (:ill\ rcsr~ltin an overall efficiency up to about 80%. safe disposal of effluent water is part of the overall biomass safety prol)l(~l11.
i
( !Ilil.l.(:~~i~l ('ill1 Lo t,rarisported and handled much more economically than an

l ~ l i v i ~ . l ( l:r.~lio~iill,
~~(, of wood. In many countries charcoal is the most widely used
I I ~ I I S ( - I I ~ I ~II(!I ( ~ in urban (though not rural) areas. Charcoal stoves are more effi- 13.3.4. Liquid and gaseous ficels from biomass
c . i c ~ t ~ l (.II;I.II
. wood fires. There are many industrial applications that use charcoal in 13.3.4.1. Chemical reduction
1.11(~111i(.il.l I.C~LC:~~~O including
I~S, steel processing, cement manufacture, drying crops
11111 1 1 1 1 t ~ 1 , r s~i~clt,iiig.
~l Fuel oils of varying compositions can be obtained by the chemical i1,1i(1 ~ ) I I , ~ N I I ~ J L I
II' O ~ . ~ i l l l i i( :~ l i ~ t ~ risi aheated
l between 500°C and 900°C at ordinary pressures reduction of aqueous biomass, Fig. 13.3. For example, carbon monoxitl(b, H(.('ILIII
111 1.1115 ;~.l)sc~~icc of oxygen, then methanol is produced. This is widely used as an and a slurry of cellulosic waste react together a t 250-400°C and 13.8 27.(i 111"
~ ~ ~ ~ l . o l ~filcl l o l ~additive
il(: [I]. P a pressure, with an alkaline catalyst, t o yield a fuel oil of approxiriiltt,c~f o r l i ~ ~ ~
CllH190 with an energy content of 40 MJ/kg [4]. This compares favourrl.l)lyw i l . l ~
all of the types of coal in Table 4.1 of Chapter 4.
I :i.:i.:I.Gasification of biomass

' I ' I I I , p,rwiticution of solid biomass is carried out in the presence of limited air or
13.3.4.2. Aerobic (alcoholic) fermentation
oxyp,cll~I)~itat higher temperatures and/or pressures than for pyrolysis. The low
( b ~ ~ "~)rod~lcer" ~ ' ~ . ~ y gas can be intermediate in several production processes and The aerobic fermentation process uses biomass materials containing strlrc:llcun II.I~(I
1.1 1 I I I . I L ~ I I S c:ilrt)on monoxide, hydrogen, carbon dioxide and methane. If the gaseous simple sugars. Starch feedstocks are mainly grain crops and cereals but t~lnoi ~ l ( ' I l ~ ( l c
~llclsc-is c.oliclt:nsed, followed by distillation to 98% purity, then methanol is formed root plants like potatoes. Sugar feedstocks include cane and beet sugar, S ~ ~ R I I I I I I I
vi11 11 c~r~l,r~,l,yl,ic: reforming process. Another product realisable is ammonia, used in and artichokes. Fermentation produces ethyl alcohol or ethanol, which in I,II(: i111.o~
l.111- I I I I L I I I I S ~ ~ ~of- ~chemical , ~ I ~ ~ : fertilisers. Producer gas can also be used in combined icant ingredient in beer, wine and spirits [lo].
c~yc~lo p,il,s ~,r~rl)i~ic:-steam cycle electricity generation systems [4]. Wood and charcoal Ethanol is a relatively clean burning fuel that can be used as a S I I I ) H I , ~ I , I I I ~ ((;)r ~
y , ~~ sl ic11.si wc:rc: ~~sc:tl in Europe during the 1930s and 1940s (i.e. including the gasoline- gasoline (petrol) in modified internal combustion engines or as a r~orl-lc~ul, oc81rr~llc*
n l . ~ ~ l . v c,ycbil.rs ~tl o f i,ho Socond World War) to fuel motor vehicle engines. Such systems enhancing gasoline additive. The major producers of ethanol inc:lrldc llr~r./~il, 1.111,
w1~1.1~ vcbr,y (l(:llillll(liligof maintenance, even under the most favourable conditions USA and France. In Brazil many cars use ethanol in place of petrol. AII r~l(.ol~ol
I 1111. I ' I . I I ( I I I ( Y : ~ KiLS l.ypic:ally c:o~itainsabout 25% carbon dioxide and 15% hydrogen, powered car uses a smaller engine, with smaller cooling and c:xhar~stS ~ S ~ , ( : 1.l1l1.11 IIIH,
so (,IIIL(, i(,sf11(:1V I L ~is I I (111)o111,
: o~ic-sixt,hthat of natural gas. a petrol car [8].
I!io~~~i\.ss chi\.t\ I)(% c-orrvc:rt.c:tl tjo inctlrane and ethane by reduction with hydrogen In the UK many formerly green fields now grow crops of I)right, yc:llow oilncvttl
l r l , r)+111"(! I L I I ~ Iti.!) x l ' t ~ I)r(:ssIIrt:. This proccss is liluited in ~isefi~lnoss by the rape or blue linseed. Rape grain can be processed ilit,o t . 1 I)iotl(:grr~tlr~I)lt:
~ t:l~t~l~~i
I'II(*I, I , I I ~ I , I , I,II(* I I . ~ I I I ~ oil,soll' ~ ( * IisI 11 l)r(!~[ii~~rr~ S11t:l 141. called rape methylester, which is sirnilar to dioscl f ~ ~Ieh ilt , I I I I I ( 1110r1~
. ~ I ( ! X ~ ) ( ~ I I H ~ V1,(1( *
( ~ r ~ s i I i ( ~ ~l,(-(~Iil~olo~i(~ti ~ , l ~ i o ~ l li)r soli(l I)io~lil~ss SII(!IH, i i ~ ( * I ~ ~ ( soIi(1 l i l ~ x WILS~,(:S,lil~vt:11, produce. Valuable by-prodncts of tho process i~it:I~~(lt: ~)rot,(:i~i-ri(:I~ I I . I I ~ I I I ~ IS(v~11
.~ 11,1111

