Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chapt 2 Energy Resources and Energy Use
Chapt 2 Energy Resources and Energy Use
Chapt 2 Energy Resources and Energy Use
~ , I I I \ II ,J ~ I , I I ( , II;\,s
~ 11, I L I I I , I . I I I ~ I I ('III-I,~:,~ I ' ; I I , ~ I I oI'F)O
~ bI.1. LVII;I,I, is
1,111, I il,l,111[1, 1 1 1 I(11owi1,l I, I I O I I I . ~ ' !
I ! ! ' I ' I I I , I J I . I . ~ ~ wi~ltl
, I L I I ~ . I I ~ I I ( ,;\,I. I ~ I I I . ~ ( ! I I. l i l l , O~.lil~(',y, is ~ . i ~ . l ,~~LcI l.:i MW.
S(:ol,1;~11(1,
WII;LI,is I , I I ( % 1 : ( 1 1 1 i ~ i i 1 ( ~ 1 1r;l.I,i~~gl, ill l i o ~ ~ s ~ ~ ~ ~ o w ~ ~ r ' !
CHAPTER. 2
1 : ; I I I I I I I I I(~:.I .M: ,. , / l!)71] ''13ri~rgyand Power" , in T h e Con.~.ersionof Energy (Scientific
/ 1 1 1 1 1 ~ 111 ; I I I , I I S A ) , ('11;11)t,(>r
5. ENERGY RESOURCES AND ENERGY U S E
:' 1 11 !I 1 . I t ( '. 1!)7X] lSn.c.rq?/,l l e s o ~ ~ r c eand
s Policy (Addison Wesley Publishing Co., Inc.,
I ):.;A), ( ! I I ; I I ) I , I Y :i.
:I I';III I , li. W . 11!~72]Clns.sicu1 and Modern Physics, Vol. 2 (Xerox College Publishing,
I A ~ Y I I I I ~ , ~ ~ I M;I,ss.,
III, [ I S A ) , Cllapter 14.
1 \ I t V I ~ I ~ # .,II. I .( 1 . / \!)Hill Rrcvrgy Around the World (Pergamon Press, Oxford, England),
I.
~ ' l l l l ~ l l l ~ l
2.1. Energy Input to the Earth
!a ';c.rlt:., I " W. 11!)17] Prirrri~~lc.~
of Ph.ysics I (Addison Wesley Press, Inc., IJSA).
o :., liniglil,, W . I)., and Ruderman, M. A. [I9651 Berkeley Ph,ysical Course,
1 \ 1 1 l ~ 4 ,( Il'ij';~lre2.1 shows the accepted energy flow patter11 for t h e C ; L L . I ~111.
I All ol' 1,111~
\ ' # ) I I ( \I(.(:~.;~w-llill
Ilook Go., Inc., USA). 1111lllericalvalues in this are obtained from scientifically nleasllrcrtl t l r r l , l r 11111. IrlcT
:.r~l)jcc.tt o measurement error a n d t o slight intrinsic variatious of V I L ~ I I ~ ! .
( i . c - . I)erpendicular) radiation, when facing the sun, of allrlost, ( : ~ I I S ~ ,VJI IL I ' .~'1'111-
. ~ III I ~
I 1 1 . 1 l i t , of the earth around the sun is not precisely circular but, is sligll(,lyc:llil)l.ic.rl.l. l'i 11,
I Ilis I.c:ason t h e sun--earthdistance is 91.4 million niilcs in J ~ L I I I Ii~ l lL I!)1.5
~ (~ Y 111i1iio11
111ilosin July. This small variation accounts for an a1111ualdiff(:rc:ncc? ol' :\'%I I,o I'%I 111
1 \ I ( . solar radiation rate a t t h e edge of the atrriospherc. For (:i~l('\l\illio\~ I)III.I)OH(~H it.
I:; r.c,rlvenient t o assume a constant radiat,ion rate a ~ i t this i is ~ ~ r ~ \ ) o ( l ii l(l : (1,11('
l "HII~II.~
I . I I I I S ~ , ~ L ~ Lwhich
~" has a present value 1377 W/m2.
II' the earth is assumed to be perfectly sp11aric:al i t hiis a tlin11ic:l.ric. ~ ) l t ~ ~ r c u
~ l l c ~ l . ( r.! is t h e Inean earth radius. T h e solar ratlintiorl intc:rt:c:ot,c:tl is Illrc:~.c~k,~.c~ 11.1. J L
7r
Winds, waves, convection and currents 2.1.3. Tidal (gravitational) input energy
AL
3 . 7 10'~watts
~
.I :ri~vitationalenergy derived frorn the locations and rnotions of t,licb S I I I I(:I~I.I,II, 11.110
llvaporation, precipitation Storage in 111oorlis responsible for the ocean tides and currents. T h e IISC ol' I.llis ( ! I I I ~ I . ~ , I, N~
~-
Convection in volcanoes I lisc.llssed in Chapter 9. Tidal energy is estiinated to represent an (:III:I.K,~ illl111t. II,~.
4 x 1 0l6watts
and hot springs
1 I I I ( ~ r.i~te3 x 1012 W , or about one-tenth of the encrgy flow rat,(: o111.wr1.rtl li.11111 I.III+
7I 7
Terrestrii energy I I I I I 11i1.11 issues concerning the ownership and stewartlsllip of tllc roso1lrc:cs.
2.2. E n e r g y F l o w u p o n the E a r t h f r o m N a t u r a l S o u r c c s
: I I I ~ I I47% I ~ , of the incoming solar r;~tliatioll,i.c:. 8.1 x 10'" W , is i~,l)sorl)c~~l 1t.y 1.l111
,II.(.;I.IIS, li~ndmassand at,rrlosl)llc:rc. Tllis is c:oiivcrl,c:tl t1irc:ctly I,o 11(:;1.1,c~~lc:rxy 11~1, 1,1119
Fig. 2.1. Rate of energy flow diagram for the earth [I]. I I 1 1 1 1 ) i ( ~ ~s~irfacc it, teinpcrat,urc:.
