Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chapt 1 Energy and Power
Chapt 1 Energy and Power
Chapt 1 Energy and Power
431
.
18,1t1, Nltwd vsgststlon , , . , . . . . . . . . . 431
19,1,2, Energy tree plmt(ctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
13,1,3, Speclflc energy crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
13,1,4. Uee, of wwtea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
CHAPTER 1
1S.1.50 Water-based biomass . . . . . .. . . . 433
*
lJ,I, Photwyntheerls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 ENERGY AND POWER
1B,El, Methods of Industrial Biomass Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
19,9.1. Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
1S~3p2.Pyrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
18,5,3. Gaelfication of biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
19,3,4, Llquid and gaseous fuels from biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 Energy is the capacity or capability to do work. All msiterllalr p-
13.3.4.1. Chemical reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 because they can all be utilised in some form of energy converrlan p r o m ,
13.3.4.2. Aerobic (alcoholic) fermentation . . . . . . . . . . . 439
8L4,
13,3.4.3. Anaerobic digestion to produce biogas . . . . . . . 440
Wood M a Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
example, most substances will burn or vaporle, and the c o n r e q n ~ ht&
can be harnessed within mechanical energy aystems that create
aome form of mechanical resistance.
G=
. Energy from Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 Energy can take several forms, as classified in Table 1.1. Mwr or m ~ W 8 b8
13,5,1, Solld waste disposalinlandfillsites . . . . . . 445 form of highly concentrated energy. Some forms of matter can be u t W d la a&
18,5.2. Solid waste disposal using municipal energy applications, as discussed in Chapter 8.
inclnerators (combustors) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Table 1.I . Forms of energy.
. 13.6,3, Worked examples on solid waste incineration . . . . . . . . . 450
13,6.4. Llquid and gaseous wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 biofuela (e.g. wood) mass
The &el Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 chemical -
mechanical klnetlc
Problem and Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . 453 electrical
gravitational
mechantcal -potentlbl
nuclear
C Y , , . . . . ................. ....... 454 heat (thermal) radiation
magnetic mound
~ T B 14R THE ENERGY FUTURE 457
2* Th Energy Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
b , An Energy Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.,' 14.3,1,
, . . 458
Thm Long-Term Energy h t u r e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Nuclear fbsion using breeder reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
14,S82. Solar energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
1,I, Energy Conversion
Tho many applications of the use of energy ususlly Involve trsnrformrtierpl
different forma of energy - a procese known M energy convsrrion. Any
I'
143.3. Controlled thermonuclear fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
" 14,9,4. Oeothermsl energy [4] . . . . . . . . ......... 461 b e m n different energy forme is Imperfect in that some of the anul~g
34A Whrt Shall We Do When the Oil Runs Out? . .. 462 wed to fullitate the converslon procsu. The conmrtad met@output
~ ~ U I C .M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 462 bhe uaargy laput m d thir festure L u u d y dwcrlbed u tho coavorul
m r a 1,1lllwtrrtu the large range af varlrtion of cmcrgy
from wry luge elmtrlolty gmmrma (&anid to h o t s
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our opwbts oontlawurb J bbwli 00% d?hbzwto tbs bw-t rh&
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1.3, Machuricd Energy
The widely used Laws of Motion for bodles of conatant mrus were dw&@
the Engllsh scientist Isaac Newton in the 1Vh century. It tr nuw
extreme cases Newton's Laws &re ineufflclent - for very r d mu#
mechanics must be employed; with very high apeode, Eincltsin's t h m q
W8br turblnr ;elatlvity becomes relevant; with very large masses,the concspte of rpcor
Large llrotrlo Motor ate modified by the theory of general relativity. Nevertheleas, for gene4
Dy Ooll Bottmry
,@a Warn Bollor llfe on earth using realistic sizes and time spans, the work of Newton
a Ourbox
b 011Pumrcr
)" '
1.1.1. Linear motion
When a constant force F is applied to an objec't and cltusea tt b
qtpanded:
W = Fx
SEI (1.1), if the force is in newtons (N) and the distance in metrsr (m],tlr,
If a body of mass m moves in a straight line with EL linear v&dty w
Ihe tlnle rate of change of its position,
ab
..
, 4 1 1 , .(
,,,+I
dx
v=- for small changes of x
dt
v = - for large changes of x
5
t
If s body of mass m moving in a straight line Is subjected to &mgw d
I fia rate of change of the velocity with t h e la known aa the .ofeler&tlrmD,
A c~cl~lt,ril)(~t.til li)rc:c acting radially inwards is required to keep the mass moving in l a ' l ~ I 3. Structure of some mechanical energy convertorn. (a) 131c!ctsric~rnoI,or or Rntlrrnt,or (11)
I*'lywl~c.ol(internal combrrstion engine).