I I I I I I I ~ I ( ~ I 01'
. ~ ) o l . ( ~ ~ (~~l I. iI rV~~ II ~ ~ I I I I 1)1~o1)1(-111s.
I ~ ~ I ~ ~ I I , ~ 'I'li(: (111i1.11l.il.y ILII(I 11lix or r(:s~lll,il~g glyt:criilt: [I11.
11.i1. I ) ( I I I I I ~ , I I , I I I . H I I I ~ ) I , I I I I 0 1 1
l.I1(1 KILN- ~ ) l . t ) ( l l i ~ ' i l ~I ,yI ,~ ( ~ I I I I o I o K , ~ I L I I I I 0 1 1 I.II(' ('l~(~ll~i(.l~.l
( ' O I I ~ , ( S I I ~ ,
111 ~ , I I I S I I , I I I I , ( * I . ( I ~ I I ( . ("wil.I~o~~l, O X . ~ J : I ~ I I " ) ( I ( - ( . o ~ ~ ~ ~ ) oors iorg;~ili(:
f ~ i o i ~ i~~i~t,(:rii~ls,
1)iictcria
1.1 IIISIIIIII~ ~ . I I ( *I I I I I , ~ . ( ~ I . ~ Ii Il .l~ 11.11 ~~.i~.l,igl~t, I : ~ I I ~ , I (:1111(:(1
L ~ I ~il( :(lig~st~er.
~, '1'11~bacteria may
1 1 1 - 1 1 I 1,111- ol~il;i111~1 ( : I I I ~ ,I III .I L~I ,:( ! ~ I ~ L Is11(:1i
, ILS t i i ~ i ~ ~
111;~1iure,
i i ~ l or it may be intentionally
I I 1 1 1 . 1 I I I ( I V I 1.0 li~c.ilit.r~t,c:
)( t.llc- 1)roc:c:ss. '1'11~: c1igc:ster operates at a working temperature

1 1 1 1.111. I . I L I I ~ ( ! !I5 140°17 ~ L I I ( Iyiclds a nlixt,urc of gases often referred to as "biogas".

W I I I ~1,llis I I ~ I I S o ( : ( : ~ ~~r~s i ~ t l ~ rdue a l l to y rotting vegetation,it is called "swamp gas".

'I'II(. S I I . I I I ( ~ I)io('t~(:~lii(:i~l process is used in some forms of sewage treatment.
Ilil)gi~s(:oi~t,;lills50 -70% methane, similar to natural gas, with the remainder
11111st.1,y (:11.1.1)011 (lioxide. It has the heat value of its methane component, 39 MJ/m3,

11.:; d1ow11ill 'E11)1(: 13.3 [4.], and can be used directly for heating or in internal

~ . ( I I I $ I I I s ~ . ~(:ligi~les. ~I~ In the developing countries there is a lot of interest in biogas

111ii1,s l i ~ r1io11sc:hold fuel, for the improvement of sanitation and to improve the
I,-l,l.ilisc:rV ~ L ~ I I (of : animal dung and other organic wastes [9].

'I'll(: i i ~ i i ~ ( : ~ o microbiological
t)i~ digestion process is especially well adapted to
:;l~~~.r.y-l,yl)c: w;~stcs.Such processes have been used for many years to treat sewage
I I I I I ~ i1.s I)y-products as fertilisers. They can be used as waste treatment operations

1 1 I I ( Y 1 I I ( Y ' 1)ollution hazards and nuisance odours. An additional benefit is that

ri I(-r.l,~lisc.r rich in nitrogen is retrieved from the digested slurry as a by-product.
1 8 ' 1 1 1 I Ilc*rl~~orc:, t,he residual from the process can be returned to the land, unlike other
I I I O I I I ~ I S S c:oliversion processes, which almost totally destroy the input material [lo].
'I'II(T(:are many forms of anaerobic digester design, ranging from the small do-
lllc.st,ic. six(>t , large ~ industrial systems. In China, for example, over seven million
: I I I I I I . I I ~lig(:stioi~ systems have been installed, mostly family-sized units, to partiaIly
1111-1'1. (.II(: cooking, space heating and lighting demands of small rural communities
IH, !)I. A clii~gramof the Chinese design is given in Fig. 13.4 [lo]. In the USA the ma-
11 11.il.y01' I~iogasinstallations are used to collect gaseous emissions from landfill waste
I 11.1 11 ~ s1,s. i Ilecause biogas units operate a t low pressure, the pipeline distribution is
t:c*~~c,~.r~.lly liiliited to a restricted area. The small hydrogen sulphide component is
( . I ) I ~osivcl 1.0 metal. However, with suitable adjustments to the burners, most appli-
I I . I I ( * ( ~ 11111.(1(: for natural gas or bottled gas can be adapted for use with biogas [9].

I:1.4. Wootl as a Fuel

h l ~ s l I.N ) ( " . I)(:ol)lcin tllc: tlcvc!loping countries use wood as a cooking fuel. In the
c>r~l.ly I!)HOs it, WILS (:st.i~lli~t,(:(l I,hi~t"mar(: than 90% of the wood cut in Africa -

i v ~ ~ ~ i lr l i o I L is l)~iri~t, ~LS f11(~:1" 1121. Tlic World Bank has estimated

I L I I I I I , I I ( * ~ , w ( ~ ( ~ I 11,
I \1;1,1f' I I , I I ( ~ (1111- 11iIlio1il)(!ol)l(!lls(! ~ L g r i ~ ~ l l ~or I , l;~11~111ii]
~ r i ~ ~ w~Ls~,(!s as
I i 1 . 1 , I'II(%I 1 I:\, 1~11. Mor(-ovo~., 11, 101, 01' t,l~is f'~i(:lis IIS(:(Ii~~(!Hi(:i(:~it,l,y i l l o1)(:11 lir(:s with
( , I I ( , I I ( ~ I I ~ , 111,1-11sils sil,l,i~~~!, (111 it, (11, S I I S I I I ~ I I I I ( : ( I o v i ~il,, '1'111: (,fii(-i(*ll(*,y 01' IISC WOIII(I I)(:
~!~r.l,~-rltic - t l 1 1 1'11.(.1,1)1. 0 , . . I r) 11.y I * I I I . I I I S ~ I I ~ :
I),v I , I I I - lirc', I . I - ) ~ , I I I I I . I . ~ I IILIIo
~ IIow 01' 11i1. i11l.o
 l , i o ~~ )~I I L ( . ( * l't.0111 wooel ( , I I I , I , ~ I I ~I,, ( ) I , I I I I , ~ I I I ~ I I I I I R11s I , I I I * I I I I I , ~ I IS O I I ~ 01'~ YIII*II.I,
l , r t ~ ~ ~ s i1,11ol< ~
r
1 l~is(:IIII,IIK(YI 1,111; I ~ I Y ) I I O I I I ~ I l~isl,or,y
1
: I I , 01' I,II(, rq!sl, 111' I C I I ~ I I I ) I -I L I I ~ Ili1111.1ly
01' I $ I . ~ ~ , I I , ~ I,III!II
of thc! worltl. 11, I(:tl to t.llc 111(111sl,rii~I Ii,(:vol~~l.iol~, w11it:ll ~ l , ~ ~ ri l tl ~Iiril.llit~ o ~ l III.OIIIIII
1780 AD, with the expansion of I I I ~ L I ~ I I ~ ' ~ L ( : (i~l(liistrics ,~I~~II~ i ~ ~ iI,\\(: < l (:xl)Ioi(,l\,(,io~~ 01
untapped natural resources [15].
By the middle of the 19th century, wood was the principal hlcl i l l 1,111q I ISA
i
1
By 1900 AD it provided 25% of the country's annual energy, b111, I,l~isI I N I I , ~ , I1~1 1 1 1 1
fallen to 1.5% in 1976. Most of the 1.5% came from the forest protl~~c.l~s ~II,IIIP(I,I y,
I which burns tree wastes. The use of biomass, typically in wood-t)ur~~it~~: ~ l . l , v c w ,in
1.
increasing in North America and now represents about 4% of energy ~lsc,.' I ' l l l t l nI.11 I
t
lags far behind wood heating in Sweden and Finland, where, in 198 I , HIXI 11.111I I r)";.
respectively of the energy needs were met by wood. [16]. More thil11:lOO I IS 1111wc~l
plants use biomass to produce 5000 MW, of electricity.
The use of wood and waste in the USA is now of the same ortlor 01' I I I I I . ~ , ~ I I [ . I I I ~I I I*I
the use of conventional hydroelectric power for electricity generatioil, ' I ' ~ r . l ~ l c ,I:{..I I \ .
* is significant that in 1999 wood and waste provided about 100 tilllt:s I , I I I ~c * l ~ - c , l . ki1.v t
I
generation capability of wind energy, which is about 50 times t11(:(:olll,l.il1 1 1 1 i l ) I I I 11
solar energy [17]. Comparable data for the UK is shown in Tablc I:%.!).
Various options for the use of wood as a biomass fuel are inclotl(:tl i l l ' l i ~ l ~I l:\.!I~ *
The direct combustion of wood to produce steam or oil represents one of I s 1 (.III*II,I ~ ~ ~ l~~rll
options available [4]. In comparison with coal, wood fuel is bulkicr ~ I I I I I (.o~lf,t~.il~
more volatile constituents, leading to the need for less expensive c o n ~ l ) ~ ~ s~l).lir o~ ,~~ l~l , t c
If combusted properly wood is far less polluting than either coal or oil, I ) I L ~ ( . I ~ . I ~
larly with regard to sulphur emissions [18]. It is significant to notc t,llr~I,1,111~( . I I . I ' ~ ) I I I I
dioxide ( C O z )released on wood combustion is the same as the carboil tlioxitl~-I.II,I<IQII