' I ' ~ I ( , (!i~rtl~'s lly(lrologi(:i~l(*y(:l(: (.o~isisl,s 01' ov;~pori~l,iol~, l)r(~(~il)iOi~,i,i~ 111 I I , I I I ~~ ~ I I I * ~ ' I I , I , I ~
' I ' I I I ~ rll.{lit~~ii, i11l)lit energy is staggeringly large. During the year 2000 t h e total I 1 1 1 1 of[. o!. w ; L ~ , c ~ . AS wa.t(:r vi~l)orisc:s, it, i~l)sorl)s 1lo;~l s o ~ ~ ~ c ~ lr ~ ci -~l li ~ rc1.1~~I~sl ~
1,rillln.ryc:ilorgy c:o~ls~irnption in the world was 8752.4 million tonnes of oil equivalent I : I , : I I , 1 ; 01' : v i ~ o ; l , i o ~ i I i s l o I i I I I I I ~ S I I I0 1 1
(:!I. I I I ~ , ( ! ~ I I I of
s vilrio~lsenergy units this is , ~ ~ ~ ~ ( . i l ) i I IIIOSI, . i ~ l . ioI'I,llis o ~ i II(::LI,is I.(:I('~~.SIYI, 1,og(:l,I11~1. wiI,l~1,110 ~ ) o l , ~ , ~(3~~(:~.p,,y ~ l ~ i i ~01'. l it.)(
I I I I . I I ~ . ~ O I I i 1 , 1 ~ 1 1!,III* ki11(>1,i1.(-~i(~rg,y 01' if,sl ) r ( : - i ~ ~ ~ l 111ol,io11,
) t ~ ( , l , i1,s low I,(~III~)(~I~II,~,III~( ~ I I ~ I I , ~ ~
: ~ I ~ I I I I1,01.l,io11
- (11' I,llis l ~ , ~ ~ l ~ ~ o( Y l) IoI I~~ ) iI )~I I ~( ~ iI OL I~ ~ , .I ~l I I I ~ I , , : , ~is SI,I,I.(YI 1 1 1 l.iv(-l.s11,1111 I I I , I ( I ~ ~ I
1 1 i:; illsl,r,l~c~t,ivc t,o consider the energy consumption per capita (i.e. per person of
1 I \ ( * I N ) ~ ) I I ~ : I ~ , ~ Figure ~II). 2.7 shows the situation over the last 25 years with regard t o
I Illl'1.1 (5111. 1.cy;iolls of the world. The North Americans consume twice as much energy
I 11.1 O I ~ I . S O Ii1.s I t,llc Western Europeans, who, in turn, consume energy a t about twice
( : N I ' is ;I. 11sc:fi11 indicator of national prosperity. In per capita terms, the energy
( . I I I I S I I I I I ~ ) ~ , ~is ~ I shown
I versus GNP in Fig. 2.8. Some corresponding data, with
I . l ~ c * i l . s~~~r.c.c:s, arc: given in Table 2.4. Figure 2.8 demonstrates that the calculated
V I , c i ~ . c l i l l ; ~ . t , li)r
(~ t,lle USA lies near a straight line extrapolated through the origin and
I ! I ( - :I.vc8rir.gc: illtersection point. Above this diagonal line are represented the locations
I 11' ~ ~ ~ . o s l ) c ~ c:ountries
r . o i ~ s having high GNP/capita. To the left of the diagonal line are
~ : I . I 1 1 1 1 i ( : ( 1 1,11(: c.oiilltries of the European Econonlic Community (EEC) which achieve
;I 1 1 i ~ : l l 1)('1' c*iq)it,a. GNP with about one-half the per capita energy consumption of
1.1 1 1 * N(i ~ . t ,Il A111c:ric:ans. The former Soviet Union and its former Eastern European
:;:ll,(~llil,c.s c ~ x l ) c ~ ;~I~lot t l of per capita energy t o achieve relatively poor economic
I ) I * I . I ~ ~ I . I I I ; I . I I ( . K111Soririi~tion about GNP/capita is not available for most of the OPEC
( ~ i l~)~'o(l~lc.c'r c.o~illt,ric:s.
'1'110 i l l liirll~ir.t,io~i ill Fig. 2.8 should not be used t o invoke uninformed criticism
( 'I 1,11(> Nor.l.\l Aluc:r.ic.ir.r~s.Canada has lavish hydro sources which provide 12% of
11.:; I , I . ~ I I I ; I . I . , V ( ' I I O I I'ro111
. ~ ; ~ t;llis 1.('11(1wi~hl<? SoIIrcc. The USA, with 4.5% of the world
I I ( 11 ) I I 1:l.l ic 111, I I S ~ ~)~~c~-clllil.r.t.c:~.
( S o f ill1 t,ll(: worI(1's crlcrgy 1)11tis goncrously endowed
\\'II 11 ~ I ~ I I I I I I ~ : I( I. (I, i~l l. , I I ~ I . ~ . I I I . ; Ij::l,s
. ~ ; I . I I ( ~ oil. O I I ((.o111(1
' NorI,11A I I I ( \ ~ ~ C R I I S
1,11(:
~ I , I . ~ ; I I ( 1,~1i1.1,
:
: I I ( I -) I I I , I I ~ I I ~ : I I I I L ~ I , O \ V I I 1'1101. 11111. i l l . ( ' l,l~(uywis(\ 1,o I I I I I . I I i t , : I ( 1,111- ~ ) I . I ~ S I ~ I I Or:1.I8osof'
mwmptlon? In the event, the UBA gmenltd (Ln 2000) c
008t b the~ world awtage d u e by wing energy st 5,N
nhwl I
/
/
- .. . ----...
---. - . . ........,. ..... - -. .. ... ..,...
,. ,
X Norway /
Iknn!litrkx X ':lVdn 1
XUSA I
I
History Projections
X Singapore
,
&: ,
d
/
Electricity Consump
z 1
2
0
,
/
/
Energy Consumption
X
X '
: Greece x .Fabnd
New
X Saudi Arabia
f/ - - -I - - _ M ' :w
1 ,
~:cg~Tolmd-R--------------------------------------------------------
Hungary
#vcnezuela
,,,, liyylj~ ~ ; t l n y d ; l ~
I # ~ ~ l ~ b ~,di%$riil
lt-'il.~ c m d Soulh Alrica x ~ u s s i a n~ e d . World average
I'i,ll,li,llk X('IBI,UI Rumania
--b
I 2, 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Energy ConsurnptiodCapita (toelyear)
t . 1 ~ 1) I 1.11 I%(.(111oi11icperformance. All the recent signs indicate, however, that China,
Fig. 2.9. World energy, GDP and population trcrtds, 1!)702015 141
w l l i c . l ~11:l.si~ljulldantcoal supplies, is about to make a great surge forward.
