CHAPTER.

COAL

,I.I. Introduction

1 . 1 Composition a n d r a n k i n g of coal
( h a 1 is a hard, con~bustible,sedimentary rock. In spite of cc11t1lric.s( I S I I H I I 11.t1
chemical nature is not fully understood. It is a very complex and virl.ic~tls11llsl.1111c
with a quality determined by two classes of material: (a) thc orgt~,~~ic. ~ ( ~ I I I I I ~ I01I H

1)lants solidified by the combined action of heat and pressure, iuld ( I ) ) ~ I I ~ I . ~ , I I , I I I I

:,libstances contributed by the plants, water seepage and surro~intli~~g ~c-olo~~
111ineralmatter. The organic content consists mostly of carbon pl~issr~~tlll(~r 111111111111 1 1

o f nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen. The inorganic or mineral c:orl(,ciil,,wllic41 i:i 01

t lie order 9-30% of the coal by weight, contains sulphur plus snli~ll1)111 ~ ) o l , ( * ~ ~ l ,
toxic amounts of antimony, arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, mercury, larul, S I ~ ~ ( ~ I I ~ I I I
~ i n cheavy
, radionuclides and asbestos [-I.].
When coal is heated many products arise, some of which arc ~isc~fiil 1)11t. S I I I I I I ~I I I I ,
~'otentiallyhazardous. Gases such as carbon monoxide, carboil clioxiclc., I I I I ~ I . I I I I I I I -
;~.nd water vapour are formed as the hydrogen and oxygcn arc: drivcsi~oII'. ' 1 ' 1 1 1 s N I I I I I I
c.ombustible residue remaining after the gases are burned off is cillltrd " l i x c ~ ~(.ILI.IIIIII"
l
1'21.
During coal formation, as the materials undergo evol~~tiolii~ry (:lii~l~g(' I'ro111I I I ~ I I . I I
vegetation to coal, they pass through various st;lgcs of "coillifical,io~~"~ ' l ' l ~ i 1 ~1 1 8
romes the basis on which various categories of coal call I)c riull<c:tl, i l c ~ c . c ) t , t l i ~ ~1.11 y,
their calorific (i.e. heating) value and carl)on-liytlrogoii rilLios. ' l ' i ~ ~4. l ~I l ~ j t i~v ~ t t ~ 11
ranking from the oldest fornii~tion,:~nt,llri~c:itc:, witli its low vol;~t,ilit,y i i . t l t l 11ik:ll 1.11.1

\)on content,, to t,lic yo~lrlgcstforini~t~ioii, lig~iiL(:s[ 2 ] . Aiit,li~~i~c~il.(: is 1.111~SIOWIWI, 11.111 I

c:leanest,-b~irnii~g c:o;~l.TJow voli~t,ilc:I ) i t . ~ i ~ ~ i i(:oi~l i i o ~c:rc;~.t.c:s

~s Ic~ssi l . ~ 1 1~ , I I I I . I I ~ I . I I ~ . ~ I I ~ I I I
i~.rldis t,hc I)c:st, (:o;~l fi)r 111;~kiilg ('okc, wIiic:l~is ;I. soli(l f ' ~ l ( * l t,I111.t, I . ( ! ~ I I IWII~I I I~ II IS1.o11.l ill
Iic:i~.t,c:d1,o i l l~igllI , I ~ ~ I I ~ ) ( ! ~ ~ I of
0111. . ~ .(IsIoI~. (~: t .w~i~I ,.l(~IL I . ~iI ,. , 11,si l l 1.l11~ I ~ I I I . I I I I ~ ' I I , I * ~01', I I I~ Y~ I~I ~I I

{:;I,S. Coke is wi(l(,l,y IIS(YI i l l l,lic, I I I I I , ~ I I I ~ ' I I . ( ~ ~ 01'

, I I ~ iro11
I~ 11,111 I S I , I ~ I ~ I 1 1 1 (YII(I* O V ~ ~ I~ I) I I I I I ~ , : J
 Anthracite 95-~98 2.9-3.8 9 1-95 > 32.5
Low volatile
bituminous 91-92 4.2-4.6 80-85 > 32.5
Medium volatile
bituminous 87-92 4.6-5.2 70-80 > 32.5
High volatile
bituminous 82.5-87 5.0-5.6 60-70 26.7-32.5
Sub-bituminous 78-82.5 5.2-5.6 5540 19.3-26.7
Lignites 73-78 5.2-5.6 50-55 < 19.3

It can be seen in Tab17 4.1 that there can be a factor of 2 : l in calorific value
between the best and worst of the fuel coals. Ant,hracite is classed as a "hard" coal,
whereas lignites are classed as a "soft" coal.

.I .I.2. Coal mining

(!oi~lis extracted from the ground by (a) deep mining or (b) surface (open-cast)
r ~ ~ i ~ ~ iInn gthe . deep mining process vertical shafts are sunk to t,he level of the
( ' O i ~ 1seams, sometimes more than 4000 ft deep, and horizontal bores are then made

long the seams. The shaft of a deep mine is identifiable by the surface winding-gear
st.ructure, Fig. 4.1 131. It is necessary to support the roofs of the diggings by pit-
1)rops to prevent collapse. The extracted rock and coal is transported by conveyer
I~cltsto the shafts and then taken to the surface. About 50-60% of a deep-mine Fig. 4.1. Winding. gc:;~~.
a.t (.hc Ilc:;ul o f ;I tl('f:l~ I I I ~ I I ~[:I]
!

sc:tm content can be extracted.

The area around a developed deep mine is often identifiable by huge mounds of
tliggings, known in the UK as slag heaps. Nowadays these are covered with soil and
grass in an attempt to minimise the visual environmental impact. Working in a deep
c,oitl mine is not only a very dirty occupation but can be unhealthy and dangerous.
I)c:cp mining involves the release of various gases, including carbon monoxide and
~rlcthane,which represent serious explosion and underground fire risks.
The rates of fatalities and serious accidents in the coal industry are among the
worst of all industries. In the USA, about 10 times as many accidental deaths occur
i l l 1.11~coal energy cycle, from mine to power plant, as in the production of the

c~cl~~iv;~l(:nt ,?.mount of power from oil, gas and nuclear fuels together. A methane
csxl)losio~li1.t tllc Mil1fic:ltl rrlillc: i r ~Sont,hern Ohio, USA, in 1930, killccl 82 pcoplc,
I I I ( . I I I ( ~ ~ I I ~7:{ I I I ~ I I ( \ ~ S5, I I I ~ I I ( :o[li(,i;~,ls ;1,11(l 4 visit,ors.
1 1 I l I t o I I I W I I I ! ! I ) I I :IIII
li~.!.:~.lil.i~~:; I-;I.I.~I ~ I ' ; I I i l l I.III- l l l i I . I I : I ~ I I I ( I I I S I . I . ~ . 0 1 1 SI'VISI.;I.I III.I.:I:;IIIII:. : , I . I . ~ I I I I : ; li~x*s
 Fig. 4.2. Mechanised coal extraction in a deep mine [3].

to 5400 cubic feet of material. Open-cast-mined coal is cheaper to obtain than

deepmined coal, even after factoring in the reclamation costs. In the UK about
40% of the home-produced coal in 1999 was obtained by open-cast methods [4].
Surface mining has a bigger extraction yield than deep-mining and up to 90% of a
seam content may be removed. In the former Soviet Union, the USA and Australia
surface mine production now greatly exceeds deep mine production.

4.2. World Reserves, Production, and Consumption of Coal

4.2.1. W o r l d coal reserves

World coal reserves are widely distributed and are accessible by existing mining
methods, Figs. 4.3 and 4.4. Unlike the situation for oil and gas, the coal reserves are
spread fairly evenly in different parts of the world. The biggest repositories are the
USA and the former Soviet Union, followed by China, Australia and India. Some
further country-by-country detail is given in Table 4.2. The reserve/production
(RIP) figures in years of reserves remaining are also included in Table 4.2 for the
main areas of the world and some of this is also illustrated in Fig. 2.3 of Chapter 2.
world m u b t e becrauee of lta rsletidy law B8&t content. The p

fuel source. The widespread nature of the deposits will hopehlly p

there are wide disparities between different countries. If the indig

RIP ratios, these indicate the needs/opportunities to participate in t

Turkey and the UK have less than 50 years of reserves remaining,

the other hand, there are many countries, including the USA, that
200 years of reserves a t present rates of usage. It is quite likely that
reserves might reduce in the future as coal is used to offset the dem

will eventually run out. A need exists for the conservation of coal
for the continual exploration of more efficient methods of coal use.