Table 13.5. Comparative costs for various biomass conversions per unit ol' c ~ l c ! r . ~OyI I I . I I I I I 1.1)
-- ,
- 7 .
-

( ' 0 1 1 1 ~ 1 1 1 II l l IVI?
Process i ' t t ~ t 1111 III~.

Wood t o char and oil for direct combustion

Steam production from wood via direct combustion
Medium-energy gas production from cattle manure via anaerobic digestior~
Wood to oil via catalytic liquefaction
I 111, sl.ovt: i111tl vont,ii~gthrough a chimney [9]. Many governments and aid agencies Substitute natural gas production from cattle manure via anaerobic digcst.i~,n
Substitute natural gas production from wood gasification (oxygen-blowr~rct~c.1
1111 clvcbl. I ' I I ~worltl ~ iLrC i~(ldr~~si11g the need for better and different forms of wood-
Wood to methanol via gasification (oxygen-blown reactor)
I I I I I I 1i11j: sI,ovt!s. 1>orfi~(~lwoo(l to satisfy this need, greatly increased planting levels Ammonia from wood via gasification (oxygen-blown reactor)
wl 1 1 1 l ( l I )I: ~ ' c ' c l ~ rrtxl i ;LII over t,lic dcvcloping world 191. Moreover, deforestation and Wheat straw to medium-energy gas via anaerobic digestion
~ l l . r l r . l I,ilic.r~,l.ioll is wi~l~~sl)rt:;~.~l i ~ . t l ( l il~(:r~i~siilg i l l Africa. For example, the southern
Electricity generation from wood via direct, cornb~lst.ion
Algae to et,hanol via acid hydrolysis arid fermcr~tnt.icjn
~.(Ij:cs(11' 1,l1t. S I I . ~ I Iclc!sc~r.l, I . ~ ~ IIIILS . 111c~vc:tl100 kt11 sout,h ill 17 years [I.]. Corn straw to ethanol via cnzyrllatic: hy(ir0IyRiR 1111c1 ~ ~ ~ l . l n c : l ~ \ , i ~ t , i c ~ ~ ~
I I I ~ ~ ~ c . ~ l i c *Il:llrol)c% v r ~ , l wootl wrLs I.IIo 111ili11 rll(!l 1111(1 t,llt: wtlol~coiltint:~lt,i~i(:lliding

( ~ I I L I I I , I~ ~, I . I I , I I , I I I , WII,S I I ~ ~ I I , V l'orc-~l,e~l.
I~,~ I ~ ~ I , W ~ V * II550I A 1) 1 ~ 1 1 1 1 I700 A [I, 1,111: ~)cq~~tl:~t,io~~
A
t ' i ~i l , ~ l . ic I~o ~1 1 1 1 1 1 ~ c 1 I L I I ~ I I , I I C - ( I ( - I I I I I . I I ( ~ 1i1r I . ~ I I I I ) ( ~ I .. ~ ~ s I I I I , I i~l ~l I I I I I I . H S ~ V I ' ~lc~l'or(~sI.~~~l.io~~.
 lllANlllNli I I 1 1 ANllIIIIN~.II
IIIIII All1 1 1 111 !I111111 1.LII I 1 l . l I O N
. 1.1111 1,11111 IN111 I ; I IN1 I t l I I I I
IlrAllANlllalWN 1 1111 IIAMAlbI I )
WINII ni IIWN I'fN ( X I M M I II1:IAl
l l l l A l l ~ . l I N I I I I I I I ~ ION
:I llllNNlNll
. !IIAIINAl~IItITANII
. 111 All ANI) : l ~ A N I l I N ~ l

TRANSPORT
J

SPECIALCOMBUSTOR
TURBINE GENERATOR

d Per Capita Generation (Ibslpersonlday)

PROCESS
STEAM - -*
- - Total Waste Generation (mil. tons)

Fig. 13.6. US municipal solid waste generation, 1960-1999 [20].