Av;~.iI:i.I)l~: forecasts of the future indicate that the world population, energy con-
S I I I I I ~ ) ~ . ~ Oill~d
II Gross Domestic Product (GDP) will all continue to increase, Fig. 2.9 Table 2.5. U K primary energy consumption (rr~t.oes)[(;I
1.1 1. '1'111: GI.11' is uot the same as the GNP of Fig. 2.8 but is also an indicator of
111~111st.l~ii~l cl(:velopment and national prosperity. If the forecast of Fig. 2.9 proves to
Y C ~ Coal "' Oil "' Natural Nuclear Hydro
as") Energy ~lectrici!~?~~
1 (.oI.I.(Y~., t,lleli GDP/capita will rise faster than the growth of population. 1973 83.2
Most. ()I't,lle countries that have achieved high economic prosperity have done so 1 078 70.4 94 37.9 7.9
l ~ yI . I I ( - c-xt.ri~vagantuse of industrial energy, especially fossiI fuels. Fast-developing I 0x2 65.1 65.4 42.2 9.4
(.o11111.si(~s like Malaysia and Singapore are attempting t o do the same. The poor I ~.- 65.9
1111l 1 1111(1~:1.(l(:v(:Ioped countries of the world may never have this opportunity because 1 99()~--.~-~65.6 82.9
-___-. _ 47.2 17 ~.. ,-
\ I 1 8 ~ 1 i \ ) I > 1 II,:II\ I ~ ~ ; I 01'I I .t 111: ( ~ (li\,t.ly L970s, oil ( ~ o ~ l s ~ i ~ lciecli~~eci ~ ~ ~ t , i for o ~ labout 10
\ , . : I I . 1 1 1 1 1 II;I:; I I ~ W I(~v(~lI('(I out. 1,o i~110llt36%)of the total demand. Nuclear-generated
I ,It .II i ( . i t ,! I N I\V (2002) ;r.cc.ol~lit.s
.( for 11's of the total energy consumption.
:\ fi,;1.1I I I . ( : ~ I I : L ( 11as rc~cciitlyoccurred is that electricity is ilow imported from
I * ' I ; I I I ~ . I . ~lsill!: ~~trtl(:~.st>il cal~lcsheneat,h the English Channel. Like all generated
1m11.l.1 I ~ I I , I I . , Y I ( . is ;I. sc:c.ontlary fllcl: probably obtained from nuclear generation.
'1'111- ( ~ o l r l r ~ ~ l ) ~of~ t11a.tllral-flow ,io~r hydro power increases ordy slowly as wirid ell-
I , I ! ~ , \ ' : ; ~ . : I , ~ , ~ Ic,onlc, IIIs orl-stream. All of the available natural hydro sites have been
I ~ I o I I . ( - I I . V;LSI, sc.lic:~nessuch as t,he possible Severn Barrage hydro scheme (see
' I I ; I ~ I ~ . I ~ I! -) ) wo~iltll l l i ~ ka ~big col~trihutioilbut would be classed as man-made hydro
111 l\\'l'l
( 'I I ~ I I ~ I ; I , I of
.~S ~ I ~UK
t,lle figures for primary energy production, Table 2.6, with
I 111 ,:;I, I . ~ . , ~ co~lsuinption,Table 2.5, shows a number of interesting
11 1 1 I I I ' ~ I I I ;c:llc,rg'y
11..11 1111.:>.
' 1'11,. 1 1 , !\\. ,)I' 111i c:ilcrgy fro111source to end users is illustrated in Fig. 2.11. Most, 1'1 I I I I ; I ~I-LICI
~ I~~(crn~ctlialc
crlcrgy I : I I I ~ II..I.,.
A
I
11 I 11,. I I I I : I I . ? , 1'11(*1illput was converted to heat and thence to mrrhanical or/and
111
c
11 \ I 1 ; ' lly(lro r
I((r . I I (.II(,~.::,V.
I 11 I~.orla ~ l dstcel, once a [TK base industry and massive energy user,
1 1 . 1 I I I I 1 1 1, 1 ; I I'I.:L(.(,~c)~I
I 1.1 of its size 30 years ago. The UK industry sector is now
,II 1,) II(.I I I I ; I 1 1 0 1 1 1 , 11o111~st~ic sector while transport accounts for almost. one-quarter
P'O
uede(
b!eds
A~e6bn~
6~noqwaxnl
eaJoy
ha>~nl
Auea~a~)
vsn
un
I Ill,, l ~ ~ ~ b , l ~ :,I, l l~: ; l ~
l ll l~l :,;lvlll,~,
l, 1 I1 1,111. l,,1;,,, : ? t l l l ~ l1 ,, l 111;1l ;1111l I:, I l l ~ ~ l l ~( 4l !ll:*l,l
~ ~ l \,,\I
t ~ 1011
Oil r o t o oil ~
(:~IISIIIII[)~,~~II
..- ~
I 77.(i
:\s.:)oo
Oil p~-o(l~~(:t,io~~ l2i.2
Ireland
Belgium
{ Belgium
Japan I tdetnerlands
Ireland I Polantl
Italy
Korea
!
I
Greece
Portugal I Denmark
Ioxembourg
I
I I I I I
Italy
zech ~ e ~ u b l ~ ;
1 .Port1
-. .-lnal
0 1 2 4 6 8 10
Mexico
Ratio - Energy production to primary energy consumption UK
I ;' I:! I{:L~.Iool'cnergy production t o primary energy consumption in O E C D countries, 1998 Germany
(!{I !;OIII ( (' Energy Agency.
IIII~(~I~II~L~.IOI~~~ lurkey
Korea ~~
Luxembourg
Hunaarv
., ,
Spaon I
Japan 1
A~~strla
.