IL I~II.I.I(~ t ~ l i ( 1is provided along the tie rod. With rotational motion, the externally
r r l ~ l ~ l l o tTor(:(! l F t~ctingtangentially on the mass (through a rigid tie-rod), Fig. 1.4,
~ . I I I I ( ~ H ~ , I I ( * rti(1i11s is ci~lledthe torque T , which acts as a rotation producing force:
= mar
111 ( 1.14) t,11(: t,or111tu is the angular acceleration in rad/s2. The quantity m r 2 in
( I . 1.1) i~ ~ I I O W I IIW t l l ~po11~r111onlent of inertia J and is an important physical
~)t.o~)(~ i l lr trot,t~tio~it~l
~y st,r~i(:tllres,having the dimension kgm2.
tlw
ICx 111 I ~ H I ) I I ( I . 15) in l3rIl(!(lir~-t.t,ly for t,l~(*flywl~(!olt ~ ~ i (-yli~l(h>r tl of Fig. 1 .:I. 17or inor(! '1' ,ICY-:,I -
tit.
( ~ O I I I I I I ~ ( ~ I L I ( V ~I t , r l t ( * t , l l rwIt,11t ~ ~ ( l l n t , r i I ) ~ ~ t , ~IvI l~, I I - ~ I I ~ ~ ~ O IrltLnH,
I'III tell(! (~lf(!(*tliv(b rtuli~lsof
R ~ 1it.1o11I IH I I I O ~ I *( - O I I I ~ ) I I I - I L ~ , ( ~ ( I 1)11t, I.II(* r(qlt~t.ioll~I~I~) ( I . 15) IH nl.lll v l ~ l l ( l111 prillc.iplv. w l l l ( - l ~IN tllrca:l,ly I L ~ I I L ~ ~ K ~Lo (1.14) for
IIM lllltrrrr ~~lollo~l.
'1'11(:kinetic energy, from (1.17), is
W I I ( ~,I
I I is ill kg11i2 and w in rad/s, the energy of motion, which is also the work
lollc~O I I t.l~c! rotating mass, has the dimension of joules (J) or watt-seconds (Ws).
I
= 2418 joules
'I'liis value also represents the work that was done in rotating thc nlotor fro111rcrwl,
A rioli(l IIIILSS 7n rotates around a fixed centre point at radius r with constant angular [,(I its steady speed.
vl~\oc.it,y w. Show that the force F which impels the motion is proportional to the
~ . I I I I I1.111.(*
~ of cvhange of angular momentum.
1.3. Electrical Energy
111 I'ig. I .1 t-llc: tangential force which causes the rotation and maintains it is
y,iv191111.y I':l(:ctrical energy is the universal clean form of energy that is ~llosl,I I H O ~ . It, In,
I~owcver,a secondary form of energy that has to be obtained by tho ~wc:oft1 ~)rllll~rry
I'rlc.1 such as coal or oil. Because of the great importancn of c!lec:i,ric:al c!llclrKy II IN
I . I I ( ~ subject of a separate section, in Chapter 3.
\"III. i.ol~sl.t~,l~i.
I I ~ R S S ,therefore,
1.4. Chemical Energy
.I I0 k ~ l l l ~ .
, I , I I . I I K I I I I L ~ v(:Io(:i(,yis ~iv(!11
1118 i l l rpln t ~ l l ( lmust be converted to the corresponding I . . Thctrmal Energy
S.I. 1111ii, oS r ~ ~ ( l i f ~ ~ ~ r i / s ( ! ( : ,
I II%II,I,is it, I'or111ol'(-~i(:rg.y. 11, lii~st,li(!(.~LI);L(~I~.Y
1,o(lo work (lircctly as thermal warming Sliglil, i ~ ~ ) ~ ) r o x i i ~ loif ~t,Iu:
t i o al)ov(:
~l fijyir(1s is ofl,(:~ll)or~l~it,t,(:(I
so 1,1111,1, 1,111- I * I I I * Y R , ~or
1II I I e~o~~vc~rsior~
~ I,o ot,llcr ciicrgy foriris, 111i~i11lyi~icchailical.The quantity of heat work W ill jollies is giver1 hy
I I I V ~ I ~ Vl iI l ~l IiL I)roc.c:ss car1 be nieasl~redby some effect which accompanies the process.
1)1' ~ , I I I *c.llcTrgyoi~pi~c:it,y whereas temperature T is a measure of the hotness. rotates the blades of a steam turbine. After iinpart,ing 11111('11 01' it,^ t?l~(!rKy1.0 I . \ I I ~
' I ' I I ( ~ I ~ I I I ~ I I I I of
L heat energy required to raise the temperature of a particular l,urbine, the steam condenses back into hot watcr that ~icotlsl,o I)($ I'orc-c~-e~e~e~l~~(I 1'10111
IIIII.SH oI' ~~llLl,(:rii~l through a specified temperature range is a characteristic property some large external source of cooling water such as a sea, lakc or rivcv. I ~ ~ I ~ , I L I , I O I I I L I
01' 1,1118 ~~~r~t.c:rii~l. I11 particular, the specific heat capacity is the heat capacity per ~licchanicalenergy is transferred from the turbine to the el;:c.tric: g ( l ~ ~ ( ! r ~ l/\, oIIIOI.(*r.