I . 1 Network for wood fuel electricity generation [9].
Wastes that can form sources of biofuels include domestic rc!f~~sc:, ~II~IIIHI~I.JIII
1111 I l111.ir11: t,11(: 11li~lltgrowth. Wood can therefore be described as carbon-dioxide-
wastes, agricultural wastes, forestry residues, sewage and indust,rii~I(:IIIII(*II~,H. 11

I I I ~ I I I . I . I I I . 'l'llis Ill(:iL11S t,llat when wood is burned in preference to a fossil fuel, there is is highly desirable that the recovery of energy from waste should for111~ ) r ~ . l . 01'l 1111
1 1 111.1. I 1,(11l(:t,io11 of' i~t,lno~ph~riccarbon dioxide and therefore a lower contribution to integrated approach to waste management, designed to maximiso w;~sl.c:rc~c.yr*li~
I 111s ~)~.rltl~~c.I.io~~ of grccllhouse gases. But note that wood (trees) has taken in COa and reclamation. Recycling prevents the emission of many greenho~lsc:I:n.st*s n l ~ t l
IIVI-I I I I : I . I I , ~ , llliLl1y y(:ars whereas burning wood releases COz quickly - this alters water pollutants, saves energy, supplies valuable raw materials to ii~cl~rsl,ry, ('I.('II.~.I~~I

1 1 1 1 % ~ . I I . I . ~ ) ~clioxitl(:
I I c:q~~ilibrium of the atmosphere. jobs, stimulates the development of greener technologies, conservc:s roso~~rr't*~ lib1

1 1 1 1 . 1 1 ( s l J l C , rc:sc:arcll is now under way to look into the possibility of building

the future and reduces the need for new landfills and combustors (ilic:i~~c'ri~,~,o~ III
wc ) I ~ t 1'11c:llc~l
l c:l(:c:t,ric:ity-generatingstations. Year-old trees, such as willows, are cut 1996, recycling of solid waste in the USA prevented the release of :j:l 111il1io11 I,OIIH
t IOWII I I I ~ I L I .Ijo (,II(: grollnd, causing them to throw up around six new shoots, which of carbon into the air - roughly the amount emitted annually by 25 111illi1)11 I ' I I . I . ~ (
p,rc )w 1.11.l)itl ly over tlic ucxt 3 -5 years. This is known as coppicing. The harvested [20]. The US recycling rates of selected materials for 1999 are showl~i l l 141;. I:!.'/.
1.1 11 '1 )ic.c-wootl (:iu1 I)(: dried, chipped and used as fuel.
Using wastes as a direct source of energy can be highly cost-cffcx:l,ivcl,c ~ ~ l ) t ~ t . i r ~ l
'1'11(- s\~c.c.c:ssS~il i ~ n dcconomic use of wood as a primary fuel, whether from con- if the alternative disposal cost is discounted.
\ , l ~ r r l . i o ~ ~ Ii)rt:s(,ry
i~.l or from energy forestry, depends on a chain consisting of resource, Wastes do have certain disadvantages when used as fuel sol~rcc:~. 'I'lloy I I I I I . , ~ I l l !
I I I I I - V ( ~ S ~ . ~ I I ~S, ( . O I . ~ L ~~( !L I tri~i~sport
I ~ [19]. A detailed flow graph of the processing of difficult to handle and process and generally they have low encrgy (1(:115il,,y. SOIIII'
wl I O I I I ' I I ~ ~to I s I , ( : ~ L I ~or
~ (:le(:t,ricitygeneration is given in Fig. 13.5. wastes may be contaminated with non-fuel materials. Also, it rrlay I)(: I l c ! t ~ t . t i r r l a r y 10
transport the waste from its source to a conversion site [18].

13.5.1. Solid waste disposal i n landfill sites

 l l ; ~ ~ ~ ~ ~j1,;l,s
l l i l( lI , l ~ ' ( ~is) ~ ~ o l l ( ~ ~I'I'OIII ~ , t vI Il I I I I I I I I I S I I , ~I I I . I I I I I I ~ , "wc~lls"I I I I , O ( , I I ( ~I I I ~ I I ~ I I ~ I I H ,
~ L I I C (I ~ o l l ~ - ( ~ l~, ;i I~, s~(I ~
l , l ~ c b , I sI I ~ I I I I ~ I II I I ~ I I Y ~O. I I , . 1,111,
> , ~ l ; ~ , ~ ~ c l l jB,~l,s i l l is I ) I ~ O I Y * S S Ii Vt , ~I Y, I I I I N ,
(:o~i~I)iiic:cl wiL1i I I ~ I , ~ , I I ~KILS ; L ~ Lo I'II(*I I ~ I J I ~ V ~ * I I I , I ~ I c:o1111~11st,io11
I;I~I I , I I I . ~ ) ~ I I ( : s or I I S ~ Y I l , o
1'11181

s111all collibustiol~or coliil)i~~c:cl c.,y(,l(:~ , I I I , I ) ~1~i~li~lfill I I ~ : S . g:~s1liiLy i~lsoI)(! ~tsc:cli l l I ' I I I * ~

cell technologies, which usc chciiiic.;rl ~.t:i~c:t,ioms to create electricity, 1111(1 i~1.c: I I I I I ( . ~ I
more efficient than combustion turbirles [21].
In a highly developed society like Great Britain or the USA, solid wast.cbI'I.OIII
all sources is produced a t the rate of about one tonne per person per yc:;rr ( 5 , I HI.
Most domestic waste is solid in form. The constituent proportions typic-111(11' I 1 li
municipal waste are shown in Table 13.6 [ l l ] . Corresponding data for 111c:l lSA i l l
1999 is given in Table 13.7 [20].
Each year the UK produces 28 million tonnes of solid domestic wrrsl.ct ~ r l ~ 11~ r l
similar amount of industrial waste. Solid wastes are usually disposed of c s i l I ~ ( q ~ Ilv
Auto Steel Alurn~nurn Yard Paper B Plastic Glass Tires
Bflttories Cans Packaging Waste Paperboard Soft Containers burning or by burial in landfill sites. The majority of the domestic w;~st,csI ) I . ~ I I I I I I , I ~ I I
Drink in the UK is not burned but is buried in about 5000 landfill sites. A1, t s I 1 t b c s ~ r c l 1 1 1
Containers
1990 there were 33 landfill gas schemes in operation in the UK, includiiig I H M W,, I II
1 ' . 1 . 7 (JS recycling rates of selected materials, 1999 [20].
electricity generation. By 1995 there were 50 gas-producing sites in ~pc:rrr.t~icr~~ 11.110
I I I I I . . Coniposition of typical UK municipal solid waste [ll) an estimated further 400 sites that could be used. The largest current sit(: ill 1,111* I Ili
produces 3500 m3 of methane per hour to make steam for use in paper pl.ocl~~c.l,io~
( !>tI,c*gory Per cent Calorific value (M J/kg) A diagrammatic representation of a landfill gas system is given in Fig. 13.X ( I 1 1 .
i ~ ~ c:;~rdboard
I'ir[)c\l. id 30.5 14.6 As of May 2001, over 325 landfill gas recovery and utilisation projc:c,l.s wc.r.ca
Iqi)ocl w;~st,c: 24 6.7 operational in the USA. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EI'A) cts1.i
Me*I.i~l 7.8 - mates that about 700 other landfill sites present attractive opportunities f o r ~)l'o.je~~'
( :l;rss 11.2 -
I)nsl, ~ L I I C Icinders 9.0 9.6
development [22].
' I bx1.i l(:s 4.9 16 The venting of landfill gases poses some environmental problems. Withill tl~c* sil'(.
I jc!trl~lic;r, rubber 8.3 17.6-37 vicinity there may be objectionable odours. Uncontrolled discharges fro111111.111l l i l l
M ise.c:ll;rnco~~s 4.3 17.6 sites account for an estimated 21% of UK methane emissions. If the li~~~cllill JJ,IIII
'l\)l.;ll 100%

Table 13.7. Composition of USA munici-

pal solid waste, 1999 [20].