Canada
New Zealand
Switzerland
Finland
t-rance
Norway
Swcdrn
I<~e1'111(1
I 1 I
0 70 10 fro H() I 0 0
, , I , I . I I ;IS asphalt and roads, oil for roofiiig p r o d ~ ~ c:i11tl t s ~ O i ~ 1t) 1l 1 i I t l i 1 1 p ; I I . I I I ~ 1.1 I I I I I I I , I I 111
I I I ! : , liclliefied petroleurn gases for fced stoc:lts ant1 ~)c:t,roc.l~c-~~~it,;~~I 1)1:1111.s, LVIISI*!I 1 1 1 1
I
--- Natural Gas
12- Pelroleurn
Industrial
-- - - - -
- Residential and Commerc~al
......... ..... Electr~calSystem Losses
40 Transportation
---.
9 --
- Coal
-
m
3
(1 ,
I !J!lO
.
I!)fiO
.I
1!170
I
1!lHO
t
l!I!)O 7000
I
1.6.4, -4 fist m m , $ # $ t 4 r, - 8
I
Production Aguree for the world's leading fossil he1 pmduwm are lbtd 155
for the year 2000. The USA produces more oil than any country other t h a h&#
Arabia and dominates the world energy market, both as a producer and a c o v L
Emirates
Algeria 67 80.4 - 147.4
Nigeria 103.9 9.9 - 113.8
. .
P
,
..
.::
. :. ., :', . . h. e l i
Use off ossil, : , , .
. . . . .
' , . ' ;' in last 300~eiq~s' ':
. .. . ,
b.
.
'
'
I I I I I I I ~ : ; ~ I . ; I I ) I ( ~ \)lit,dangerous to human life and welfare. Risk assessment, as applied I , I I11 11 ~;tsisingt,he fact thttt evcii indnst,ric:s c:olisitl(:rc:tl low-risk I)y (,II(: 1,111 i l i c r,s~lc'l. 11
1 1 I 1.111~rgy syst,cins, is unreliable, subjective and controversial. No attempt is made I I , : I I . I I t,oll on their workers.
1
111.11. ;l,l)port,ion different risks in a quantitative or even relative manner. The 111(111strial plarlt,~:LK i~lwi~ys v~iliic!rii,\)lc:
Lo ~ i L ~ ) O ~ ~ i Nl,~ ~ ~i (! ~ . l (I)I;I,III,s
~ i ~ , l ~I , I ' I I I ~ LO 1 1 4 '
: I ~ I ~ H ' Ois; I to . ( . I~Li o t cthe main areas for concern. Different observers may reach very I~~~l.l.c~~.-g~~:~r(l~!il t,hnil tli~insor IJNG rc:fil~c:ric:s.A tlisc:~~ssioi~ of' I.l~isissl~c-is ~ I I I . I I I I I I * I I
1 I I I I ' I ~ I . I ~ I I c-o~~c:l~isions
~. as t o the relative seriousness of the various features delineated. I I I ( !\I;I,~)~,(Y 8.
I ~ ~ . ~ I . I , I I ~of( ~ sthe risks associated with energy production and use are discussed
1 1 1 1 ~ 1 1 . 1 . l , 1 1 ( ~ Ilc:;~li~igs listed below [lo].
III S I I I I S I ~ ( ~ I , I ~ I 2.(i,fi.:!
II 111-IIIW, 1 1 1 11,1I(lit,io11 t,o ~ J I , S I ~ I I I I SI ~ I I I I S S I O I I SI'IISSI~ , I'III~I IIIII.IIIII~,
l . Si I I I~I I I .~ ;LIIVI-I.SI'
I':III.I~:,v I ~ ~ ~ l ~i l . 1~1 1 1 (I I S~( * 11i1.s ~ ~ ('(:ologi~.i~.l i ~ ~ ( . l l ~tll(:
(:Il'(*(:t.s, ( l i ~loss
~ gof
I~,IVI~S 1111' solitl ~ ~ r l , ~ ~ oI' l . iIc. ; ~
L I l. ~~
) O~I Is, ~ 0 1 1 1 1 ~11:~s
I,\I;LII I 1 1 1 1 1 1 i l l six(', l ~ l 1.1.11.1.1-
~ ~ sI I . I I I I I I I I I ~ . ~ I
I I . I I I , I I I ~ , I I I , I I I I , W;I,I,I~I. I~I*SOIIIX:(~S, II;I,I,II~:LI I ) ( , ~ I , I I ~ # , ~ ,OI)(;II SI):LC(:, ll;~l)itat,wildlife preserva- ,1 1 Ilc>:l,v,y I I ~ ( ~ ~ , ; L I /\
s . c\(:t,;l.il(:tlt.(~c:Jll~i(:i~l i~11;~Iysis 01' 1,11(! (~fI'(:c~t.s 01' I . ; I . ~ ~ I O I II ) I I . ~ ~ . ~ ( . I I ~ I I ~ . I ? ~
1 . 1 1 1 1 1 ; I I I I ~W ~ I I I ( > I . I I ( ' S S iI.r(,iLS. 'I'II(:r(:li~t;i~(: i~l~porta~ that
~ c emight be attached to these I:; ~ I I I , I I I I I ~ ( i\ l l st~I)s(:(:t.io~t 4.4.2.4 01' C:li;~l)t,or4 (c:or~I).A 111or1'J!;I>II(~I.:I.~ S I I I I I I I I I I . I ~111'
~ ~ J I I~ I I I S c.r.il.c.l.i;l,i t 1 ( ' o l ~ ~ l ) i ~ r .with i s o ~t~ h u~~iversal~ need for energy, is very much a
J~,:I:;I~OIISc:l~lissioilsfollows 1lc:rc.
11 .:I1.1 I I.(, 11' i I I ( l i vi11ti;i.lopillioll. Loss of ecological diversity has long-range human con-
(
11. is c l i l l i c ~ ~ to ~ l l assign
~ quantitative levels to the destructive side effects of dif- ' I ' I I I I I I ~ 2 . 8 . World carbon dioxide emissions, 1990- 2020 (~rlilliorit . o r ~ ~ ~ c : n141
) ([ll.oj131.l.i1111 IWHIIIIII~~I
III,:~I 1-c.ot1omicgrowth).