1 1 1 l i 1 . I I I I I . ~ ~I ,L I ~ ( is
I rrioasured in cals/g-centigrade or BTU/lb-fahrenheit. Water is the tlctailed consideration of electricity generation is givcn in Chi~pt~c!r 3.
HI,IIIIIIII.IXI I I ~ I L L (having
: ~ ~ ~ La ~specific
, heat capacity of 1 cal/g°C or 1000 cals/kg°C The conversion of heat energy into mechanical work also t,i~k(!sI)IH~*o i l l I M ~ I ~ I ' I I I
'11, 1 I~'I'~l/II)"I~'.
It is common to use a dimensionless property known as specific c~iigines,diesel engines, jet engines, gas turbines arid rockct niol,ors. 'l'li(~se~ I I I H , ~it11
Ill~llt~ (,\'I/), I,c grouped under the title of "heat engines". Energy c:o~~vc!rsion oI' I,llix I ' I I ~ I I I I N
restricted in scope and efficiency by certain natural laws ant1 li~rlil,i~l,io~ls (~IIII)O(I~VII
specific heat capacity of a material i l l a formulation called the laws of thermodyni~riiics.
SH-
specific heat capacity of water
W I L ~ . ~,I~(:r(~l'or(:,
I~I., has the value S H = 1.
1.7.3. The first law of thermodynamics
A IIIJLSS?rr. of ~rli~terial raised through a temperature difference (T2 - TI) possesses
11 ( I I I I I I I ~ . ~ of energy Q where
~ , , h(:i~t
~ When the Principle of Conservation of Energy is applicd t,o ;L hc:;~l,worlc ( X ) I I V ( * ~ H I O I I
I)rocess, it becomes known as the first law of thcrnlodyniu~iic:~ i~11t1( * I I , I I 11($ ~ l , l t l , ~ ~ e l
(2 [11c;~tcapacity of the body] x [temperature difference]
l,1111s:
or (1.19)
In an isolated, enclosed heat-work system the totnl errc:r:cl~/rr,rrrtrirr?r
(2 - T ~ I , S H (-TTi)
~ constant.
I I I ( I . I!)), (2 liiw the dimension of mass x temperature. A I I c:xpa.nded statement of thc first law is
The chnn,ge of internal energy of n system is cr]lrnl to tlro ,/rcst Ircstrt
1.7.2. Mechanical equivalent of heat en,ergy input (Q) minus th,e n.et eztern(1,l umrk dorrc! ( W ) .
M ( ~ - I I ~ L I I ~oncrgy
( ' I L I is expressed in units of ergs (cgs system), f t lb (fps system)
(11. ,iol~l(,s (S.I. system). The equivalence between mechanical energy units and heat
rlc:t, 11c:i~tc:ncrgy ... 11c:t,work do~ic:I)y (*IIII,II~;(~ ill
O I I I ~ I ~11
,1
~ 1s t,o I)(: d c t ~ ~ . r r i i rby
i~dcx~)erinicnt.This equivalcncc has the internationally
s~lppli(:(I I.II(, syst,c:r~i sl,orcvl o ~ ~ e ~ r ~ y
r l , ~ r ( - ( ~V iI II , ~ I I ~ \li)r~ricrly
, know11i ~ st,ho "~riechi~nical t:qliivalr:iit of hoat",
1~;vI~ll
11 1111. 1,~~1'1111.111)'11'\'1'1 1 1 1 I Ill' :i\':,ll'lll 1~l11111):1':i (1.1: 1 1 l l ~ l l ~ l l l lIll
l ~ !! I,l l y I 1 lllp,lll~l
I l ~ v l1lI'Ill~ll.l.
~I 1 1 1 ~ ~ 1 1;1.111I
1 1~1111:;1~1~111~111 Ill,~I11~1~ ) , 1 ~ 1 1 1 1 1 1 111s ((,J
W l , I I \ l I ~ l l l l ~!.Ill, 1 1 ' ) 11'11111111
:it ~I.I.I.:;, ~ I 1-1l;.c.l.,
1 1 1 1 1 '1'11('I i t ~ i l l, i ~ w
1.1 111:;l I 1.1111.1. 1101. 1 1 1 0 1 ~ 1 * ~.II:III .I.I H(i ,I(III~I.!; I 11 III,'(.~IIIIL
1 0 (10 w01.1<.
:;ij1,11(~
I i1,11(i ~ r i a i n t a i ] l e ( i some
, 11e:~t is lost, t,o t,11(: S I I ~ ~ O I I I 111
I ( It,ll(%
~ I li
I~ ~~
11 III (11' ~ +1111
i 111.1
to t h e a l r ~ h i e l l ta i r , r a t l i n t , i o ~i ~ ~ t t.llc:
1.1111\1c~c~l.ior1 , o s ~ l r l . o ~ ~ r l ( sl)rl.c.t*,
l i ~ l ~ : (-11..