C;rt.cgory Per cent

I'trper
Yard waste
l ~ l l c ~ cw~LY~,,!
l
l'l;~~l,irs
M I-~,:L~s
I I I I I I I ) ~ 'I~c -,i ~ . l , l ~ ( :i ~l ~. i c lI,c!xt,il(~s
( :IILSH
Wootl
c )l~lll~l~ User
- -
(eg boller) monitoring
'IilIllI
- - .. . - -- --
 !
I~IIII 01r ~ l n c v lI r n 11 I'II(-I Il,n I I W I I III(*(,IIIIIII~ clinc:ht~l.~c: is I I I ~ I I ~ I I I ~ IIIIII
L I if, ILIHO I.o(~II(:(!s
I,11o I I . It,trf~tstrI l ~ c ~ l ~ ~ n r n l 111 , t ~ I ~ : I I ~ O((: III III ~
. l c 1.111~ I I I~I I L
I I ~II II . ~( I I \ .

I~IL~~IIIII (lloxi(lc!I,IIILI~WOIII(I IN: (!IIIII,I~(:(I l)y I,II(! ( ! c l ~ ~ i v t ~ l (fossil

: ~ ~ l , f11(:1sIlUJ.
'Ii)t.lrl w~urt,~!
~rrocc:?tncd ICnc?rgy rocovorcitl
111 1,11(: IJSA OII(! 14:I'A rc!cl~lir.c!n1111 Itlr~oIt~~~clIills to ~IISI,ILII(:oll(!ctioll systelns at
Country Number of plat it^ (l.~~~~tlt!s/(Iay)Ilot wnt.er Stcnni lSlci(-l.rL('1I,,y
.
i t l l l ~ l f i l lsiI,(!~ I,o lllillilrli~(!t , h ~r(!I~:t~s(! of 111~tha110, IL 111ajorcontribltt,or to global cli-
Belgium 6 3650 3 1 'L
I I I ~ L (:IIILIIK(:.
~ , ~ Wllilo I~(!w14PAr c g ~ ~ l t ~ trequire ~ i o ~ ~gathering
s and flaring of methane
Denmark 63 9100 58 5 (I
fl.0111 IILI,RI: I1~11(1lill o~)ortlt,io~ls, s11ia11lt~l~dfills, which fall outside the federal agency's 0 0 0
Eire 0 0
,il~ri~cli(*l.io~~, tl~no~il~t,
I I I ~ L ~ t,o as much as 40% of the methane generated by landfills France 33 13,700 10 21 I)
27 1U
~~~~I,io~iwi(l(:. Germany 43 21,780 13
Greece 0 0 0 0 (I
I,al~tllillptls gencrr- tors produce nitrogen oxide emissions that vary widely from 6 0 I
Italy 6 3250
OIIO silt(!1,o t~~lot;her, depending on the type of generator and the extent to which 0 0 1
Luxembourg 2 800
HI.I~I(H JIILV(: I1(:(?11 takc~ito minimise such emissions. Combustion of landfill gas can The Netherlands 5 5670 1 1 91
Portugal 0 0 0 0 (I
ILIHI I )(%SIIII, ill the release of organic compounds and trace amounts of toxic materials,
Spain 4 1350 0 4 1
illc4r1ilillg Illc:rc:llry aud dioxins, although such releases are at levels lower than if the UK 7 3500 5 0 :I
I n . ~ ~ t l l iRILS l l is flared 1221.
Total 169 62,800 96 60 nx
'l'I~(:r(! arc: few water impacts associated with landfill gas power plants. Unlike
I I I . I I I ~ I . 1)owc:r plants that rely upon water for cooling, landfill gas power plants are
I I H I I I I . I I ~ v(:ry s ~ ~ i a and l l , therefore pollution discharges into local lakes or streams are Table 13.9. Renewables energy sources in the UK [23].
1.yl)ic-t~lly cll~it,esmall 1221. Total use renewables Thousand tonnes of oil equivalent

1990 1998 1999 2000

Active solar heating 6.4 9.4 10.0 10.5

1 3.5.2. Solid waste disposal using municipal 81.3
Onshore wind 0.8 75.4 73.1
incinerators (combustors) Hydro 447.7 440.0 460.9 439.1
Landfill gas 79.8 402.4 572.0 731.2
'I 'I 11, I ) I I r l ~ i l ~ofgn~unicipalsolid waste can generate energy while reducing the amount Sewage sludge digestion 138.2 180.6 188.8 161.3
01' wtrsl,c: I)y I I to ~ 90% by volume and 75% by weight. In the USA in 1999, there Wood 174.1 641.1 571.9 502.8
Straw (for heat) 71.7 71.7 717 71.7
wc91.cb10'2 i11c:ineratorswith energy recovery capability, having the capability to burn 636.2
Municipal solid waste 160.0 574.0 579.6
!)(i,oOl) I,OIIS of waste per day [20]. Other biofuels 24.0 197.3 240.9 362.7
I:oI. c:o~riI)l~stion in a modern waste incinerator the refuse can be first sorted to
Total 1,102.7 2,592.7 2,769.8 2,996.8
H I ~ ~ I Iollt L ~materials
~ L ~ A : such as glass for recycling. The remainder is shredded to
I ~ O I I V ~ ~ I,hc: I . ~ . 1)rlrnable component into refuse-derived fuel pellets [18].

'I'll(! ~)chl(:ts burn like wood but produce less heat than coal and leave more ash.
In the UK, in 2000, biofuels accounted for 82% of renewable encrgy sci~~rc~cr
Motlc>rl~ 111l111icipal waste incinerators produce no smoke and reduce the bulk of the
Table 13.9, with most of the remainder coming from large scale hydrot:l(!c.t.rl(-IIIy
WII,HI,(~ I,o t ~ l ) o onc ~ ~ teighth. Some wastes, such as synthetic polymers (e.g. plastics
production. Hydro accounts for 15% and wind power contributes 2.5%. Of 1.l111
1 II'I 11 III(.(,(I fro111petroc:hemicals), produce toxic gases on conlbustion and these have
almost 3 million tonnes of oil equivalent of primary energy use acco~lnt,c(lfor Ily
I,() 111, stll'cbly c:ol~tainctlwithin the incineration process.
renewables, 2.2 million tonnes was used to generate electricity and 0.8 111illio11 ~,OIIIII~M
( : ( ' I I I ~ I . I L ~illd~lstrialW I L S ~ Cco~isists mainly of paper, cardboard, wood and plastics.