4.2.2. World coal production

-+
Details of country-by-country coal production between 1990 and 2000 am
Table 4.3 [5]. Over that 11-year period world coal production fell by 6.
American production slightly increased and European production fell
40% of the 1990 figure due to cutbacks by the big producers the Cz
Germany, Poland and the UK. Production in the Pacific region inc
increases for Australia and India of around 50%. Details of the productha
in the period 1990-2000 for the major areas of the world are shown i
Coal subsidies continue to support the high-cost production of
Germany, Spain and France. For 1996, the European Commiaion au
industry subsidies, detailed in reference [7]. In each country, the averag
ton of coal produced exceeds the average value of imported coal. Fbcep,;t
between the governments, mining companies and labour unions on fuM
duction subsidies indicate that further declines in output are
UK, production subsidies have been phased out, forcing coal
competition with North Sea gas and international coal (61. In the USA
Bush recently (2002) offered support to the coal industry by the p r o d m of
Increases of production.
Table 4.5 shows the world export/import situation for coal in 1999 wit
tiom to 2010 and 2020. The terms "stern" and "cokh#' coal both re& to
grade coal wed in electricity power gVmer&tl~n.AWE&, the USA md
have rubtantld reaervse of premfum cod6 thst oan be 4 ta anmufautm
' L
 l'l~lli~ll<:llllll' '.ll,i,,l)< iilllli
kl,li~o~i
mrnni tnl rlji~,ir>lnti, 1,,!1Ii ,,,',I I,! ' 1 I!, 1 ' 1 I'rnij I , ,900 ISLI!, 2000
:,,K,ri,,",,,
,l., "li,,,al

Exporters I
--
Europebl
Steam" Coklng
~ ~ e " . " ll'o~alc~uropeblA4ndl AmerlCB JTotnIol EurFPnllI 1.
---.-A
2000 ~.. .~~
Totnl
Ammdnn 1 1~11.1~~
Ali!il~ikIi~........... 13.8 83.2 2.3 96.7 25.7 76.2 6.6 109.1 XI.!, l!i!l 1
Il~~itodStates ........ 5.8 4.3 15.4 25.6 21.6 2.3 8.9 32.8 97.4 1i.li
Africa.. . . . . . . .
1~1,11111 55.6 14.4 1.3 74.3 0.4 0.3 1.0 2.8 50.0 14.7
I olmer Soviet Union. . 18.4 6.0 0.1 23.3 3.1 3.7 0.0 8.0 21.!i !I,/
I'~llnnd. . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.7 0.0 0.0 14.6 3.3 0.0 0.1 3.0 19.0 0.0
c:;inada . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 3.3 0.7 5.1 8.2 19.3 3.6 32.8 R.5 17.0
(:liina.. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 53.8 0.2 53.0 0.3 7.1 0.0 7.4 3.5 GO [I
!;"nth America*. . . . . . 30.4 0.0 15.0 46.4 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.7 30.8 0.1
lh~ilonesia'. . . . . . . . . . 4.5 46.5 2.4 59.8 0.5 10.6 0.0 11.2 5.0 67 i
Total ............. 147.7 211.5 37.5 398.8 63.5 119.6 20.4 204.7 211.2 - 3 2 . 1 ~
2010 .--
Atlslralia ........... 10.0 108.2 0.7 118.8 35.6 85.5 8.0 129.1 45.8 IS:l./
Ilr~itedStates ........ 3.1 6.7 8.6 18.4 13.4 1.3 15.5 30.2 16.5 0.0
!;~uthAfrica. . . . . . . . . 70.5 8.2 4.4 83.0 1.1 0.5 0.0 1.7 71.6 8.7
I ormer Soviet Union. . 19.6 6.1 0.0 25.6 3.0 4.3 0.0 7.3 22.5 10.4
I'oland . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.0 0.0 0.0 8.0 1.1 0.0 0.0 1.1 9.1 11.0
Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 8.9 13.8 3.3 24.0 11.9 13.tl
(:hina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 113.5 0.0 113.5 0.0 12.4 0.0 12.4 0.0 IY!,.!)
South Americae. . . . . . 36.4 0.0 34.8 71.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 36.4 0.0
l~~donesia '
.......... 7.6 65.9 0.0 73.5 0.5 9.1 0.0 9.6 8.1 7!i.O
Total ............. 160.3 308.5 48.4 517.2 61.6 126.9 26.8 215.3221.9--436.5
2020 --
Alrstralia . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 112.7 0.7 122.7 35.8 89.7 12.4 137.9 45.1 70:'.4
IlnitedStates . . . . . . . . 1.9 7.5 7.2 16.6 12.1 1.4 18.1 31.7 14.1 8.9
!;outhAfrica . . . . . . . . . 67.7 17.0 4.3 89.0 0.9 0.6 0.0 1.5 68.6 17.G
Ir)rmerSovietUnion.. 16.1 7.2 0.0 23.3 3.0 4.7 0.0 7.7 19.1 11.!1
I'oland . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 0.0 0.0 5.5 1.1 0.0 0.0 1.1 6.6 0.0
c:nnada . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9 0.0 0.0 2.9 6.8 14.0 1.7 22.5 9.7 14.0
SC~!Oioe8scrlv ,a bibimrodsconi sn"tiibiari'.?
"i:o!-irn~rc~?~ Ilraid coal), arid 1qnite ant! tbrnvin lrilb bltu,ririoiisl cod
!Lens Ihdn U 05 (:hina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 121.3 0.0 121.3 0.0 12.4 0.0 12.4 0.0 13:l.ti
IE~ciildehCanVal C:,,",,c rlld i"rn7.r Sob,,*: ijn.o;r :;outhAmericae . . . . . . 50.0 0.0 36.1 86.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 50.0 0.0

Total ............. 153.4 349.4 48.3 551.1 60.2 132.1 32.2 224.4 213.6 481.4 80.B 710.0
"Reported data for 2000 are consistent with data published by the lnternational Energy Agency (IEA). Ttio titundl~rilI1 A ~ l n l l l ~ l l l 1 !1~
11l l
,'::learn coal" includes coal used for pulverized coal injection (PCI) at steel mills: however, some PC1 coal it; rol~orloilI)y lllo I1 A I i a " t ~ o h l l ! ~
Table 4.4. Changes in coal production, 1999-2000. t:trai.''
"oal fiows to Europe include shipments to the Middle East and Africa.
':In 2000, total world coai flows include a balancing item used by the lnternational Energy Agency to reconoilo dia:~~!lin~a:lnn lar*lwnal~
loported exports and imports. The 2000 balancing items by coal type were 2.1 million tons (steam coal), 1.2 rrlllllol~I~IIIII (i:okll~uI ilnl), ~ l l t l
Area % Change (rounded) : I 3 mlllion tons (total).