I I ~ I I ~ I (I ~8. ~ ~ ~S' ~~S.~gO~I Iy~F'lom S. the point of view of ecosystems it is possible that
Ily I l I I ~~,l~.c.l.l.ic: 1)owc:r development, with its "clean" public image, is more destruc-
~ , I V I ' 111*1. 1 1 1 1 i l . o f ollcrgy output than fossil fuel plants because of the large land area
I I I \ $ ( 11 V I V 1. S i ~ ~ ~ i l i ~the l . l yland-based
, production of biomass can have very serious
ReglonICountry
Il~duatrlallzedCountrles
North America . . . . . . . . . .
1990
1.556
History
1998
1,742
1999
1,761
m 1 1 -
2005
1,972
Prolectlona
2010
2.119
2015
2,271
2020
2,423
- - Avornga Anllrlrl
Parcant Chmga.
1999-1010
I .n
I l~.:.l,l.~~l.l.ivc* sitlc c:ffccts that are less obvious than those of fossil or nuclear systems. Il111led statesa . . . .
. . . . . . 1,345 1,495 1.511 1.690 1,809 1,928 2,041 I 4
1;itnada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 146 150 158 165 173 180 ( I I1
'1'111- t%cx)logic:;~l side effects of nuclear power are smaller than for any other es- Moxico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 101 101 124 145 170 20'3 :I 4
~ . i ~ l ~ l i : ; l ~c9l1t:r.gy~-tl source. Only if it becomes necessary t o deep-mine for low-grade .
Wostern Europe . . . . . . . . 930 947 940 1,005 1,040 1,076 1,123 0.0
llt~iledKingdom . . . . . . . . . 164 154 151 168 177 184 102 I I
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 O I . ( ~ Swill the effects become comparable with coal mining. The widespread 11~1rice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 110 109 116 120 126 135 I 0
0 I
I I:,(% I 11 I I I . ( > I ~ lt:r
I rc:;rctors would eliminate that necessity. (i(lt.many . ............ 271 237 230 246 252 258 287
0 I1
1l:lly .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 122 121 131 137 141 146
Iai ,:,:;it I ' I I ( ~ I ~ r ~ i ~ ~processing ing, and usage has some very evident ecological effects, Nolherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 66 64 66 67 69 71 1) 4
0 11
t I q . 1 1l.11, 1111,: I I I ~ L ~ I I011 ~ Y the locale. The location of offshore oil rigs, for example, can
Oll~erWesternEurope. . . . . . 223 260 264 277 287 297 313
0.8
111dustrlalizedAsia. ....... 357 412 422 447 461 479 487
0.1
I I J I \ , I * : ; J l : r ~ i l i c ~ i r . ~ ~offccts
l, on local marine life. Synthetic oil prodl~ctionfrom oil shale . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.1,~1,;11> 269 300 307 324 330 342 353
I I
............
A~~olralasia 88 112 115 123 130 137 144
1 1 1 . 1 111.1 I 1l.111 l 1 1 c . 1 , ~would have major ecological impact in pollution and contamination 1.2
I
Totallndustriallzed ...... 2,842 3,101 3,122 3,425 3,619 3,825 4,043
t l l I I I I . I I ~ j~,1x11111(1water flow. I I iFSU
I I
I ~ , ~ l ~ i o r S o v i e t U n i .o n. . . . . . 1,036 599 607 665 712 795 857
0 I1
. . . . . . . . . .
I;~:.l~rrnEurope 301 217 203 221 227 233 237
lotal EEIFSU ....... ... 1,337 816 810 886 940 1,028 1.094
1.4
2 . 5 Water supply problems
I ~ ~ ~ v o l o pCountries
lng
Ili 1:;:;iI 1'111.1 ii11(1 1111clearsystems for generating electricity require the availability of I~oveloplngAsia . . . ...... 1,053
C.IIIIKI . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 617
III.IJ:~+ lllil,ss(bsof water. Any heat-work energy conversion system, such as a steam 111rll;i . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 153
I L I II l r i r 11- c 11. ;I. ~~t~c:lcar reactor, involves a necessary cooling process for which water :;o~rthKorea . . . .
. . . . . .. 61
I llllar Asia . . . . .
. . . . . .. 223
I:, I I I I I S ~ lil(c'ly , 11scd as the coolant fluid. Consequent heating and discharge of the Mlddle East. . . . . . . . . . .. 231
1111key. . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
I . I I I I I I I . I I I . w:~.t,(:r can have ecological impact. In the choice of site for an electricity- ( llllor Middle East . . . . . . . . 196
~ l . t , i r ~ ) :~ I , i ~ t , ithe
o ~ lavailability of adequate cooling water supply is a vital con- Alrlca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
,:I.III.I
Control and South Amerlca . . . 178
: ; I I I I * I I I , ~ . ~Wlic>ri I I I I . a station is located on a seashore or lakeshore, the operation of a I I,,~/il. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
I Illlor CentraVSouth America . . 116
::I : ~ I . I O I I 111;l.y i~,ll'(:(:t,the i~nmediateand downstream water turbidity and temperature. Totol Developing ..... .. 1,641
I I r ~ , ~ ~ ~ ~1 1~i l ~ ~to~be ~ used
l ~ ;a ~
t an
. t inland
, c ~ rsite, this may affect the local hydrolog- IC,IIII World ... ... .. .... 5,821
11-111 c.yc,l~t,i ~ . s i g ; ~ t , water i o ~ ~ , table levels, water run-off streams and the availability
I I I I I ~ I . I I S I . 01' W;L(,(Y for other consumers.