to generate heat. The largest and growing components are sccn to hc 1~11OfillKILN
11. c.11111.tli11s t l lower lnoist~lrc:alld lower ash content than municipal waste, making
and municipal solid waste. There has been much con~iderat~ion of thc rc:ln,l,ivc!1111~rl1,n
I * ( I I I I O I I S ~ . ~(,t~si(:rOII t,o corltrol, t~ndis lcss contaminated with non-file1 ingrcdicrlt,~.
of landfill gas extraction and municipal solid waste incineration. For r:xr~.~~~l)l(~
S1~bc.ill.II;II.IIIS 01' i~i(l~~st,rial wtls1,c: s11c:h as batteries, motor tyrcs, po~lltrylitt,cr ~1it1
111~ s ~ ~ wt~,sli:s
i l ~ t1t-t:
t ~ pol,(!~~l,it~l
~ 111r~t~r(ls ti11ci roquiro spccit~lforlns of l,r(;t~t,tr~c:~~l; I ~ l t ilrc
, "A Royal Commission on En~ironment~al Poll~~tion ill Grc?~t. 13ril,lli11
I I ~ I IIH(!I'III l)ioli~(!ls [or ( > ~ I I I ~ ) I I S I ,sysl,(:~r~s
~~II 1181. studied greenhol~seemissions fro111 botll In~ldfillst l ~ ~ ~t lI I ( : ~ I I ( : I . I ~ ~ , ~ I
Il(d'rls(*i~lc-i~~(!rlll,io~~ ~ ) I ~ ~ for (111(!rgy
i n I I I ~ I I I ~ ( : ~I)IILIII,H r(:(:ov(:ryis 11r(:l~lI.iv(:ly I I V W IIIII, (R,oyal Co~llllliusioll, 1!)!):)). l'llc!,y rcrpor~,c:dI,l~ril,i~~c:i~~c!l.n.l,i~~~ 0111:
J J , I . ~ & ~ I I Ul,o~~I~~~olog,y i l l I , I I ( ~ I l l < , 11,si l l ~ ~ s l , r ~i l~ 'I'ILI)I(!
l ~ ( l 1 I 1 1 II,II(I '1'11,l)l(!
l ~ ( ~ 1:I.N l:l.!J 12:%], ~llilliorl t,ollll(!s or 1 l l l l l l i ( : i l ) t l l KIL~.I)IIK(! \)ro(lll('(!~
Il(!t. ( ! l l l i ~ H i O l l H OI'
 1 t,oii of r(!f~is(!yi(:ltls {,I\(: ( ~ ( l ~ ~ i v t ~oi'
l ~ !>LI)OII~,
~ii,
750 k w h or 0.19 t,olllre of oil rllillii~lulut,o
1500 k w h or 0.38 tonne of oil rnaxiniii~tl.

N(~v~~~,lI~c~lr:ss ~.II(T(! is witl(~sl)rc:;l(lolq)osit,ioll to the siting and installation of mu- Example 13.2
11rl,i1111,l i~i(.irl(*ri~,Lo~.s,
Oot:11ill l31irop~i ~ ~ill( t,11(:
l USA. The misgivings are chiefly con- The estimated "energy cost" of collecting and disposing of municipal wasto is ILIIOIII,
I V I I I I ~ I I wil.11 ( ~ I I V ~ ~ ~ I si~f(!t,y
I I I I ( autl
: I I ~the
, ~release
L~ of contaminated gases and fluids. 5000 MJ/tonne 151. Does the energy value of 1 ton of waste justify the coll(~:1.1011 III
energy terms?
1 :1.5.:1. Wo.r-ked examples on solid waste incineration The total energy value of 1 ton of waste in Example 13.1 is 10,709 MJ. 'Sl~inIn I l l c l r r l
than twice the specified energy cost of collection and disposal.
A 1.1 (11' 11111rii(:il)i~1r(:fi~s(:co~ltainsthe proportions of material indicated in The actual energy profit will depend on what proportion of the I I ~ ~ L X ~ I I I I I1111
III

' I ' r ~ . l ~ l (I:L.li.

- (:>~l(:~llilt(!
the calorific value if all the energy is recoverable. What is tential value (10,709 MJ) is extractable. If 50% energy is available tllnrc! will 1113 11,
small energy profit. But part of the collection and disposal cost is for pnl)licsII(~ILII,I\
I . I I ( ~ l*cl~~ivrrl(:l~i, c:lrc:rgy ill (a) kwh? (b) tonnes of oil?
and social reasons and has to be undertaken anyway. Any energy profit i~ IL IIOIIIIN.
2240 = 1016 kg = 1.016 tonnes
1 t,oli -- 2240 lb = -----
2.2046 13.5.4. Liquid and gaseous wastes
A 111 11 v l l l l : I la) r)pr(.(>i~lilgr proportions in Table 13.6 and multiplying by the appro- Large scale liquid and gaseous wastes from industry are often proccbssc:tl rrt. 1.111-
~ l i c .vi~111(,
1 1 1 I I I 1~% ( . 1 1 l o 1 gives the data of the following table: producer sites. This permits the retrieval of salvageable materials and ro~it,ril)~~t.c
to energy costs when the residue is burned. Liquid wastes from domest,ic. sollrcvsn
are usually poured down the drain.
M nl.~vitr.l Weight in kilogrammes Calorific value (MJ)
.. Sewage disposal is an issue of concern in the UK. Many communit,ic!n rul.inr*c~~~
I'II,I)IT 0.305 x 1016 = 309.9 309.9 x 14.6 = 4524.5 to rivers, lakes or the sea eject raw sewage directly into the water. This [)oncln
l s i ~ ~W~I W<~l, ( : 0.24 x 1016 = 243.8 problems of water pollution. It also eliminates the possibility of sewagc ~ ~ ( * I L I , I I I I ~ I I I
243.8 x 6.7 = 1633.5
MI~I,JII 0.078 x 1016 = 79.25 79.25 x 0 = 0 to minimise the effluent and to obtain useful sewage gases, such as r n e t l ~ a ~ ~ c ~ .
( :III,HS 0.112 x 1016 = 113.8 113.8 x 0 = 0
I )II*I,, ci~~(I<!rs 0.09 x 1016 = 91.44 91.44 X 9.6 = 877.8
'Ii~x1,ilc~ 0.049 X 1016 = 49.8 49.8 x 16 = 796.5
I . ~ v ~ . l . l l r : t . , r ~ ~ t ) h cp1asl.i~
r, 0.083 x 1016 = 84.3 84.3 x 25' = 2108.2 13.6. The Fuel Cell
ILl i~c:i!llr~nc:c)t~s 0.043 x 1016 = 43.7 43.7 X 17.6 = 768.9

Total 10,709 MJ