1 North America I +2%

. -
I dlncludes 14.4. million tons of coal for pulverized coal injection at blast furnaces shipped to Japanose ~ t o o i m ~ ~111k;'IIl10
'coal exports from South America are projected to originate from mines in Colombia and Venezuoln.
~~~ti

Europe -40% 1 'ln 2000, coal exports from Indonesia include shipments from other countries not modeled for tho fori~i:arilirilllorl 11111 .'IIIIlI
on-Indonesian exports by coal type were 6.2 mlllion tons (steam coal), 1.5 million tons (coking coal), and I:? rrlllll~~ll l ~ t r ~ (Iolril)
rr
I
iNotes: Data exclude non-seaborne shipments of coai to Europe and Asia. Totals may not equal sutrl of ~o111~~1~11i~i111~ LIIIII III111tIc~~1el11ln111
Czech Republic -36% t<lunding.The sum of the columns lmay not equal the totai, because the total includes a balancing itoln bolwnni~IIIIIIIII~I(III' 111111 IIII)IIII"II'
Germany -53% d;lta.
Sources: 2000: lnternational Energy Agency, Coallnformation2001 (Paris, France, September 2001): Enorgy I n f o r n ~ ~ tAt111111ilnt1a11~~11
Il~,~~
Poland -28% Olmrferly Coal Report, October-December2000, DOEIEIA-0121(200014Q)(Washington,DC. May 2001). Proloctlonm: I IIIII(~V III~OIIII~~~IIII
UK -65% Administration, National Energy Modeling System run IE02002.D011402A (January 2002).
Asia Pacific +lo%
Australia .
+50%
India 1 +49% 'li)gcther, thesc t,hrcc countries supplied 85%)of tlw coki~rgi.oirl trir(l(5tl WOI 11 l w t ~ l t -
Indonesia 1 +617%
111 1997, Tal)li: 4.4 [ F ] .
FSU -41%
Africa +26%
World - 7%
,1.2.3. World coczl c'or~.v*~r~rrptior~
1 1 1 ( - 1!)!)0 l i j : ~ l r c b .
S I I I I y('11.1.
I I ~ 11.y ,VOII.I I I ~ ~ I . I I . I I : I 101. I . I ~ I . ~ , I I . I I I~.olll~I.l.i(~:i 11.1.(' I:IVI.II i l l 'I'II.IIII-

. I . ( ; . 'I'II(:IX~ Il;~,vc,I ~ t v - 1 1sig11ilic.11.111,

~.c~~l~rc~l,iol~:i 111 11:11ro1)(~ 11,1111 1 , 1 1 1 ~I ~ I ~ I I I ( *Sovi,&l.
~. OIIIOII
1'111, IIOI,~LIII<! ~ I I ( ~ * ~ I , iS1 1( *Nori,l~
S A I I I I ~ I II,II(I I I , l't~,(ili(:.' I ' I I ( ~ s i i z l ~ ~ ~o,vIlf-ir oI,IIV
~ ~ ( -Asill, ~~
I l-,y(::~r1 ) c r i o d fro111 l!l!)O i s iIl\~~\,ri\,t,(:(I i1\ Fig. 4 . 4 .
i'roductioll c:xc:cc:cicd c o n s ~ ~ l ~ ~ p ill t i oNortl~ ll Air~c:ric::~, jll~lst,ri~i.i~~g t,111' S ( , I I . ~ , I I H (11'
( :;~.ui~cia ailti the USA as c?xporters of cod. But in 1)oth Enropo ;LII(I Asi~~--l'll,(.ili(
~.olwumptionexceeded production so as to create thc ncocl for (:oi~Iilh~l)orl.s.
The People's Republic of China is expected to have t l ~ !l~iglic:st,p;rowl,lr 111
c.l(:ctricity-related coal demand a t more than 4% annually. In 2020, ( : l l i l ~ i is ~ ~ I I ~ I
ic:c:t,ed t o account for nearly one-third of the world's coal c ~ r i s u r n p t ~ ifor o ~(~I(-(.I.I
~ i~*il,v
j:c:neration, up from 17% in 1996. China has been the leading coiwllrllor 01' r+olll
:iiuce 1982, followed by the USA. India's coal consumption is also expc:c:t,c~lr , ( ~ ~ , I rw I

:;l,rongly,along with its consumption of natural gas. In the USA, coal nsc: i l l I , l l c * 1.11.1,
[.ticitysector is projected to increase by about 1% per year between 1.OO[i 1 1 , l l ~ l:!o:!o .
During the 1980s, Australia became the leading coal exportcr i r ~I , I I I * w t l l l l l ,
~'rimarilyby meeting increased demand for steam coal in Asia. SOII~(: ~ ~ , r o wI lI I~ l ~
c,xports of coking coal also occurred, however, as countries such as 3t~j)i1.11 III<~,IIII
Itsing some of Australia's semi-soft or weak coking coals in their coka o v t . ~I )~l ( - l l ~ l r i
As a result, imports of hard coking coals from other countries, inclutlit~glI.I1(, I JSA,
were displaced. Australia's share of total world coal trade, which i~ic:rc:~i.sc~t l 1'1.1 111 I
17% in 1980 to 33% in 1997, is projected to reach 38% in 2020 [6]. All~t~ri~lii~. F~II(~III~I
vontinue as the major exporter to Asia, continuing t o meet approxinlat,oly olrr. l111.lI
of the region's total coal import demand.
For the nations of Western Europe, future coal consumption is c:xl)c~c.l,i~tl 1.0
c lecline. Western European countries are relying on increasingly avai lirl )I(, I III.I,I I 1.11 I
!:as supplies for future growth in electricity production. The e1imin;~tiono l ' s ~ i l )I~I I Wi i ~
i l l the UK was largely responsible for a 50% drop in the nation's c:oi~l~ ) L . ( I ( ~ I I ( ~ ( , I o I I

I~etween1989 and 1997 and a greatly reduced role for coal in c1ectricit.y g ( ~ ~ ~ c ~ ~ ~ r
In 1997, the leading suppliers of imported coal t o Europe were tlio IJSA (:?rlX~),
South Africa (21%) and South America (15%). Over the near fiitl~ro~)c:~.iotl, low
( ~ 1 scoalt from South America is projected to meet an increasing sh;~rt:ol' I ~ ; I I ~ ~ I )
(:()a1import demand, displacing some coal from such highcr cost silpl)li(w H,H 1.111'
lJSA and Poland.
With the exception of Germany, coal imports to Wcstern Euro1)o rl.l,cu IIOI, i L x
1)ected to increase to compensate for reductions in intligcnoils coi~l~)ro(llr(-l,iol~
I tather, increased use of natural gas, renewable encrgy ant1 ~l~l(:l<!i~.I. 1 ) ( I W ( T ( I 11 I
l~larilyin F'rance) is expected to fill the gap in cnergy supply k:ft I)y t,11(! ( ' ( I I I ~ , ~ I I I I ~ I I ~
rc!dnctions in thc rogion's indigenous coal prodnc:tion [GI.

4.2.4. U K coal ~ T V ~ U ~ : a~ r~~ O

d(:r)ri.~?flit1)t,iori
T L
\\.!I:; 10";~1 1 1 \ \ . ~ , 1 111 '.'OOI1 111.111 111 10'10. \\,lo11 1 4 . 1 . ) 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 1 ~ 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 ~ l 1 ~ l~; 1 11 111 1 1 ! ' , I , \ . IS";,,
' I l l I i I I I; 0 ,,.,I 1 t I < t O 1 1 1 ~1 1 # 8 1 1 1 11
wlll I 1 l l l l l l l l l I I I . ' ( ' , , ; I 1 ~ 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 ~ 1. 10 1 1 1 1 1 :!ooIl w;1s 11,s:; 1 1 1 ; 1 1 1 :?I');,
1
klllllotll ( O l l l l 4 " i
01' l , 1 1 ~I V V I : ~ 1 1 1 i!)SO i1.1111 O I I I , ~ :\.I1,!;,
( , I I 1 1 1 , l t , t , , l I I I I!~!lo.
1!1';11 I!)XI) I!l!)O I!l!)S l!l!l!l '.'lI~lO
The data ill 'Yt~l)lc4.8 sllows l.11;~t.illosl. Il li (.o;I.I is IIOW 11sct1Lor ol(:c~t,l.ic.il,y gcbilc:r-
ation. Electricity generator stations (i.e. powc:r stations) accountccl for 78%1 of coal I ) I Y ~ )I I I I I I ~ . ( ~ 7 I 7 5 . 2O!l 1';;'
consunlptioil in 2000 compared with 78% in 1990, 73% in 1980 and 49% in 1970. ( )l)~:~~c';asl 7 15.8 18.1 I . ! I I:\ I
- .. .. ... .. .. -

Coal consunlptioil declined more sharply during the 1990s; over the last nine years o t ; l ( i l ~ ~ l i Sr i I ~ ) 147.2 130.1 !12.8 1I :17. 1 :iI :'
at an annual rate of 7% compared with 1.5% per .year over the previous 20 years.