I ~ ~ \ , I ill
~ I I i1.11 i c l c i ~ lh e a t c11gi11c c : o ~ ~ t , i ~110i ~ loss(~s
~ i ~ ~ go r ( I r ~ s i ~ 1 I I1
I I ~ ) I ~ I ~ ~ I * I ~ ~1 .IIISI,
I~II:
1 ~ l ~II(\;I,I,
~ i 1 (1Y I ~ ~ I I ( : ill F i g . I .(j.
11' t,l~(:r(ti s 110 st,orc(l (;~i(:rgy, ~,II(:II l'ro111 I,ll(: lirsl, 111,wS~,;I,~,(,IIII-II~~01' ( I ,.'? I ) ,
N o w , 1,111- cs~~c>l.j:,y
c~llic~ic~l~c~,y ry 01'
is 1.111. ~.;~.l,ic,
of' i ~ . ~ c.o~~vc~t~l.c:r. 1.1118 I ~ I I I ~ I J ~ ,IIIIIIIIII
,~ 11)
I I I I I . 111 I . l 1 ( 5 (.;IS(' 01' ;I l1oi1.1.wo~.l((.~IIV(*I.I.I'I.1.111' OII\.IIII~
('II~~I.):~
I:i ~'1111111
1 I 1 111, IIII*I.II;III~(,~IIwo~.l<11o11cb:
II.III,OIII( 11 b i l l - 111~1~1.olI , I I ~ , ~ I I IIII,VI)
I ~ W O I . I ( I I I ~ , ~ ~ f l i ( ~ i ((11'~ ~111~I I (~ I. I Ii ,XI'K~,
~ ~ ~ (liivs~*l ~ V I I ~ , ~ I IL II I I~I W
I:II,S I . I I I . ~ ) ~ I I I ~r1.110111,
S :15'%)11.1111 ~ 1 . 1 ~ 1 ~ 1 I1 .1I I I . ~ ) ~ I I ~I ~L Is ) O I I I . 4r)'KI. 'l'lli~I I I ~ ~ I I , I II,IIII.I.
S 11. 101 I I I
(3--
crlpine
External
work
W=QH- QL 0 engine
External
work
w
I ) i l l c ! , 11,194,000 BTU, corresponds to Qrrin Fig. l . ( i ( ; ~ ) , I)III, or~ly5,'Llil ,(I011 11'1'11
is c,o~~vcrt,ed
s ~ o ~ ~tot QL.
I.o~~~pc:rature
to illechanical work W. The reinaii~ing11(:t~l,, 5,!):1:1,000 11'1'1 1 , 1.1 11 I i t
l s This heat energy is dissipated t o tllc: o n v i r o l ~ ~ ~c~: on~~~l ls .~i,~~I (~~ ~I . I ~ ~ I .
of the coolant source water. In a s t c : i ~ ~e~~giilc:
sil~lcis often referred t o as a condenser.
r~ 1,11(: low ( , I * I I I I ) I + I . I I ~ I I I I '
Il'ig. 1.6(b). The best-known example of this is the donic:st,ic: rc:l'l.ixc~~~l,o~., ~~'IJJ,, 1 . 7 ,
(11) 1tlc;rl heal engine (b) Ideal heat pump i l l wliich heat is extracted from the food inside and expc:ll(:tl i ~ ~ tI ., o I I I ~ I ( i l , i ' l ~ ~ u ~I I~I . 11
or refrigerator 1.c-I'ri~crator the reverse heat engine converts the electrical (or ~11,s)
i r ~ l ~ l l Il ~. I I I - I , ~ 1111
, , ~11
I , I I ( ! ~ I I I ~ L energy.
~ The refrigerator mechanism of p i m p , (:ooli~~~t,
~)il)~bs 11.1111 I ~ O I I I I I , I I I
Fig. 1.6. Schematic function of a n ideal heat engine. 1.1 11t111ica1 (liquid or gas) acts as a heat punip.
111 an ideal reverse heat engine, Fig. l.G(b),
II c.rl.ll I ) I , ~ I ~ ~ !fro111
I I (1.23) and Fig. 1.6(a) that the most efficient heat engine will
111. 11, I ~ ) I . I I I i l l wlli(:h QH and TH are as high as possible and QL and TL are as low
1111 ~ ~ ) s s i l )13111, l ( ~ .it, is important t o note that QL and TL cannot be reduced to zero,
w l ~ i i , lw~ i ~ ~ ~represent ltl 100% efficiency. Cyclic interchange between Q H and W in
111 I.II(:refrigerator of Fig. 1.7 heat energy is extracted fro111tllc: rc!l'rixor~~.l,o~. ~.IIII~.IQII~.
I'ie. I . I i ( : l . ) , with QL = 0, would then constitute a form of perpetual motion machine
: I { . ;L I.ime rate dQL/dt. Additional energy enters fro111 t,lrc! c:l(~c:(.ric.rr.l s111)11lyn!, 11.
wllic.l~(.II(- li~wsof thermodynamics declare to be impossible.
tlCJll/tll. ' I ' I I I I
I . ~ I I I ( r~ i ~ t eP and energy is expelled into the snrrolindillgs i ~ 1 ,i~ rr~.l,c~
I I I IN24 i~young French engineer called Sadi Carnot deduced that an ideal heat
1.1 ~r~sc:rvation law (1.25) is satisfied by a timc rate ccluatioi~
c ~ t ~ gWOIII(I i ~ ~ i have ~ a theoretical maximum efficiency that has come t o be known as
1,111' ( !r~.r~~ol, c?fficiency,qcarn,
dQ13 ~ Q I-
-, -
dW
=P
dt dt tlt
; I . I I ~itleal heat engine or reverse heat engine, it call ha S ~ I O W I II.llr~.l, ( 1 .:12) I)I'II)W
I"oI.