A fuel cell uses the gases hydrogen and oxygen as energy sources to procluc:~(:l(!('I.rI(:
ity and water. I t consists of two electrodes which enclose an electrolyte, Pig. I:!.\).
I ~ ~ ~ I ~ I I I I ~ LVIL~IIC:
I,(~(I Hydrogen fuel is fed into the "anode" of the fuel cell. Oxygen (or air) ontorr i.lw
fuel cell through the cathode. Encouraged by a catalyst, the hydrogctl a t o H~\ ) ~ ~ ~ I~, N
into a proton and an electron, which take different paths to the cathode. Tilt! 1)ro1,011
passes through the electrolyte. The electrons create a separate electric c:~~rrc!i~l. I,IIILI~
(I\)

(1))
:,

.',
I i,o11l.(+lIs(:-:

I LOII
I I.or~~lcr
I.(~~'IIs(~
or oil
:,,,;
w
'::,$
-
!!?2974.7 kWli
:-:

4000 kWll
(1.744 ~,01111(: 01. oil
can be utilised before they return to the cathode, t o be re111:itcd with t l ~ Iiytlrout~~~
and oxygen in a molecule of water [25,26].
A fuel cell system usually includes a "fuel refornlor" that C I L ~ I~ l t , i l i ~ t,ti(:
gen from any hydrocarbon fuel, including mct,hallol, ot,\\~uiol,i\nt,~~ral
:

( ! l~,y~lro
KliH, lh111111

propane, gasific!d c:onl, gasolinc tinti tlicsc!l fuel. 1r1p11t. c:~lor~y (VLIL t~lnoI)(! H I I I ) ~ ) I I ~ ~ I I

I).y Ilytlro~entl(:rivc:tl, via ~ ~ i r ! t , l ~ t r ~fro111 , ILII(I noll~r~ ~ I I ( I W IHL( I III )~ (I. IIW: ,
~ c : , I J ~ ~ I I I I L H H wi11~1
 11'111~1 1.1-11 ;1111,o111ol)il~~s
1 1 1 ~11.11
~ IIIIVIIII,.~,
I I ~ . ~ I I ~ I ~ ~ I V I ~ I'I.IIIII l1111lea1yI I C I W I - I C ~ I
t ~ l t ~ t ~ I ~ ~ ( .

;ill11 l ~ , y l ~ (~I .~( #i , ~l);~,~,l,c~ry

l a yso .l l ' ~~ , ~
~ ) I I I S J ; ; I s ~ I I ~ I I ~ ~I ) O W I - I . ) v ~ - l ~ i ( ~' l 'Il ~~t ~ I I , ~> , I~, I ~ V I ~ I I (~ ~ , I - ! ~
I ) I I I , ( . I I , I I IIISO I N , I I ~ I ' I I I ~ I I ( - I rl~ti(,l<l,y
v(!l~i(:l(:s
o f l)iilll,~~ry-~)ow(:r(:(l I ;I,II(I I ~ O I I I ( I jio I O I I ~ , { * I
betweell rcfiic:lliiig.
Fuel cells utilising pure 11ydrogc:li ;is i L fucl would he zcro c : ~ ~ ~ i s vs ci o ~ l~~ ~ ic~l~
Those using other fuels would produce near zero emissioris. Thcy ;I.rc: illso 1111 I I . I * c d l i
cient than "grid" -powered battery vehicles. In addition, fucl cell c:iirs (:OII It l ~ I I . (11 1 I 11.1 9

fewer "system-wide" releases of greenhouse gases - taking into il.(:(*o11111, 11.1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 111

sions associated with resource recovery, fuel processing and use. St,i~clic~s i l l I.111, 1 IS A

by General Motors and by Ford noted that fuel cell car engines c o ~ ~ lI)(% t l 1111ill 11 11
about the same price as an internal combustion engine. The energy c:Hic*ic,~~c.y 01 1111.1
cells also makes them an attractive alternative for automakers. Miilly I I . I I ~ . ( I I I I I II ~V I ~
manufacturers are racing to be the first to bring a fuel cell vehic:lo 1.0 ~ . I I ( . 111111 k l q l
place. US automakers and component suppliers are spending billiol~s(11' t l c 11 111 I 11 I I I
drive fuel cell technology towards commercialisation. Some arc ( ~ ~ I I ( ~ ( - I I ~ . I . I1 1I1.1~ , ~
using pure hydrogen, while others are trying to find new ways to 11sc:g ~ ~ s o l i I~I I (lt q~ a
hydrocarbons [25].
At present (2002) hydrogen is a more expensive fuel than c.ollvc~l~l.ic~~~c~l I, I!<:I I
fuels. A US company offers commercial fuel cell power plants for iil)ol~l.S:{OOO O I ~ I
kilowatt. At that price the units are competitive in high value, " ~ ~ i ( . l l ( ~11111.1 " I(I-I 11
and in areas where electricity prices are high and natural gas pric:c:s ii.rc: low. A
study by Arthur D. Little, Inc., has predicted that when fuel cell c:ost,s tlrol) I N - I I I W
$1500 per W they will achieve market penetration nationwide in tlic: [JSA . S1.vc.1I I l
companies are now selling small units for research purposes. fic:l c:c:lls will I I I I ~ ~ L
to be much cheaper to become commercial in passenger vehicles. Co~lvc:l~l.ic)~~~ IVII

engines cost about $3000 to manufacture in the USA. More resc;irrll is ~ ~ c ~ c ~ l 1.1) t*(l
bring the cost of fuel cell systems down to that level [25]. The witl(:sj)rc~r~.cl II:;I-1 1 1
fuel-cell-driven automobiles would dramatically reduce the worltl oil ( : O I I S I I I I I ~ )io11 ~
Fig. 13.9. Basic principle of the fuel cell [26].
and the emissions from its use.

II I(.I 111 l i 11): ~11.s I'rotr~l i ~ ~ i d f i lSince l ~ . tlic fuel cell relies on chemistry and not combus-
111 111, c.r~lissio~~s I'rorr~t,liis type of systcrn are much smaller than emissions from the
~.lr.rl~lc-sl, I ' I I ( ~ I (.o111I)11sl,ioil I)rC)(:(:sses. 13.7. Problems and Review Questions