Most of the decline resulted from privatisation in the electricity sector, which led Tablc 4.8. UK coal consunlplion, 1!170 2OOO [ I ] .
MiIlio11
. ..
I,IIIIIII%:I

1970 1980 1990 1998 I ! ! :!111111

Power stations 77.2 89.6 84.0 118.5 111.1 .I(; I

Domestic 20.2 8.9 4.2 2.11 2.6 I !I
Industry 19.6 7.9 6.3 2.5 2.7 1 I
Services 4.2 1.8 1.2 0.4 0.1 11 :\
Other energy industries 35.7 15.3 12.5 9.4 $1. I !) '2

Total consumption 156.9 123.5 108.3 63.1 55.7 TI!) 0

1.0 a rapid increase in gas-fired generation at the c:xpcnsc: ol' (.o;l.I. S111)sl ;I 111 I;I l I I I I

I )rovernents have been made in the country's rnining operat,iolls i l l ~ ( Y Y ~ I ~I I~ ,Y I I:;, \v 11 I I

ilverage labour productivity rising from less tllail 1000 tons p(,r I I ~ ~ I I I y~ rI ,* ; ~I I I~ 1
1.0 2600 tons per miner-year in 1996 [9].
Despite productivity improvements and domestic protluc.t,ioil c.osl.s I.II:II: \ I I . :II I

I 'roaching parity with imported coal, British coul ~)roclucc~rs 1.1 ) I ' ; I I . ~ *
(.olll,ill~~I* ;I I I

I lncertain future. Many coal contracts between produc:c:rs i ~ i i ( 1~~l.ilil.i('s III-J:, 11 1 i 1 1 1 . 1 I

I )(:fore the privatisation of the coal industry in 1994 cxl)irc:ci ;I.[, t.11(- 1 - 1 1 1 1 ( 1 1 k I : I I I 1 1
1098. In late 1997, initial negotiations on the renewal of thc: c.o~~l.r';~.c.l.s i l l ( l i 1 . 1 1 l 1 . 1l I I

sl,rong preference among British utilities to switch froill co;l.l 1,o I I ; I ( . I I I . ; I I I \ i l : ; ' I ' I I , ,
1)otential negative impacts on the British coal industry ;~11(1 I I I ~ I I ~ ,iol)s I I ~ I I I I I I I I J I I I ' ~I
[.he issuance of a temporary moratorium on the constr~lct,iol~ of I I I - w!::I.:: l i 1 - 1 - 1 l J : I ' I I
(.rating plants by the British government. In n.dditiu11, r%rii.;~.ilr's 15111-1.1:yI I I I I I1I. 1, ; !
1.c:cluested an analysis of the nation's power incllist,ry t,o c~v;lli~;~t.c. Ilow 1111. I , . ~ . I I I . : ~ 1 2 1

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1999 I'llel diversity and security of supply shoulcl I)c c~oilsiclc:rc~tl i l l 1.1)1. ;11)1)1.1 )\,;I 1 1 1 1 I I I I - . , .

I'or new power projects.

Deep mined The study - t,hc Energy R,eview Whitc P;ll)cr
- W:IS( Y ) I I I I ) I I > I 1.1 I I 1 1 1 1 , I 1 I \ ' .
I )c:pnrt,mc+ilt of Tratic: :~utlIl~tlust,ryi l l Oc:t,ol)c~l!)!)X I 101. '1'111, I Y ~ I 11.1, I ~ 1.1 I I I . , I I 1 1 8 1 c.0 I

Opencast iss11c:s ~.(:IiLt,(:(i ~ ~ oo~lly t , t,o t,ll(: (liv(:rsit,y~ I . I I (s(u~l.il,,y ~ 01' I ' I I I ' I . ~ : ~ S I I ~ ) ~ ) ~1 ,, 1 V1 1 i 1 1 : , 1 , 1 1 1
Note: The low level of production in 1984 is a result of the miners' strike. I,II(:(l(!sig~l, ol)(,ri~l,io~~ i1,11ds l , r ~ i ( , l , ~or~ rI,II(\ ( : ( ~ l ( ~ ( ~ l , ~III;II.I\I>I,. . i ( ~ i l y 1 1 1 I I ~ S I ) III:;I, 1 I I I 111,
:;l,~~tl,y's li~~tlillgs, ( , \ I ( . I3ril,isl1~ O V ~ ~ ~ I I I I II;I.S I ~ ~ iI ~I ~~i I. . i ; l l . o ;~I l ~ ) I . I ) J ~ , I ; I I I I I I I I 1*1 1 ' 1 r 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . . 1 1 1
Source: Depaitment of Trade and 1ndo:ly. I ~ i i I I y; I I I I I I I I I , I ; , ; I I I o ~ ~ ~ l I I I i I I Il I I Ii I I I I IIIII.

l*'i,:. I !) Ill\ t 0t.11 I ~ I Z > ~ I ~I , >I I, I , l!l';ll lO!l<l l!il I I I wl~ic.l~ c~sisl.ir~j: (.o;IIl i l . c . l l ,.;~.l,;l.c.il,ywill I , I . ; I I I I I , 1 1 , 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1.11i.1.I1 \ ' 1 ~ 1 \ - \ Y I I 1 1
J ~ , I ~ I I I ~ I ; I I~' I ~. I III I~I I I I ~ , \ V ,v,;l:j l i 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 l i 1 1 1 l : ; 11iI
 Sill(.(- \!)!I0 ~.II(,I l l i ' s (IIIIIII.S~.~I. ::(-(.IIII 1111:;II.(.I,IIIIIIIIYI1.111. 11~:;s1I1:111 !)'XI (11' 1111. \.01.:\.1
coal ( ~ o i l s ~ i l ~ ~ w
~ )I ~ is~
t ,ii(o~ ~ , i ~ ~ ~ l i ( ~01' ; ~
l l;I,II 1,111,i o ~ ~ ill \ ) o ~ ) ~ ~ l ; ~01', r iII~I.~,II~;I,~-~;I:<-
l , JI,I~~wI,II l,,y
fired heating systems. It is see11ill'l';~.l)l(:4 .H l,ll;~t,t.11(:clolncstic sector 11ow c:ollslirrlcs
more coal than the (non-energy industry) industrial sector. The difference between
the total production and consumption coal figures, in Tables 4.7 and 4.8 respectively,
shows that the UK imported (59.0 - 31.2) = 27.8 Mtonnes of coal in 2000, which is
47.1% of the total coal consumption.
The price of European coal, Table 4.9, has been more expensive than surface-
mined American coal over most of the period since 1988. In 1999 the prices were
nearing parity but during 2000 European coal again became significantly more ex-
pensive than American coal. This compares with the price of Japanese coal, which
has steadily reduced since 1990.

4.2.5. US coal production and consumption

The USA contributed 26.7% of the world total coal production in 2000, Table 4.3, Nuclear Hydro Gas Petroleum Coal
and Other
and accounted for 25.8% of the world consumption, Table 4.6. Both production and
consumption increased ove the 11-year period since 1990 [ 5 ] . Coal continues t o be Energy sources for the US electricity gcnernl.ior~,1!)!)7
F
the most commonly used fqel for electricity generation, illustrated in the bar chart
Fig. 4.6.

of Fig. 4.6 [ I l l , but electricity producers are now (2002) increasingly turning t o
natural gas as the fuel source for new generation 1121. Coal deposits are widespread
throughout the USA, Fig. 4.7, and active mining, mainly surface mining, takes place

Table 4.9. International coal prices, 1987-2000 151.

Prices Price of US coal

US dollars per tonne Marker Price receipts at Japan coking Japan steam
(basis Northwest steam-electric coal import coal import
Europe)' utility plants cif price cif price

11 1110 21111 ilili 100 llO1lll.ll*

III

'Source of Marker Price: Mc(:losltcy (:o&rl I~~(i~r~l~;rt.iorl St:rvic:c:.

I ' I i I ' I ~ I I ( ~ I( ~
I S, 1.oi1.1
, I ~ I,:~:,il~:i
i t 1 1 1 1 t.:il.i~~l;~lt*~l
1 1 1 11111(.1. (.IV;II111vl
1111'l.l1:111(~
II':~IIIII(.I"I
Not,e: rif = cosl. 4 ins~lrnllc.csI flt.i}:l~l(~I.VI.III~:I I r r irvs).
111; I I I O I I I . :?I1 > < I , ~ I , ~ , I * 1s I :\I, ' I ' I I ( % I I : < I * I 11' I.II:II I I I ~ I I I I : ; I I S ;I:, : ; I I I I I ' I ' ~ ~ : < 01' 1 . o i 1 1 I , , * I I I I I I ~ ~ , ~ I ; I , I I I ~ I , I I , * 11sc.1.I o ( . i l . l . i o l l 1 , l 1 ( ~I.OII,I 1)i11.1.11.11~:; 1.11.11 111% I-sII.II,(.I,(-(I 1'1.0111 ( , I I I ' : ~ I I I I . I . ~I I 1~~ 1 ~ 1 1 1 , 1 1 l ' 1 1 ~ ~ , 1 ~ : 1
i 0 1 1 1 I l l ; l l 1 1 1 IS ( ~ i s ( ~ 1 1 sI lsl l(' ~ ! ~~ I ~ I . ~ ) I ~ I (' iI .' I I I I I I V I ~ S I I 1 1 1 1 is i l l I I , I ~ i l 1~I I s. A l l X 111(.11 ( 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 . 1 ~ 1