111 ( 1 .%I),TI, and TH are absolute temperatures measured from the absolute min-
I.rw!. Corri\)illing (1.26) and (1.32) givcs a relat,ioiiship for I , l l c r 11c3cnlsssrl,l.y
I:; il11)11l,
I I I I I I I I I I . I : I I I I ) ~ ~ ~ L -273OC,
~~I~C in units known as Kelvin (K). The two expressions,
00wc~1.I' i l l tc:riris of teinpcratr~res:
( I . % \ ) n.11tl (1.24), can be linked via the property of entropy, which is discussed in
Sf.1.. 1.8 IJc:lOw.
:= 6259 M.7
l~;.ll l , l / t / l / f ' 1 . 4
A I,l~l~rtrlal system has an initial internal energy of 50 k.7. Net, work is tl(111c1 1111 1.111t
A I I I I L A H (11' IIIIL~,(:I.~;L~ ,1111 of specific heat SHl, a t temperature T I ,is mixed with a mass energy value 100 kJ, after which the final intcrn;~lcmc:rgy is fo111~l
- , v s ~ , ( ' I ~ Iof 1.1, 1111
(11' I l ~ ~ i 1( 1l 1 ~01' s1)c:c:ific heat SH2 at temperature T2. Express the final temperature ','TI I<.!. Calculate the net heat transfer to the system.
111' I , l ~ oI I I ~ x I . I I ~ . ( ! ill tcrins of its constituent parts.
11'1.1 11 I I (1.21), for a lossless system,
1 ,(*I, 1,1113 I of the mixture be T f
I ~ I I I L I,(:~i~~)(:ratllre
I ~ '1'1 > T2,SO that Tz 5 T f T I .
A H H I I I I It.I1;1.t, < Q - W = final stored energy -- init,ial storctl c:rlc:rgy
I l f . t ~ . l , Iosl, I)y 111iwsrnl is
Q - W = 7 5 - 5 0 = 2 5 kJ
Q2 = mzSH2(T' - T f ) (b)
A S ~ I I I I I ~~, lI ~I; ~l (,II(:
t . mixing is thermally ideal and no heat is lost, then
91 = Qz (c)
( ' ~ I I I ~ ~( ;~I ) ,I (II ) I) I~ IL I~I (,(r)
~ givw
A l ~ i p , lI ~, I ~ I I I ~ ) I ~ I ~ I I , l~ l, I~I ~~ iI ~(111,
l fil)O"(: is l,~~r~~~sl'f!rr(!(l via IL 11ioc11;~11i(:t~l
work (;o~~v(!rt,cr
I,II 11 IOWIV t , ( s ~ ~ ~ l ) ( s(~(.:r~~ItI,C~~~(~: si11k .I(I!S ( t: ~~t),I.00"C. If thc! flliici 11th~an initial heat
( - I I I ~ I . ~ , Y01' 250 Ma],(11) ~ 1 1 1 is ~ 1l,Ii(: liii~xi~~llrln theoretical efficiency of mechanical
c ~ ) ~ ~ v c * ri is. l lit lo (~I ) )~ ,w h i ~ lis the: rri;~xirriumtheoretical work output?
'I'llo totsal "load" on the refrigerator, to frcczc tlic frcc!xc!r ~ : O I I I ~ ) ; L 111111
~ ~ , 1.0
I I I1-0111
~#II
I,II(: main space, is many times the above value.
The rate of heat extraction from a freezer coliip;~rti~lc:lil, is lil(ol,y 1.0 01' 1,1111 111s
ortlcr 1-3 kcallmin. If this machine extracts heat at (say) 2 I(c.ill/l~~i~~, il, will (.II,I(I~
(11 ) 1 1 ' 1 ~ (111rlxil1111nl
~ or Carnot efficiency of mechanical conversion is, from (1.24),
17.5212 or 8.76 min to freeze the water.
1.8. Entropy
~ ~ i ~ , lof, ~spontaneous
rre change in materials and systems [3].
In any isolated physical system the direction of spoiit,;~ncous(-IIII.IIKI: in I I ~ W I I . , V H
1'1.0111molecular order to disorder. A container of hot wat,or, for c:x;w~i~l(b, IIIH I~QI~,O(W
:q~olltaneouscooling as the energy of motion of its niicroscopic: pi~rl.i(.l(:s (I(Q('I.I~II.HI~H.