Slaliol~si~lt.cbrc:sl.i l l 1.11(:S11(:1(:(!]I ;is a prilctical and reliable source of electricity be-
13.1. What are the principal disadvantages of the use of land for i~ll,c~lisivc- I ~ i IcI ' I I I ~ I
k l , l l l l 1 1 1 I , I I I ) I !)(iOsi l l till(: IJS Sl)iL(:(! 1)rogrilnl. Riel cells furliislled power for the Gemini
growth?
I I I I ( I :1ylo110 ~ l ) i ~ , ( . ( t ( . ~ . ; i l ii11(1 'l s1,ill ~)rovi(lc: (!1c(:t,ri(.itfyancl watcr for thc space shuttl(:.
l ~ ' 1 1 t . 1 (~1~11s i l , t x 5 i ( l ~ * ; l , l1))t IIOIII(: I)ow(:rg~ii(!~i~tioii, (:itlier (.oliliectcd to the nloctri(*i~.~ 13.2. Describe the process of photosynthesis in plant,^. 111 pi~l.l,i(:~~l;~.t., wIli11. I I . I ( * 1 1 1 1 %

\ # , I 1 1 1 l , ~ ~I I . I ) V ~ ~S I I~ I >) ~ ) I ~ ~ I I I ( ~ I I I , I)OW(:I. ~I,I ;i11(1i);i(:k-111) or i~~st,;ill(;(l as i,, g1~i(l-iri(lcp(~1~(1o1i1, input forms of energy of the photosynthctic proccss?
V , ( ~ I I I~I I~, I I) I . I ~ I I . o~~-sil,(s s(~rvi(.(: i l l il,r(:;LS l , l ~ ; ~ ;l,r(:
l , i ~ i i i ~ : ~ : ~11.y ~ sl)ow(,r ~ : S ~ I I (f,l(l !( ~ l
~ i l ~ lIi11(1s. 13.3. Enumerate the stages of thc ~)hotosyritlic:t,ic: ~)l.occ:ssI,o sllow 1,11i1.1, 1.111, I I I I I X I
I 1'1I:i O I ) I ~ I I I I ~ Is~ i l ( ~ ~ ~ lI ,,l ll( n,, y y ~~ ( ~ I I I I - I ~, ~ o i s~)oll11I,io11
(: 11sw(:ll ;is i i i ~ ,1)oIl11t,iolt ~ I , I I ( l ~, l k ( n
rrilirn efficiency 111id(:ri(l(:;~l (:o~uiit,io~~s 1'1.0111 it11)11l, l ~ i ~ ~ l i ;to ~ ~I )lI ;,I iI I oI , ~I ~~ I I ~ ~

W I I : I 111-111 ~ . I * 1'111111 I L I 1 1 0 1
1 ~
8 1 1 (.1111 1 1 1 s I I S I ~ I 1.1)
~ ~)l.ovi(lt*1101. W;LI.(\I. 111. s1)11.(.(~ IIO;I,~.~II~. storiigc: is (i.(i'%l.
l:{.4. WII;II,; ~ , r (l,11e: : l ) l . ; ~ , ( ~ t , i c ~ ;vi1.1111)s
~,l ol' 1)11e )l,os,y~~l,l~~~l,ic~ ( ~ l l i ~ ~ i t I ~I I ~ ( ~1 1 () ~ I , ~y* I I I I ) I * I I , I , ~ ,
I ( I ( . I I . I , ~ I 111s; I , I I ( I ( I 11 I , ~ ~ o l ) i ( ~I iI )~I ~, Il I , ~ , ~ ~ I I S ' !
 I,. A , , I V I M , 1 l!)!)Ol /*;it,~i;~jjj
(:. M., ILII(I C:rilli~~,
8. Si~hl~~,ytu), / I L I I ~ ~ , ~ / , I I I . I~I W ~/,It,f.
~ ~I MI L /.~ I ~ I , ~ I ~ ,

14h~glisl~ li(*l(IH'! .I~I,I:IL~,

Iko11o111icl)~!v~~lo~~111~~111,
I I I H I , ~ I , I I I , I 01'~ ~ , I I ( * Worl(l l311,11k, W ~ I S I I ~ I Il)C~ !,I ~I ISA. ~II,
9. "ltcr~c:wi~blcEncrgy Itcso~~rc:os i l l I)c~volol~i~ig C:ol~tlI,ri(r~", WorI(I I ~ I L I I ~W, I I H ~ I ~ I ~
WIIILI,is 1,11(! ( . I I I ( ~( ~ ) I I S ~ , ~ ~ ~ Iof
I ( : t,lr(!
I I ~ ~l ) i o g ~ ~
ills t ~ ~ i t ~ c r o ldigcstcr
)ic systcrns'!
DC, USA, Nov. 1980.
W l ~ yI L ~ ( . sl~c:l~ sysl,c.~~~s so 111)11ri(1111il, ill tlic dcvcloping countries? 10. "Energy from Biological Processes" (2 vols.), Office of 'rechnology Assc:.rs~~~c~~~t,, I )OI%II
WIIILI,rlrc: t,Ii(: c.11ic.I' ~ ( I v t ~ l i t ~of
g cwood
s as a source of fuel? ment, OTA-E123, Congress of the United States, Washington, DC, IJSA, . I I I I . l!)Hl),
111 w I I ~ L ~ S(!IISO
, (:i~iit , l i ~1)11rlliilg of wood be described a s "carbon-dioxide- 11. "Renewable Energy - A Resource for Key Stages 3 and 4 of the UK Nr~l.io~lt~l ( !III

ll~~llt,rlll"
!'
riculum", Renewable Energy Enquiries Bureau, Energy Technology Sriollor.1, I I I I I I . ,
Department of Trade and Industry, Harwell, England, 1995.
W l ~ r ~rLrc!
t , tlic advantages a n d disadvantages of burning plastics a s a biofuel? 12. Hancock, G. [I9811 ''Premiers to Discuss Use of Renewable Energy", 'l'lrr~ f~t~c~rrlrcr
Ilow wol~ltlt,he wider use of biofuels affect t h e appearance of t h e British (UK), 10 Aug.
c-o~li~t,rysi(lc'! 13. ''Energy in the Developing Countries", The World Bank, Washingtori, I)(:, I lSA, lOH0
Ilow wolrltl the contents of refuse collection in Victorian England or 19th 14. Imran, M., and Barnes, P. [I9901 "Energy Demand in the Developirig ( : o ~ ~ ~ ~ l . r l r
Prospects for the Future", World Bank Staff Commodity Working Papor No. '13, ' 1 ' 1 1 ~
c:c!~it,liryUSA compare with t h e present day?
World Bank, Washington, DC, USA.
111 t,hc period 1990-2000, how did t h e proportions of (a) landfill gas, 15. Nef, J . U. [I9771 "An Early Energy Crisis and Its Consequences", Sciei~l,i]ic.Atlrri i ~ . r r i t
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" M I L ~ ~A I IqK~ ~ t ~ tW(rc!(l~
,i(- U~(:l'~il:Sot11c t'(!r~pccI,ives for Il(!v(:lopi~~~
(:o~~~~tri(!s",
N~Ll,ioll~il A(:tul(ll~~y of S(:ic!r~c:ctn,W ~ r v l ~ i ~ i ~I)(:,
l , o rUSA,
~, 1!)76.
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(S~,i~*llt,Ifi~. A I I I I ~ ~ ( , I III(..,
L I I 1 ISA), ( !lll~pt.($r
4.