Most of thc coal (:oi1s11111(:0 i l l 1,11(1 (JSA is llsl'(1 liw (!l(:(:t,~-i(:il,y g(:l~(:~.i~l.io~~. Ov(:r I 111 )1\li111: Ii11.S I I I I . ~ ~ W;I,S I I ~ ) I ~ S ~ I , I , ~ O I I ; I , Ii 1 1 I , O I I ( ~ O I I i l l I!) I ,I. 14~xisl,i~~p, ~ ) ~ ~ ) ~ ~ II I~I )I I ~I I I' I ~I I S~ I ~
the period 1989-1999 this proporl,ion ii~('r(:i~~(:(l fro111 i~I)ollt85% to aboiit 1)O')'O [Ill. t , \ r ~ *I ,r~ I ( : (]isI,i1,11(~(: I ' ~ I , I I ~ ( ! 10 ;i()() 111il(!s. ()l)(:I'i~,l,io~~ o r i L S I I I I ' I . , ~ 1 ) i l ) ~ ~ I i 1 1 ,( - I ~ ~ ~ I I ~ I0 1I 1I ~ H
Other coal-producing countries, incluclil~gAustralia, South Africa, Colombia 1 1 1 0 ;~.v;~ili~l)ilit,,y of' t,l~cilccc:ssii.ry a.ir1o1111t; o f wi~1,c:r. 'I1l1(:r(:iLr(: (,osl, ; I , I I I ~ t~lIi1~i1*111,y
and Venezuela, have increased production and by aggressive pricing, coupled with :I( I v;I.II~,~ t,oL slurry
~ ( : s pipclines c:omp;~rc:tlwit,li tllc: r;~ilt.riir~sl)orl,;~(.ic ) I I 01' ( . o 1 1 , I .
favourable currency exchange rates, have achieved a growing share of traditional US 'I'll(: long tiistarlcc sl~irrypipeline is a rcalit,y ill 1,11(: I l S A , wllc%l.c- 11, :?7:1 111111'
export markets such as the European countries Italy, Portugal, Spain and the UK. In I ~il)c:lii~c carries 5 million tons of coal annually, tllroligl~an 18-i11(.l1 ~ ) i l ) oI'I,IIIII
, A1 I
addition, the competition has gained footholds within the USA. These factors have /,OII;L t,o southwestern Nevada. This is equivalent to the rail tri~~~sl)ort,il(,io~~ 111' I I I ~ I I I I I
tended to cap the expansion of markets for US coal and placed strong competitive I I,() rail freight cars per day. In the UK, the widespread use of coi11 ~ I I I I . I ,I ~I I I ) I ' I I I I ( ~
pressures among domestic producers to keep coal prices low relative to other fuels, w0111(lreduce the delivered cost of coal but would also jeopardisc: l,11(:il~c.olll~* 1 1 1 1.111'

in order to maintain existing sales quantities and market share. Concerns related I ;\.ilw;~y companies. A typical UK pipeline distance wollld neetl t,o I ,(* (11' I.II(? 01 1 1 1 8 1
to the ultimate impacts of the Kyoto Protocol and subsequent measures regarding ' 1 1 I.cSllsof miles rather than hundreds of miles.
greenhouse gases also loom over future decisions that will affect coal use [ l l ] .
In 2001 the USA announced that because of fears of economic recession it would
not accept the Kyoto Protocol in its present form.
.l.4. Emissions and Effluents from Coal

4.3. Coal ~ r a n s ~ o r t a t i b n I I I Western Europe and North America most of the coal cons11111l)t.ioll is I I O W I I ~ ~ ( - ( I
1 1 1 1 generating electricity. Large power stations burn pulvcrisetl c:oil.l i l l 11, S I I S ~ I I ~ I I : ~ ~

4.3.1. Surface transportation t 11 line particles. A 1000 MW, coal-fired plant burns about 2.5 111illio11 I.OIIS01' ( . O I I ~

: I I I I [ generates roughly 6.5 billion k w h of electrical cnergy per yc:iLr I I ( .

In Europe and North America the common method of transporting coal is by rail.
The great rivers of the USA are used as waterways to transport convoys of coal-
laden barges often hundreds of miles, and about 20% of US coal is shipped in that
way [14]. As in Europe, however, more than one-half the coal travels by rail. Barge I . I . 1. Open coal fires
transportation is cheaper than rail but is limited by the geography of the waterways
I llll,il the 1950s coal was the prime domestic and industrial fncl ill (,11(:I l li II.II(I W J I H
and the sizes of river and canal locks. Transporting coal by road is several times
1111 )silly burned on open fires. The smoke and gaseolls eWucnt fro111~,l~c:scs 111i1li1 ) I I N
more expensive than the use of rail. 01' [ires was expelled directly into the atmosphere above resicloi~t,ii~I i~.~.c~i~.s. SOIIII~
In Britain, the transportation of coal is part of a complex, interactive energy-
% 11y';reeof effluent cleansing or filtration was carried out by somc ii~cl~~st.ric:s, i l ~ c ' l l ~l IcI I V ,
related process. The transportation of coal is, by far, the largest freight section
I 111: electricity-generating industry, but the overall effect of opcn-fir(: c:or~II I I I I . I I ~ I I P , ,
operation of the railway system and its biggest revenue earner. There are urgent ~llost,lyresidential, was massive air pollution. This was evitl(:~~c:c:tl i l l 1,111, ~ l l l ( 1 l i l '
needs to limit road traffic and also to keep the railway system economically vi-
I~l;~.c:kcning of building stone and brick and in the incidellcc of t.l~ic.lc Ii,)l,s i l l I ' I I I *
able. But the amount of home-produced coal is declining and traditional coal-rail
1111llistria1 cities. A great fog in London in 1954 was a n~ixt,~~rc: 01' IIII.I,III.II,I l ; ) ~ ,
routes have been abandoned in favour of routes needed for imported coal, from the I I I I I I rnan-made smoke and was called "smog". This last,cd sc:vc:r;~Itlr~.,ys,OI.OIIV,III.
seaports.
I I ;~llsportationto a standstill and is thought to have bccll dirc:c:l,ly I ~ I ~ S ~ I O I I S ~ I ) I I ~1'111.
I t would be an obvious advantage to build electricity generation stations nearer
I 1 1 I I I lrc:tis
~ of accelerated deaths due to lung disc;~scs[ l G ] .
to the supplies of coal. A successful example of this in the UK is the Drax power
Al)i~rtfrom the domestic inconvenience, the Iwe of ( : o i ~ I - l ) ~ ~ I~) I.) (l, I~I ill il l~. ~( 1 ~1 ~
stations, rated a t 2000 MW,, built in the Selby, Yorkshire coalfield. ~ ~ ~ l i ( ~ - l )st,oves ~ ~ r i is
~ idirty,
~ l p 111111ealt,hyand grossly il~(:ffi(:i(-l~t,. Mosl, 01' 1,111, I I ~ < J I , ~
,v.o~-s 111) t,li(: c:hinlnc:y :LII(I is w ~ L s ~ ,I'hc c ( ~ .11111rlI)(:r 01' vi(:t,i~~is, i ~ ~ ( . l ~ l ( l i1~' t 1l ,p1 ,,1 l ~ l i l , i 1 ~01~ ,

4.3.2. Coal sluwy pipelines
It, is t,(:(:Il~~i(~i~,Ily
foi~~sil)l(~ I,() 1)1ilv(-ris(b
wilI,(*rl,o f'o1.111
11, S ~ I I I . I . , '1'11is
~.
I I I I I J : (Iis(~i~.s(:s (:r(:i~I.o(l\ ) y 01. (:01111)01111(1(?(1 I)y 200 ,~(:;LI.S 01' O I ) O I I ('oi~llil.(#s( ' I I . I I I I O I ( 1 1 '
I IIII.III~I,~,(:(I 1)111, is 1)1~01);1,l)I,y(!IIOI'IIIOIIS i l l t f I l ( : L J l i I I ~ O I IA ( : .S I I ( ~ ( * ( : S S ,,I'
~ ~ I[~y~,isIi~~l
I
('oi~l;I,II(I l,o 111ix i l , , i l l l ~ ~ ; ~~ I, , lI I I O I I I I ~ , S ,wil,l~ 1 1 1 1 , "( !I,YI,II A i r A(.I,s'',IIII,S l i ~ , ~ ~ j ~I ,I (I I-, lI I,IyI ( * I ~ O I ) ( > I I 4.0i1,l I I I I I ~ I 1I1 1I I( 1I l~i ;(,il,i(*s,
I i l x b WIIII~I
1.1111 I ) I * I ~ I ~ ~ I , I I S I ) O I . ~ ~l,o