'1'11~: molecular change is from a condition of higher ordcr to ;I c:oli(lil,io~~ 01' I I ~ I I I ,
~wtlcr what mathematicians now describe as greater chaos. 'I'll(! srullo ( ~ I I ~ L I I K I !In,
-
p = -d W
for small increments of t,ime
dt P is called the instantaneolls powc:r
( I ,:\,I )
for larger increment,^ of time
p = -W
S I I I ( ,tl.5'
I- . 0, (1.31) can be rearranged as t P is called the averagc power
111 S.I. units the unit of power is the joule per second (J/s), wllic:l~is ('ILIII*(I 1.111'
WII.~.~, (W). For practical purposes it is often convei~icntto IISC 011(! Itilow~rl.t,( k W )
I C I ~ I I I I . I . ~ O I I(1.32) can be combined with the laws of thermodynamics for an ideal ,)I. 111ogawatt(MW). Power in watts is not concerned crxc:llt~ivclywil,l~I ~ I I Q ( . I , I . I I ~ I L I
:i,vsI.1~111 (1.23) to give the thermodynamic efficiency. tk~~giricering. The power ratings in watts of various animals or mnl~~rliLc:t,~lrc!tl cl~~vlc'cln
r 1 l . t . r?;ivenon a logarithmic scale in Fig. 1.8 [2], which has I,o I)(: rc!rl.tl c-rl.rc:l'~rlly. Ili~r
t,xli.l~~ple, the installed electricity generation cay~acitiesill tllc: TJSA r l , l ~ ( l\Ili 1 ~ r c 1(.IIINII
l,o~:c!l,hcron the scale but differ in magnitude by u, fnct,or ol' t,c!~~!
111 terms of human perception it may sornetilnos bc hclphll u ~ t ~,II(:
: oltl 1i1.ll.l~l1
'1'111% I I I I L X ~ I I I theoretical
efficiency deduced by reasoning based on entropy from
I ~ ~ ~ ~
( I .:I:{) is I.llc!rc:Sorc: that q,,, = 1 - TL/TH, which is equal to the Carnot efficiency I ,I )wcr unit of horsepower (HP).
01' ( I .:!/I).
1 horsapowcr (I-IP) E 74(i W ( I .31)
I .H.'L. E n t r o p y on a c o s m i c scale
S I I I (>tl(!rgy ~ Y ~ ILIWILYSflows in such a direction as to make the entropy (disorder) in-
I . I I - I I . S I ~ , ( 1 i lli,r(:~~l,
f'ortris of co~mologicalenergy can be arranged in increasing entropy
111-111.1.. ' 1 ' 1 1 ( ~ ( : is I I O i~ssocii~t,c:d tcinpcri~t~ire for gravitational energy or for planetary
i o t . ) \ t . i o ~ >\.11tl
r oriit.;11il~ot~io~l
so t.lln.tthe: c:rltropy is zero. Chemical reactions have en-
11 ~ i ( > s ~ , I I v or(l(*rI 10 it~v(urs(!
()[ (!l(v*t,ror~~011,s.TIIC(:os111i(:lxii(:rowav(:l ) t ~ ( : k g r o ~ i ~ ~ ( i
Power (watts)
t,iolls is 1.11(: I ~ l t , c : r ~ ~ i ~ .Sl ,~i So (~.~( !i01'~ I IlII111il.sor Syst.i!~r~o l ~ ~ l . ( ~ r ~ ~ i( Illl l. ~i ~oi~l ,~i (S.*~n ~I ..))
Mosl, ~)l~ysi(!iil scio11c:c:s t~11cI (!~~pj~ic!(:ri~~g tsc:xt,l)ool~si ~ ~ cI I !O W wriI,1,1~11 i l l S.I. I I I I I I , H , 111
-
capacity in 2000 AD Ic!~ltsare given in Table 1.4 [4]. Many of these units arc! risc:tl ill S I I ~ I S ~ Y ~ IcI*~I ~~ In I. ~l ~, l c
of the book.
Large electric power plant
Table 1.2. The International System of Units (S.I.)
,08
lo6
Automobile
Property
Basic
Length
Mass
Unit
111
kc
Ti me second s
IJK I loclricity generating capacity Electricity generating capacity per Temperature kelvin K
-
per capita in 2000 AD Electric current ampere A
- -
Horse #lo4 capita in U.S.A in 2000 AD Derived
Domestic light bulb 1-1 1O2 Velocity metre per second v (I~/H)
Artificial heart
MantWoman resting Area square metre A (1112)
1-
'-----Flashlight
Force newton 1s' (kc111/3~)
Energy (Work) joule (newton-metre) W ( J 07. N I I I )
-
Power watt I' (,I/s)
Human heart
1 1lo-'
Silicon solar cell
I'ig. 1.8. Power ratings of various devices and animals (based on [2]). Unit Syrnbol Valrlr
rnicro /L 10-6
I '( I\V(#I. is i~.~~o(.ii~.I,(:(l
wit11 t,irne, whereas energy is independent of time. ~rlilli 1.11 10-
c:c:nt.i c: 10 "
kilo k 10:'
III~.KIL
M 10"
c:ncrgy work
powc'r -- -- - - - y,i):~~ ( : 10"
t,i111(! t,irne
-
l.l.1.1~
, -2
'I,
-- 101~
I,c!r~gl,h
-.---- ... .. -
I 111illi111c~1.rc-
(IIIIII) 0.0393701 inch (in)
I 111t!I,r(!(111) 3.28084 feet (ft)
.