a !l1111l 111.:: 1I I :\:, I l l 1\1;11l.l1 I!)!)!l,s:\ I 4 l l l l l l Ill,:, I1:11l :~l,',111~ll I Ill. l'lllIll0 O l , 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i l l 111,:
11.:;111~1lsil)l(~ (i)r i1ior(: carbon emissions than coal, as illustrated in Fig. 2.20. If !,<,:,:,II I'II(>I l ) ~ i r ~ ~ plants
i i l g cli~it,;L vi~ri(:t,y01' l111t- gi~,s(:s, ( l i ~ ~ 1g1 1 ' : ~ I I I ~ I I I I I, I
i i ~ ( ~ I ~ lositl~,:;
I % I I I , ~ ~ : ~ c~~ils11111ptio11 grows at presently projected levels, the annual carbon dioxide c ,.,I,It,:; 01' ~~it,rogcil, o ~ ~ l i ~ ( : t , l ~;I.II(I
oxiclcs of ( : ; ~ r l ) pli~s i ~ ~~ i~ (I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I I ~ ~ I I O I ~ I I ( ~ : I ~ I ~ 'I"(~ I I ' II ,I ) I : ~ - ( ~
~ . t ~ ~ i : ; s iwill o ~ l rc:;rch
s 8 billion tonnes in 2010 and 9.8 billion tonnes in 2020. Thus 1 1 1 :1111Iit,io1), i], inajor sour(;(+ of air polli~t,ioiiis [ Y O ~;\,i~t,oi~~ol~ilr
II (*~I\;I,IIs\:;, \ \ $ I I I I 11 1111.
\ \ ( I 1 1 1 1 1 (.:1.1.1)011 (lioxide emissions would exceed the 1990 levels by 56% in 2010 and 1 1 . 1 1 I I I . I I I ; I . U I ~ rc~sponsil~lc for (:arbon i~iol~oxiclo, g ( : i ~ ; I . I I ~ I~I V I I I 1 1 1 I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' 1
~ ~ i t . ~ . o(Iio~icl(3
\ \ , I 11111 I 1 1 I I I I . ~ , I.lii~11tlouble by 2020.
I I I ~ , : ; I , :~,~~\,oii~ohilt: pollutants nlay ilit,c!r;~(:l,l)iologi(:i~lly;LII(I ( ~ I I ( ~ I I I ~ ( ~ ; I \, VI I I ~ 1 1 I I ~ J I ~ \ I (
I~~~.c~l.lr;ll.io~~;~l concern about the levels of carbon dioxide emissions and the pos- I I , , 1 1 1 I,I(-(.t.ric:it,y-geilerating plants. C:~,rboni ~ i o ~ ~ o x(i((:lO ( ~) is ;I, I ~ ; I I I J ~ , I + IP,III : , / I , I I : , 1 1 I
: b ~ I I I ~ ~kIli~.l,s (111 c:lilllate resulted in the Kyoto Protocol agreement in 1998. This
a
I I I I I I I ; I ~ Si1.1~tllltimans because it is a11act,ivc: oxygt:~~ sc:c:k(,r. I!. l.c~;~.clily ( . ( I I I I ~ I I I I I * : : \r111 1
. I ) ~ . I ~ * I (.;I,IIs . I I I I for
~ I Iquantifiable
~. goals for emission reductions from participating 1 1 ~~.~~loy!lol)in, which is the oxygen c:a.rricr ill 1.11(:1~1ootlsl.r1~;11~1. A I ~ I I . I . I , : I : ; ~1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .
( I : [ 11.111;11.(:cl growth of gaseous cnlissioils is sl~owiii l l Fig. '2.2 I 11'21.
Billion Metric Tons Carbon Eauivalent ( ':~~c,i~logens are also present in fossil fiicl c:~iiissioiis,l);~.r!,i(.~~l;~.~.l,y ~ I I I I S I , I ' I I I I I I 1.11111
\ . I I I , ) I I S c!l~vironmentaleffects such as acitl r i ~ i~r(: i ~ tlis(.~iss(-(I
~ i l l ( !II;II)I.('I 1.
I ' I I ( ~ so-called "greenhouse" effect,, app1ic:tl Lo t,l~c,c!i~.rt,ll's I . ~ ~ I I I ; I . ~ .i:( ~ ,:I.: ~ I . I I . I I I I 1 1 1 .
I I I . I ! : I I of ~ ~any I I ~global
~ ( : tc:n~peri~t.~~rc: risc:. A L!)X:l rc:l)orl,I)y 1.11(, liS I 1 : ~ ~ v i ~ ~ r
I ' l o r I V ~ ~ . ~ Agc~11c:y OII (EPA) st,i~tc:cl;L possil)l(!i~lc:rc.:~,sc: o S ' L " ( 1 I ) y ! . I I ( ~ I I I ~ I I I I I ((11' , 1 . 1 1 1 . :!I"'
( t 1 1 1 111.y;1,11(l i~ 5')(: ii~(.r(:i~,s(: l)y 2100. 'l'l~is~ 0 1 1 1 ~1.(:s1111,1 i l l ";I lists i l l j : l o i r ; ~ I ~ ~ \ , ~ ' I I I J : I .
I 1 1 , . I I I ~.sollccof a large steel plant. Ncw Z(:i~li~~i(l 11i1.slow ('~llissio~ls 1'1.1 , 1 1 1 ( ' 1 1 1 ' 1 I:\'
' I , ! I Worl(l g.rerrlhouse gas emissions [12]. CH4 = methane; N2O = nitrogen oxide; C 0 2 = i I 1 1 4 . 1 1 I loc!s liot c,reate grceiil~oiisc:gi~sc:s)[ 151.
q I I(:; (:I<'C:s = chlorofluorocarbons.
0 1 B, 1 1 1 I 111 ) x i 1 I\ 111:1,,ior increase of C 0 2 ~lllissiollfro111( ~ ; I . ~ ~ , ~ I - ~ I ;~.(.I.ivil,io:; ~IIII(~ W O I I I I I I,;III::I. 1 1 1 1 %
1, \ , , I 1 1 1 ;~.l,l~~ospheric GO2 t,o l)11il(/1111, possil~ly~ I I ( : I ~ ~ ~ L1,111, S ~ II,II(~I~III:I,I
IL ~ I I S I I I I I I , I I I I I ($1
1, I A11.y i~.(l(lit,ic)i~i~l 11(:i~t, I ) r o ( l ~ ~ ( ~
11.yo ~
( , I
i I ( : ~ ~ ( : ( : I I \ I ~ I
(:ll'(v~l~I s W( I I
: I I I I I li~,sl, 111, IIII:-OI II~~II
I~.I,OI I ;I( i ~ l l , t . 1 iriformation
~~ in Table 2.9 should be regarded as partial and subject
~ I I ~~ Il i s ~ , ~ . i l ~l)y ~ ~t,11(:
t , ( :O((l: ( , ~ I , I I S ,so i ~ l t ; r o ( I ~ ~;I,~ 1,i111v . i l ~ gIi\,gof' SOV(~I.;I,I ( I I Y , ~ I , I I I , : ~ I I I . I ~ I I I *
I,I I I ~ \ , I ~ ~ ~ I I .