( ~ ( ~1,111, I I S ( - I . ::il,($11y 1 1 i l ) , ~ I i 1 1 t ~ . A[, 1111, IIOW I l ( - s ~ ~ ~ ~ "iS lI I ~I I I ~I ~ ~*- I ~
11,s ~ ~ SlS " .
 (.II;I,III~,I's I I I I I . , ~ o ( , ( . I I s i, ~ ~ l l l l t * l ~ l . 0.y
~ * ( lV I I . I ~ ~ I I( I, ~ , ~ l c l i l . i c ~ 01'
~ \ : iI . I ' I I I I , I . I I I . ~ . I I I ( ' , ~ I I I I I I I I ~ 1I 1~1 1. 1~1

:;,,I;I.I. i ~ . ~ ~ ; l ( I i ; ~ , l ,1 i1o1 ~. \ Also, \ , \ I ( - ( . I I ( * I I I ~ I . ; I , ~IIII,I,III.(\ 111' 1,111- \!;I,sI*s III:I,,V I,(, II,II'IY.I,IYI I,V

,,,III , S ( , ; I I \ ( . ~ Iorip,i11;1,1,111g
S i l l I,II(> ~,(-.~~riI,ol~i(~s ov(\l.wl1i1.11l,l~i:,yl , ~ ~ i \ , v c ~ I ,
'I'111:rt: is (bvi(l(,~~(:c! l , l l i ~ t ,polI111,io11 fro111l)ow(:r ~ ) I ; I , I I ~ , S i l l I,II(! (lli is I ) I O W I I I'I.IIIII
W I . S ~ ,t,o (:;Ls~, ; L I I ( ~ (l(!l)osil,s,ill t , l ~foriii o f i ~ ( s i ( l r i ~ i i ~ 0111,o
, lo(,i~t,ie)~~s i l l N o r w ; ~11,1111 ,~
Sw(~lc:ii.'I'll(! r;~iiii~ci(lit,ycall ac.c:elt:ri~t(;t,li(: l(:i~(:liiilC o f g r o ~ i 1,oxic ~ ~ l I I I ; L ~ , ( > I , I I I . ~ : ;: ~ I I I , ~ I
'1'11(: ~ ~ i o siiliportant
t, polllitants released by coal burning are sulphur products. "In- ;,s ;lllllninill~nant1 nlcrcury into water coursc:s. Tlicrc is ;~lsoc:vitl(:~~c.r: of' c l ; ~ , ~ ~ l i ~I b1 1: c *
o ~ . ~ i ~ i is111p11ur
i(:" (solnetirnes called "mineral" sulphur) is physically distinct from Iorc\si,sand fish stocks, especially in areas with acid soils 121.
I I I ~ ( . ;~.l.t,;~c.liedto the coal and can be largely removed by washing prior to combus- 'rhe problem of acid rain has to be approaclled on the: 1)nsis 01' ~ I \ ( , I ~ I . I I I I . ~ . ~ ~ I I I I I
(,ioli. "Organic" sulphur is chemically combined with the coal material and cannot ~.ollal~o~atio Technical
n. aspects of the acid rain problc~il~ 1 1 1only I)(, I , ; ~ . t . l t l ~ , t 111 l
I )(: wi~shcdout. Emissions of sulphur dioxide (SOa) are measured in terms of pounds :;olirce. There is no form of prevention once the a.cidit,y is (:r(:ilI.~:tl.
(or ltilogrammes) per million BTU burned.
Sulphur may be removed from the combustion gases by chemical "scrubbing". . I .,I .2.3. Particulates
' I ' l l ( . snlphur-oxide-laden exhaust gases are brought into contact with a scrubbing

: I . J : ( ~such I ~ ~ .as
, lime or limestone, to produce a chemical reaction that removes the I ~ ' I I ~ ( : gases from coal-burning operations contain small particles of' solit l I I I ; ~ ~ , I ~ I .1 I1 1I, I
:;11ll1111ir. The stream of effluent from the absorbent scrubbers has its water evapo- 111:~in1y carbon. There is a range of particle sizes down to less ~,II;LII I 1 1 1 1 1 1 , 1 1 1 1 1 1
I ;!I I Y I olI', producing a sludge that has to be disposed of as solid waste. For example, I.II(:suspensions of smaller particles can be ingested or inha1t:d by rcsl)iri~I.io~~. I '111
11. r l r l i l . I~urning2% sulphur coal produces about 200 lb of sludge (dry weight) per t,ic.rllates may travel hundreds of miles from their point of origill, ; L ( Y . O I I \ ~ I I I I 1 y i 1 1 ~
I I 8 1 1 01' c:oal burned. A power plant of (say) 500 MW, would create a 560-acre sludge ~ ~ l ~ ~ i s sof i o gas
n s from the same source. The chemical 11i~turcof ~)i~rt,i(:l~Ii~,(,c-s ('1111

I I I > ; ~ ) ~ , Sarea
~ L I 40 ft deep, over its lifetime [I]. More modern scrubbing agents such as ~ . l ~ ; ~ in n gtransit.
e Both increases and decreases of toxicity Iii~vcI)(:(:ii IIOI,(YI I I HI
s( 11li1111ior recyclable metal hydroxides neutralise the sulphur oxides and also reduce Also, during transit, the emitted gases may form aerosols (fin(: s ~ l s l ) o ~ ~ s i oI.III.OII~:II l~s)
1.111, sci~lingof the flue pipes. (.(,lidensationand coagulation. These may react with othcr fin(: s ~ ~ s ~ ) c : l ~ Is( ~iro1 1~l ~ s ,
i 111; to increases of particulate size with changed physiological cff(:c:t,s,if il~~:osl,c~c I I )I.
I I I l laled into human bodies.
, I ./1.2.2. Nitrogen oxides
In order t o satisfy stringent environmental regulatior~s,C:~I~IIIII(:Y (!IIIIIoII~.s r1.11'
I )11riilgthe combustion of coal, nitrogen is drawn both from the coal and from the (.~~lt,rolled by one or more of four filtration processes: nlechnnic;~.lc:oll(:c,~,ors, (.II~
; ~ . i vill which it burns. Nitrogen oxide formation depends on the flame temperature, i.~ost,aticprecipitators, ubbers and fabric baghouses. All t,hc nlc~t.llotlsrt.l.i* I I I ~ ~ I I *
(.II(* t,iiile of combustion, the excess air present and the rate of cooling. To lower 1.llt:c:tive in capturing the larger size particles. Somet,imcs t,wo i,yl)cbs; l . t x h 11:;1,(1 1 1 1
~ ~ i t , ~ . oxide ~ g c i emissions
i it is necessary to modify the combustion processes. Design :,~,r.ics, with a cheap and relatively inefficient first stage acting t,o rc:tlilc.c: ILII(. I( 1111 1111tl.
;~.rl.;~.iigc?lllents are effective if they involve lower combustion temperatures, restric- I 111 ;I, more efficient and more expensive second stage.
I.ior1s of air intake, recirculation of flue gases and injection of water into the fire-box Mechanical collectors use gravity, inertia or ccntrif~lgal Corc.c:s 1.0 S I * I I I I . I , I I ~ . I '
I I I. Motor vchicle exhaust gases are a bigger source of nitrogen oxides than power (111i~in1y) heavier particles from the gas. The sinlplcst forill c:oiisist,s 01' ( ~ 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 ~ ~ : ( * ( 1
st.;~,l.io~~ Huc gases in the UK. For this reason there is now UK legislation requiring ,.ll;l,lllbersin the gas stream which slows down the flow r;~t.c:,( : i i i ~ . I ) lt , li1~( , ~I I~I ~ I I , L ~
il.11 11c:w cars to be fitted with exhaust gas filters. In the USA about one-half the
I I . I . ~);~rticles to settle. Other methods use centrifugal swirlilig ol' t.11tr gi\.s(ss,wllic41
11iI.l.ollsoxicie emissions in 1999 were due to the nitrogen fertilisation of soils in the l.:lllstrs t,he heavier particles to travel to the outer walls i~ilcic l r o p 1.0 1,11(~\ ) o t . l . o ~ ~I r11
;~.~!,~.ic.lilt.~~r:~l sector [17]. I 11,. c-I~t~niber [I].
A(.i(lprc:cipitation or "acid rain" is caused by sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides lSl(?c:t,rost,aticprecipitators are used by the UK el(:c:t,ric:iLy g(:li(:l.;l,t,io~~ i~l(IllsI.~ y
111ixi11g c~llc:~llically with water vapour in the atmosphere. These emissions are mainly ' \ ' \ I ( . [ I I\(:gi~scs are passcd betwccil a high-voltagc: el(:ct,rotl(:i ~ u lc ;L gl.cI I I I I ~ I ( Y I c ~ ~ ~ l l c ~ ,eI ~I l . i c
c l ( ~ l . i v c ~ eI'rolli