Area
. -- I'owcr
I HIIIIILII! (:~~lt.irrlclre
(crn2) 0.155000 in2 1 watt (W) I ,Ior~l(!/s(:r(.l/s) . 0,OOI:bl I I l l '
I H C ~ I I I L I I ! r~rct,rc(m2) 10.7639 ft2 1 kilowat 1 (kW) 1000 W = l.:14 111'
I I~tv.l,irrc- = 104rn2 2.4710 acres 1 horsepower (HP) 745.7 W = 550 1'1 I l ~ / n c v ,
Pressure
Table 1.6. Scales of temperature.
I ~ ) ~ i ? i c , t r(Pa)
l 1 N/m2 4
I L'IL~ - lo5 I'a 14.50 Ibf/in2 The centigrade (Celsius) scale of temperatllre 11us 100 tl~:grtst'l l r ~ i l . ? l
I IOl'/ill2 (one pound per square inch or psi) 6.89476 kPa between the freezing point O°C and boilirlg point 100DC01' wtrl.c:r 111.
At ~ r ~ o h p l l ~pressure
ric = 14.70 Ibf inp2 101.325 kPa standard pressure.
Velocity
..- The Fahrenheit scale has 180 degree unils bet.woc:n t,ho frt:t:xil~g
I r ~ r i l t spcr hour (rnph) point 32'F and boiIing point 212OF of watcr. Tlrcl.aforc?
0.447 m/s
I kilo~lrc:t.rc:per hour (kph) 0.278 m/s 10O0C 180°F =
=- and
OC = 519 ( O F - 32)
I
I rrl)l(- 1.5 list,s some useful conversion data relating to heat energy and power
?
( I ) ) Wlii~t,arc thc initial value and final value after impact of the kinetic 400°C or two cq~ialsollrc:c:s Q of tclrlpc:riit~~rc~ 'LOO"( :'!
c:~ltrrgy'! A heating boiler has a full-load workiiig cHic.ic:i~c:y01' (iT,'%. 11, is 11sc~c1
I .13. 1,o 11(-11l
(r) (:alcuIate the instantaneous velocity a t the mid-height of the fall. Hint: a building from the outside temperat~lrcof 35°F 1.0 (iH" I:. W l ~ r ~ is t , 1,111- 1.1 ,l.11.1
TJse energy balance. thermal efficiency?
(t I) Ciilculate the values of potential energy and kinetic energy a t the mid- 1.14. For the steam boiler-electricity generat,or systclll of Fig. 1.5
height of the fall.
I :I. A li~rccof 100 N acts on a mass of 100 kg. (a) Show that the first law of thermodyriamics is satisfird.
(b) Calculate the efficiency of the turbine.
(;I.) What is the resulting linear acceleration? ~,I~II
(c) What information is needed in order t,o calculat,c t,hc cncrgy 11isc.lln.1
(I) If the steady-state velocity is 10 m/s, what are the values of the kinetic through the chimney?
clicrgy and momentum? (d) Calculate the efficiency of the generator.
1 .,I. A IIL;I.SS of 1 kg is rotated in a horizontal circle, at the end of a rigid tie-rod, A Carnot engine has a low temperature sink of 10°C tind ii I I I ~ I , X ~ I I I I I~I. II I~( '
1 .15.
wi(.li i~ll angular velocity of 10 rad/s. If the radius of gyration is 0.5 m, what oretical efficiency of 38%. By how much does the ternpcsi~t,l~sc: 01' t . l ~ t *I ~ i p , \ l
is 1,11(: iiistantaneous linear velocity of the mass? Calculate the torque and
temperature source need to increase in order to raise t,htr c:Hit.icb~~cy 1.0 :,0'Xl'I
:I,IIJ:II~;LI. iicceleration if a force of 10 N is needed to maintain the rotation. Explain what happens to the power input to a refrigerator if il,s 11oo1,i~
I .lG. 1181'1
I !I. ( !i~l(.~~li~(,(! the moment of inertia of the rotating mass in Qn. 1.4.
open in a warm room.
I I; A 11li1.s~ ol 1 kg rotates in a horizontal circle, a t a radius 0.5 rn about its A high temperature fluid contains 1000 M J of cncrgy iit (i0Oo(!. ' l ' l ~ i ll11i11~
1 .17.
l i x c s t l ;l.iic:hor point, with an angular velocity of 10 rad/s. What is the kinetic
powers a mechanical converter of Carnot efficicncy 30%.
c>r~c~~.g,y of the motion?