I 111. : I 11. ~,~~11l~)(!~iLt,llr(~s ill~'~~!il~S(!~~.
111 t ( Y ) I I I I ~ ~ I I labelled "Forestry and Change of Land Use" of Table 2.9 most I I I I . I I > ; I , S ~ I I ~ t,Ii(: l(!v(~l 0 ~ ; ~ ~ , 1 1 1 o s(~:~0l 12 W ~O I I~I ( Ir, i ~v~i i ~;,I , I I , ~ ( Y I I I S ( V ~ I I I ~ I I I, ~I - ,I I I ~ ) I , I , I I ~ , I I I I *
( 11 I 1 1 1 - l i j : l l II*S ;~.r(: llcgative, implying the absorption of greenhouse gases. This is a
q II!IIII:IU:;, 1111,vc: I.I1(:(:ff(~.I, 01' r ( ~ ( l i s l , l . i l ~ ;~I~~lI. i- ~~~~g~ I I1)ro~l11(~l,iviI.y I I , I I I ~ : I , ~:1.(.1,11~:; 1 1 1 1 , W I I I 111
I ~ , : , I I ~111' I li)tx~s~~i~~,ioli and agricultural planting wit,h the resultant increased digestion
I I I I I ~ ~ ~ : ; s iI (l, ;~ 1.0 I I I I I ~ . ~ I . I (I .~I. I ; I I I ~ I ~ Si l l 111;1111 ; 1 1 1 ( 1 i 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 ; l . l lilis. I I I S I I I I I I * I I - J , , ~ I , I I : : 1 1 1 1 - 1 1 ,
~ . tll y
I 11 I , ; I I . ~ I I I I I ~lioxi(l(~,
c , 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . c~c~ologic~;~.l tlis:~.sl,(>l.. 11. I . I ' ~ I I ; I . ~ ~ IIS. I ) I I , ~ ( % (;IS . ~ 1.0, I Iw~ \.I: (I\\~ . \ I I(. >\ I II. . I \ : I I I J : I . I I I I I : ~ I ' I ~
A I I ~ I , I . : I .l~~~ i; L~ t,lic:
s world's 1lighc.st ~rc:olihousegas elrlissiorls per persol1 a t 26.7
I , , 1 1 1 1 , J ~ , I ~ ( Y ~ I I ~ I O IISII'(,(,I, IS(~ is ; I ~ . ( ~ : ~ '1'111% l i l . ~; 1.l , l , i l , 1 1 1 1 ( ~ "w:~ilI I , I I I I S I V , " i s I I I I I I , I I I I ; I I I \ , I I : I
I ~ I I I I I ~ \ ~v I: I ~~ (~. I I is l,wi(.(:l,li(: ~ I , v ( ' Y ~ I , KI (( >~V I ~ ~ ~ I il~(l~lst,riiilis(:(/ I ~olll~l.ri(:s (1;i.A 1,01111(!s)
4 1 III~:I.I(III:; ;I.:; (.III' I . I I I . ( - ~ I . L il.s~~II'. I ) I I I ~ lo \ ~ ; I I ~ I ) I I : ; 1111:<iI,iv(* I'IYVIII;II~I{ I*II'I.I,I>, \VII I I I I I 1111.
; I I I I I :!FI";II I ~ ~ ~ ; I I I,II;I.II I ~ I ~ I , I I ( > fip,111.1-I i ~ r1 1 1 1 - I ISA ( 2 I .2l I,OIIII(\S),
# , \ I I I I ' : , ( ~ I I I I I I I I ~ I ~ ; I I , I I~ . (I I~ I I I ; I , I , ~ ( . I . , ~ I , I I , , I I ~ J 1,111,I L I I I I l L l 1 i 1 1 , I . I I I I I I I I i 1 . I , ~ I I I I I ~ * : ~ : I; I I I I - 1 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ t n : ~ : i
I -
' 1 ' 1 1 1 . ::I 11,i1 )I( ~ g yi~ll(1politics of energy planning are enorinously complicated. Should
; I I I ; I I . ~~ I . I I I ; I I . c.olliit,ryhave a n overall energy policy or is this a n unwarranted inter-
11.1 ,.I I(.(. i I I {.IN. Src~c:ciolilof its citizens? Are there overall considerations regarding the 1 1 1 I.Ii(, lor~gterm, the future sccllls to lic with rc:iicw;il)lc ( , I I ( . I , [ ~ ~S I I I I I ' I ' I - : ,
\ v ~ . I I ; I I . I . 1 11' ~ . I I ( , c,olliit,ry, in energy matters, that transcend the rights of individuals?
1 : . I . I I I . I ! :1 ,1V~ 1i1,11(i ~ c:onservation so important as to justify mandated government
I , , l , l l l l l ' ~ I )liotovoltaic conversior~
I ~ ~ I( 111. I ()15(:1) countries the critical near-tern1 factor in energy supplies is the sol;~r-thermalsysterns
. I 1. I I 1;1 I l i I i I y I )I' licl~~icl fuels. Modifications of petroleum usage and energy conservat,ioll willti turbine systenls
11I ~ . ~ I : , I I ( 11' \~;rl.iolrskinds may delay the final scene but the end point is inevitable. o(.(>~LIIthermal currents
' 1 ' 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 I:; 1.1 I I I I I ~ I olit.