l C O ~ L i ~~ n doil combustion, which is dispersed through tall chimneys to I,I:I.I,I~. 'L'lic io1iisc:tl ~);~rt,icles Inovc: t,owil.rds 1.llo ~ I . O I I I I I I ~ ( 1~)1;1.t,(', w11c't.c' I . I I ( ' ~ I I , I I '
I H , ( & V I . I I ~ l, ~ i c.oi1c.c:iitri~t.io11~
~ l ~ i ~ t l:ro~~~l(I
, I(:v(:l. Due to air motlion, incrcascs in t,he ~.~,ll(~c.l,c~l ;~11(1~.(:lli()~~:(i. h s 11111(:11 iLS !)!).!)%I (1)y w ( : I ~ , I I ( , ) 01' I . I I ( ~ ~);l.l.I,i(.l('s(.i1,11 Ire.
~ ~ c . i ~ l i l01'. , v 1.11(~ lo(.:~.I ~ ~ ; ~ . i i i f ; 111i1.y
l.ll ~ ( . ( . I I I . IIIIIIIII.(YIS ( ~ 111iIcs
f (lowi~wi~i(l fro111t,ll(: sit;(:of I I . I I I , , V ~ . , ~ 1,111, (,l~t:
~)j.c:c'i~)i(,i~(,io~~ worlts I)c,sl,011 1,11(: l~c:i~.vic:r ~);~.rl.ic:le!s. Wil,l~low S I I ~ ~ , \ I I I I ,
1 1 1 , . ~ H , I I ~ I I . ~ ~' I I' I I ( '. ( ~ ~ ~ ~ i l .j:;l,scs!;
l ( ~ ( l I I I I I , ~ I N ' ~l)ii(Iis(:(l 1.0 SIII~)II;I.~.(:S ;I.II(I oI.ll(~r( ' I I ( : I I I ~ ( : ; L ~ 1.1 ,;I.IS i ~ ~ I( , Ic) ~I Ns\ c:l(~(.t,~~i(~;~,Il,y
1,110 ~ ) ; ~ , r ~ ,t,(,11(1 I I I O I Y * t.c~sisI,iv(*. 'I'l~isIII)I,I<,,S ~ ~ I ( ~ I ~ I , I ~ O Y ~ , ; I , ~ ,
si1.t: ~)~.c~c.il)iI.t~.l.it)lr I I I O I - I . c ~ x l ) c * ~ ~ sOi Iv~c I~. I ~ . Il.111, I I I I I , ~~ . I I ~ ~111.c-11
I : ~ I1 ~) 1 1 > 1 , i l ~ r~.l.or
il I I I,II I I ~ I I ~ I . : I ~ . I ~
in :L Iiot,l~~~.
\ ) I I , v I , o f lL\\(8 (1\1(- k!;i\.S, W ~ I I - V II 1*1 c - l ~ i ~ ~ ,I~(~III\)(~I.:I,I,III~~~
l~c~r IXY~III*(%S ~x*sisl,ivil,,~
t , l ~ c b

of the c a r l ) o ~l);l,~~~,i(~l(~s.
~ A l ~ , ( ! r ~ ~ : ~ ~l )t i, i~ v; l(;~~l)t.~~(~il)it,i~,t,ors
I~,~~~, I I I ; I I)(:
, . ~r(*(lt~ir(!([. (Milllon Motrlc Tons Carbon Cqulvalt1111)
-- . --

Wet scrubbers are sorrietiirlc:~11sc:tl I,o wirslr solitl 1)art;ic-l(:sfroin t,lic: giw st,l.ci~lri - -. Hlatory,. Prolactlona _ T

using water. This is essentially a p11ysic:al sc:rul)hi~lgprocess that is different fro111 . Reglon/Country
Industrlallzed Countrlel
the chemical scrubbing of sulphur oxides, described in Sec. 4.4.2.1 above. Norlh Amerlca . . . . . .....
For the filtration of the finer particles, t.he most effective method is to use fabric Un~led stalesa
..........
Canada. . . . . . . . . . . . . -
filter baghouses. The flue gas is forced through fine filters, effecting filtration but Mexico . . . . . .........
causing a pressure drop. This increases the operating costs. The method is widely Weatern Europe .........
Unlled Kingdom .........
used for general purpose industrial applications. High temperature, corrosive gases France . . . . . .........
Germany. . . . .........
due to coal combustion in power utility boilers pose particular problems for filter Ilaly. ...............
methods [I]. Netherlands ...........
Olher Western Europe. .....
lndustrlallzed Asla. .......
Japan . . . ...........
4.4.2.4. Carbon dioxide Australasia . . . . . . . . . . . .
Total lndustrlallzed . . . . . .
The burning of coal releases carbon dioxide (COz) gas and thereby contributcs to
EE/FSU
the possibility of global warming due to the accumulation of so-called "greenhouse" Former Soviet Union ....... 333 160 168 176 176 166 158
(1 't

Eastern Europe . . . ....... 189 127 113 112 98 78

.' ',
gases. This is discussed in Sec. 2.6.7 of Chapter 2. 68
.l.l
Total EEIFSU .......... 522 287 280 288 274 245 224

Developlng Countrlee
4.4.2.5. Carbon dioxide~emissionsdue to coal Developing Asla ......... 704 870 773 1,035
China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514 600 495 702
Table 4.10 gives figures for past and projected future emissions of carbon dioxide India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 148 156 189
South Korea . . . . . . . . . . . 21 33 36 42
clue to the use of coal. Comparable information is given in Table 5.5 of Chapter 5 OlherAsia . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 88 87 103

for oil and in Table 6.5 of Chapter 6 for natural gas. Carbon dioxide emissions due
Mlddle East. ........... 20 30 29 32
rurkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 23 21 23
t,o coal are seen to be smaller than those due to oil in the OECD countries and the Olher Middle East . . . . . . . . 4 7 7 9
Afrlca ............... 74 93 80 102
Middle East but much larger in China. There is a close correlation between the ...
Central and South Amerlca 15 23 22 24
;~rnountof coal consumed, Table 4.6, and the collsequellt amount of carbon dioxide Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9 14 13 15
Olher CentrailSouth Amerlca .. 5 9 9 9
unitted, Table 4.10. Total Developlng ....... 812 1,017 914 1,194
If the figures for carbon dioxide emissions due to coal, oil and natural gas in TotalWorld ............ 2.274 2.254 2,137 2,507 2.814 3,127 3.500 2.4

(lie three tables compared with the total primary energy use in Table 2.8 of Chap- "includes the 50 States and the District of Columbia. U.S.Territories are included in Australasla.
Notes: EEJFSU =EastemEuropelFormer Soviet Union.
1.c:r 2, it is found that, from the viewpoint of carbon dioxide emission, natural gas Sources: tilstory: Energy Information Administration (EIA), lnternatlonalEnergy Annual 1999, DOEiEIA-OZIO(l)n) (WIIIIIIII
I)C. Jenuaw 2001). Prolectlons: EIA. Annual Energy Outlook 2001, DOEJEIA-0383(2001)(Washington. DC, Uucorlil~ntI
is the cleanest fuel. Natural gas contributed = 24.7% of world primary en- I id;le 619; and world €iergyProjection System (2001)
c ~ g ycorlsumption in 2000, Table 2.3, but is projected to create = 21.8% of %
l.llc fossil fuel carbon dioxide emissions in 2005, Table 6.6. Oil use contributed to
c,;~.rl)on emissions pro rata to its world consumption of 40%. Coal was relatively 5 . 1 Fluidised-bed combustion
"tlirt.yn in gencratirlg 8
-- 35% of the total fossil fuel carbon dioxide emissiorls
I~'lt~itlisation is a technology for causing small solid ~ i ~ r l i c : l1 .o0 ~I ) ( ' l ~ i l . v (i1.s * if' [.III*V
i l l L!)99, Table 4.10, while contributing - = 25% of the world primary energy
wc-l.ct ;I. liquid. Coal is burned in a mixturc wit,l~lii~lc:st,oilo (1.0 il.l~so~.l) S I I I I ) I I I I I . ) :dl111
1.c ) ~ ~ s ~ l m p t Table
i o n , 2.3.
1 ) ~ . l l ( l ( ~ in
t l a st,reanl of colnbustiorl air rising fro111l)(~i~(:i~l,l~1.110 I I ( ~ ; I . ~ , ( IV I ) ( v I . Il'ijl,. .I H
( ) l ) l , i ~ ~ comt~ustion
~~li~l and heat, t,r;~ilsfc:rt,o 1,11(:l~c:ilt,ir~g
(,oils ~x!cl~iil.c>s rl,l)l,l.ol~~.ii~l.

I . 5. Advanced Coal Technologies

 high-pressure air
4
-- \

hiah-wessure , I high-pressure and high I

chamber Electricity
t
HRSG
Gas turbine
m

m
f
Steam turbine-