1 'I' II' ;L Iiiass of 10 kg rotates around a circle of 1 m radius a t 1800 rpm, what
(a) What is the temperature of the sink fluid?
is il,s c:iicrgy of motion? (b) What is the change of entropy?
( I ) ) on(: Illass has an initial temperature twice that of the other? grees centigrade? (a) 212"C, (b) 10O0C,(c) 32"C, ((I) On(:.
1 .lo. 111 t,lio UK the original steam engines designed by Watt and Newcornen O . At what value of temperatlire is the tempcratnro rc:ndirig i l l tl(!gl.t~-s I.(~III,~
~lsctl~.c:servoirtemperatures of 100°C and 10°C. What was the maximum grade ccl~lalt,o t,hc reading in degrees Fahrcnhcit,?
I,llc:orc:t.ic;~l efficiency? I.?I . What is t,lic: c:c:rit,igradc c!cl~livalcntof 75.8"F?
I.I I. A Ilc~~ crigine
t operates with a high temperature source of 900 K and ini- I .:?2. Wllt~t,is t-11(! I~t~l~r(:~~hcit, (.!(l~~ivtilt!~lt, of l!).V'(:'!
t.irl.l l~cnt~t clicrgy of 500 MJ. Its low temperature sink operates a t 300 K. I .:!:\, A 111o,l(:r11 (!l(!(:l,ri(:pow(:r st,tit,io~~ II~\,s I L 1'1111 Io~i(l01' 2000 MW. WIIII,~, II,I.I+
r ,
I I r c ~I I I ~ I , X ~ I I I I I I Ir(>i~lj~i~I)l(:
I cffi(:i~~lr:y
is om-hidf tl~c:~ii111(?of th(: tll(:oreticaI I,l1(8 ~ , l ~ ! ~i l ~l t( ,t ~ ) llors(!l)ow(:r,( I ) ) ~oIII(~s/s(:(~oII(I,
( ~ ( ~ ~ ~ i v t vtil~l(bs lkilow~~,l,l.~ ((s)
I I I ~ ~ . X ~ I I I I I VIL~II(:.
III ((1) ~ t I l ~ l , ~ ~ l ~ l l l 1 l l s / s ~ ~ ~ ~ o l l ~ l ' !
C1IAI"l'E:It 2
1 S I I I I I I I I(:. I ~M I ~. S[1!)71]
, "Energy and Power", in The Conversion of Energy (Scientific
I ~ I I I I~ ~( . I; I I I , I J S A ) , Chapter 5 ,
ENERGY RESOURCES AND ENERGY U S E
' 1 )o1.1,I f . (:. I1!)7XJ Enerqy, Reso,urces and Policy (Addison Wesley Publishing Co., IIIC.,
1 ) , ( ! I I ; I , I ) ~ , I \ ~:3.
w.
:I I ~ ; ~ I#~. I . 1 l97'2] CXari~:aLand Modern Physics, Vol 2 (Xerox College Publishing,
I I ~ * x i ~ ~ ~M;I,ss., : t o ~ ~IJSA),
, Chapter 14.
I h l ~ , V ( * i j : l ~.I.. (:. [ I!)H4] Energy Aro,und the World (Pergarnon Press, Oxford, England),
I,
( ~ l l l l l l t ~ l ~ ~ ~
2.1. Energy Input to the Earth
' SI&:II.S, I:. W. 11 !)A71 P~.i,nc~:ples of Physics I (Addison Wesley Press, Inc., USA).
1; l i l t t , ~ , l , (:., I<t~iglll.,W. L l . , and Ruderman, M. A. [I9651 Berkeley Physical Course, ( ~ shows the accepted energy flow patter11 for t,hc: (:i~r(.111 I ( . All 01'
I ~ ' ~ J ~ , I I I . 2.1 ILIIII
I I I I ~ ,ilk ~ ~July. This small variation accollnts for a11 aniin;~lt1ifforc:ncc: ol' :\'%I 1.0 ,I1%111
I III~ s ( I ~ ; Lr;~diation
~ rate a t t,hc cdgc of tllc a.tniosp11cl.c:. For (:i~l(:~rli~,l,io~r I ) I I ~I (IIHI!H 11.
I , . c.ol~vc!riicntt,o assllme a corlstarit ratlintion rate and t,his is crril)o~liocI i r ~~ , I I ( , " n c t l ~ l . ~ ,
1 I I I I X ~ . ; I . I I ~ . " wliich has a present vahlc? 1377 W/11i2.
11' I.lr(: carth is assurncd t o hc: perfectly splicric:;~lit lir~s;L (li;~rrr(:I,t.i~- ~ I I ~ L I I nI ~I , ' ,
\ v l ~ c . l ~I c. ~is the mean c:;~rtliradius. Tlic: solar radintaiori inl;c:rc:c:pl,c!tl is I3llc:rc:fo~.c. n,ll tr
I I I I , I > I :{77 x,r2 wi~t,t,s, 7 , is iri 111(!1,r(;s.A figtrr~!lor 1,lic 111(!t~riI ~ I L ~ I ~, ~I IL, I ~ \ I I In
if r~;~cIi~rs M