I ~ Energy planning on the scale that, is needed involves a lead wi~t,erwave energy
I I 1 1 1 1 . I 11' ::(*\,o1.;1,1 cic:cades. l~ytlropower
I';II. I 1 1 1 , il~tlustrialisedand developed countries of the OECD two principal energy I)rolll;lss and photosynt,hc\sis
1 1 1 I I I I I I ~ I I I S (,xist,:
11 1 1 ~ ~ 1 ~ 1 1;)1(.o~ltii~l~irig
sources of gasoline and diesel fuel for motor vehicles and
1111( 1;111 \.l/ol.l(l()ll(:rgy(.ollsllllll,t,iol~gl.(>wI),y 2.5(xI ('1.0111 I!)!)!)1.0 2000. ( ! ~ I I S I I I I1 1I1 1~1 I 1~1 1
1 1 1 1 $11' 1 1 1 ( ~ worlti iI.rc:iis iu ]Jig. 2.2 sl~owc:tlill(.rc~;~s(>s.
A I.(*(.OII~, li)r(:c;~sl. of I ' I ~ ~ , I I(\11(:1.g,y
~(, ( I ( ' r ~ l i l , ~ l c\by
l (.lrc, Slrc~ll( ) i l ( ! O I I I ~ ) :isI ,1:1\~('11 I I ~ 111
I ~ I I ~ ./ , I , : \ o l ' ( ~ I ~ i r ~ )14.
l , ('l'l~is
~ r 1)11t,s l'o~.wi~,r(l l , l ~ ( :vi(s\v l , i ~ ; ~ , ~l , I II , I I ( > I I I > X I , r)O , ~ ~ - I I I : ;
I L ~ I I - I ( >
I\ I I I - ( ~ I 1 0 1 (.o~lt.i~l~~iilgsources of prime fuel for use in the generation of electricity 1, 1 1 1 (l(~(~s(:;l,~iilg IS($ 01' l'ossil ( I I ( \ ~ S ,(-sl)(:(.i;~,ll,y oil, i 1 1 1 1 l ~ I I ( ~ I . ( ~ : I , sI~I ISII~*01'~ , I ~ I ~ I I ( ~ W I I I I I I ~
4 ' 1 1 1 ~ 1!',,' s0111'~'~'s.
( 1 111 1 1 1 1 . : ~ s - ~ ~ ~ l i that
~ ) t ~oil
i o and
n natural gas will ultimately be unavailable).
(Illi~la,India and Indonesia, tvtal 44% of the world population. What are I )( :, (JSA, l)ec. 2000. }lttp://www.ria.(loo,60v/tr~~~~~~~/;1(!r/(!~~ l!)!)!)/(al~ ~!)!~!).~I~,III~
so~~lc: of the implications of these countries seeking to obtain a "bigger share I
I
Icr "l~:llc~rgy irl '11ansil.ion 1985 201OV, N;~.t.iol~ii,l I~.OS(:~LI.(~~I ( : o \ ~ ~ ~N( .i ~i lI ., i o l ~ ~Al ,I l. I I I ~ I * I I1I1Y1
01' 1 . 1 1 ~cake"? S(.ics~~c.c,s, Wasliingto~~, 1)C, USA, 1!)7!).
'I'Lic' tlilta of UK primary fuel consumption and production since 1973 are
I I ~ ~ ~ ~ of l ltkic
~ K,y~t,c)
~ i ~ l'r()~,o(;(~l
~ ( , s 011 US I C I I ( ; I . ~ , M;~,rl<~:l,s
~ i1,11(l l4;(~o~~o1l~i~. AI~I~IVII~,V"
1 ~ ( q ) ( , of
, Ell(~gy,Wi1,~11ingt,o11, I)(:, [JSA. ll,(r~)ori, l ~ O l ~ / l ~ l A ~ S l ~ , / O l (AI : \l, ~ / 1!4 ~1 H
givc,~~ in Tables 2.5 and 2.6. What do you deduce about the place, in the
l!)!lH.
(I(\: industrial scene, of the coal, gas and oil industries? I ' " ~ ~ l ~ ~ ~(::I.? ~ ~ El~~issio~~s",
l l l i c ~ ~ l~~ ~
s t~, (:! r ~ ~ ilCt~(~c,y
~ , l , i o ~Ajqb~~(,y,
~ i ~ l 0 1 1 ; ( : l ) 3 l c ' r ~ ~ l!l!ll
~~~,~$l
(:rcai~t Britain is now an oil-based economy with about one human genera- l , ;1,11(1 Koy(,s,I). lI!)H:\l c ' ( ! ; i ~WI~
I I : i l ~ i l ~ ~ l , S., ~ I ) ( ~ l i ~;I,~ y( ~ ~ ( Y - I I ~ I O I ILV;I,~II~II!~,'!",
SI~ (IS I ' ; I I V I
( . i c 1 1 1 l)(:riocl of oil and natural gas remainirlg. What consequent steps would I I IIIIII(!II~,~I~ I'ro(,(-(,(,io~~ A~(!II(.Y, W ~ I , S ~ I ~I )I( I:,~I~ISA, . O IS(~l11.
I , I!)H:l.
~ O I Ii~tlvocat,e as a national policy? I I N;l,lcI(:(~ll~,vic:, N . , ;,,llcl Sw;l.rl,, It..: "I':l~~issio~ls S(:I~II;I.I.~(IS: III~.('I.~:(IV('I.IIIIII.II~. ~ ' I I I I I ' ~1 1 1 1
~ ~t ~i v ( , ~ , s i I'r(,ss,
( ' l i l l l ; l . t , ~ ~( : ~ I ; I , I I ~ ( - " , ( ! i l . ~ l ~ l ) r i (I ll ~ t,,y ( : : ~ l ~ ~ l ~ rIIi l(i l, j:!(1(10.
:~~,
Wl~ic,llc:o~lntriesof tlic ORCD grollp supply more than 50% of their energy
I ,, I l ; l ~ ~ ~ i l t (, !.$ ( ~ ;l l ,~I l ~t I , I ' I I I ~ , ~ I11.: S ( ' I I ~ I I I I I 111' A I I I I I * V11I -
~ , "( ~ I . ( Y , I I \ I O I I S ( ,(:its I ~ ; I I I ~ S S ~ I I I I1'1.1.
I I ( Y Y I S Sro111ILOIL-fossil SOIIIIY~S'!
I B ; \ l , t , i ( -t ~, , ~t , l l ( , I < , ~ I ) I , O I ' I ~ O I . O ( ~ O ~A" (, !'I' ?fill:!, A I I ~ ~ , I , ; I ~N~I II VI ., l!)!l!l.
9 1