--Heat exchanger

COOL
- exhaust gas

Fig. 4.8. Combined-cycle integrated gas and steam turbines [2]. Fig. 4.9. A schematic of the gas turbine combined-cycle power gencrat.io~~
?iy?itc>l,l[.)1)1

AC = air conditioner HRSG = heat recovery steam gcneralo~

[19]. Pressurised fluidispd-bed systems are more efficient and result in lower levels G T = gas turbine S T = steam turbine
of emissions than atmobheric level fluidised-bed systems.

4.5.2. Combined-cycle generation 'I'l~cuse of natural gas is now increasing to the extent that one-t,hirtl of 1,11,, 1 , ~ ~ 1 . 1 1 . 1
I I Ii electricity generation is expected to come from combined-~y(:l(: I ) ~ ~ I . I I Iwil,lli~l
,S
Combustion systems that combine a gas-turbine-driven generator with a separate I \I(:next few years.
steam-turbine-driven generator are called "combined-cycle" systems. Figure 4.8 The chief advantage of natural-gas-steam combined-cycle g e ~ ~ c r s t , (i. oo ~ ~
~ I [~, I I,. I Y ~ , I
shows an integrated system where a fluidised-bed heater simultaneously heats the wi(.h steam only, is the great increase of overall efficiency. In additio~~, (,11(: ~lsc-01'
fluid in the hot waterlsteam loop feeding the steam turbine and also heats the coal 1.011ibined-cyc1e systems results in a much lower coal use and a signific:i~~~t. r(vlllc*(,ic,~l
gas feeding the gas turbine (the hotter the gas, the more efficient the gas turbine 01' greenhouse gases. There are big reductions of sulphur dioxide, llit,ro~(!llc,xi(lt-ti,
operation). Exhaust heat from the gas turbine, in the form of low-pressure gas, is t,:i.rhon dioxide, particulates and fly ash.
used to reinforce the heat transferred from the fluidised-bed steam circuit. This is It is important to note that combined-cycle operation, where two 111(![S O I I I . ( Y + H
inherently the most efficient power cycle available and is gradually overtaking steam- : I I X \ used, is not the same as cogeneration or combined heat :~ntl1)owc-I.(( !I 1 1 ' ) .
only generation. A steam-only station, most of which are coal-fired, has a full-load ~(hl'ortedin Sec. 3.8 of Chapter 3. The two technologies are q~lit,ctliff(:rc:~~l,, ~LI~,IIOII~~,II
efficiency of about 30%. Combined-cycle plants now (2002) have full-load efficiencies :,.( ,~r~ctimes they are incorporated on the same plant site.
greater than 50%, although the fuel costs are greater. The modern practice is to
combine a coal-fired steam plant with a natural gas system, Fig. 4.9 [20]. It is
also possible to combine the steam cycle with heat energy from nuclear, wind or .I.(i. Liquid Fuels from Coal
solar generation systems [21]. A relevant solar system is described in Sec. 11.5.3 of
Chapter 11. 01' I I I I I ( : ~ I i~~v(:s:,i~:it.l.i
' I ' I ~ ( . c:xtraction of liquid frlels from coal has been thi: ~~~l)j(:c:t,
In 1999 the USA had 199 combined-cycle units with a capacity of 16,817 MW, I,,I. ovc:r 100 yc:nrs. Becausc! of thc low pricc of c:r~ldi:oil it, is lot, ~ L I Ii~.c,I,ivc>~)lxl~.c-s
i1.I. ~)r':s':llt (2002).
which was only 2% of the total electric power capability of 785,990 MW [22]. It is
planned to add an additional 71 combined-cycle units, with n;~inc:pli~t,c: (:i~~i\.<:it,y of I:oll~ 11ii~i11
;q)ljrot~(:Ii(:s
iLr(! I I S ( X ~ :
17,288 MW, t,hrough t,h(: yc:;r,r 2004. 111 t.hc IJJ< t,lio I I S O o f gi1.s I . ~ ~ r l l i c~~~ oc >r ~ ~ l ) i ~ ~ o ( l -
(:y(:l(:sl,;~l,io~~s
i ~ ~ ( . r ( ! ~~~' ~sO(IvI xIl c b ~ , 1o1 1 1073 I,(] I I .fjc%l 01' 1 , 1 1 1 ~t,oI,11.1p ; t ~ ~ ~ e ~ r i 111
~ , lI!),!)/!. i o ~ ~
 ~ \ i l ~ ~, l, l~ l1l~ s1 1 ' 1 ' 1 ' ~~~ l , ~ ~ ~ l ~ O { ~~lI'c11'l~SS
, l ~ l l : ~i l ~1 ~' 1 l ~~1 ~ l l l ~~ 1 1 1 ~ 1: 1I S 11if1,11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 , ~~ I V I ~ I I I } ~ , I ~ I
~ 1l ll l ~1;iIS

:I( l'('il,('~,s
~ l i ~ ~~ ~, ~~ ~l 1 1 1 ~ ) ~ i 1' . 1l 1'1 ~i ~l ~~ ~l ~ l~ l ~~ S I ( ~ 1 i 1 , li l l 1 , 1 1 1 ~ I I I ~ I ~ S I ~ I111'
~ S~ l l l ~w l~ ~I , ~ 1,11(5 I I ~i l I ~ ill i11y:~I

51I I I I I ~ ~,il,l,;~,lyt,ic. 1)ro(.(3ss(3s IIS(, ;L s1is1)(~i1sioi1 ( I [ ' ( ~ 1 i 1 , l i t 1 Il(,i~,v,yoil i 1 1 1 ( l 1pi1,ss1,111:; I I \ , I ~ I

4.6.1. Indirect liquefaction I c ~ l i l y s tI to o i l i t i ~ t : ti t w t i I I I i ~ l i ~ l y s' l ' ll 1 1 1 1
In this process the feed coal is conlpletely gasified t o produce a "synthesis" gas. I 1 l l l i l l i l ~ . O tall(!
~ ll(!(:(I for tllC lil~g(!-~(:alC ~(!~)lil~(!111(!11~~ 01' ( ~ ; I . ~ , ; Lt ,~l l i,l (~, sWI ~ ,11s111 1 ; I I I : I ( '

Purification methods are then used t o remove particulates and sulphur compounds. \vIlc>r.cn t,lie cat,alyst is ill direct (:oritact with th(: c:onl. Tllc: c:oi~l~)rotl~~c.t,s 11.1.c~ I I I I I ~ I \'I ~
; I I . ( I I I ~ ; L ~ , ~ InC . the UK the Imperial Chemical Intlust,rics pli~iil,i ~ t , 11illi11j:l111111 111111 1 1
Liquid products, usually rich in aromatic compounds ranging from gasoline t o heavy
oils and waxes or methanol, are obtained by high temperature and high pressure ~.;~l)i~c.ity of 100,000 tonnes per annum of liquid fucl in tlic 1!):10s.
'Tlie commercial viability of extracting liquid fucl fro111 c:oi~Itlcl)c~~~(ls 1111 I I I I <
reactions in the presence of appropriate catalysts. Indirect liquefaction processes
have low thermal efficiencies, of the order 40-45%. . ; ~ ~ l ) iand ) l y price of oil. At the present time (2002) tlic price of I ~ ~ L ~ , I I I .(I. II. .I I~I 11' I 111 1 1 1
I . I I O low for synthetic liquid fuels from coal t o represent serious c.o~~~l)c-l,il,io~~ I1 Iri
The best-known'method is the Fischer-Tropsch process, developed in Germany
in the 1930s. A large scale commercial operation is the SASOL plants in South I 11 11, clear if the use of coal liquids is environmentally "clcallcr" t,lii~il t,1 I ( & 1111 1.1 1 1 111: ( 1 1
Africa, which initially produced petrochemicals and fertilisers. By the mid-1980s I.o;I.I itself. The combustion processes in coal liquefact,ion inay I)() (.II-II.III~I. 1 1 1 1 1 ( 1 1 1 '
three plants used 30 million tonnes of coal per year t o produce gasoline, diesel fuel, 1 wc!rall processes themselves may represent a greater indl~st,rinl1ii1zi~1~ I 1 I I * I . I I I I : I I . I 11
LNG, kerosene and other products [19]. I I I I ~distillation of impurities. There is a concentrat,io~i of po1yc:yc-lic ~ I . ~ ~ , I I I II ~I I II I. I 1 1 - 1
I I I I.lle heavy fractions of coal liquids [I].
A great advantage of indirect liquefaction, compared with the three direct meth-
ods described below, is that it does not require the heavy use of hydrogen in refining
the heavier liquids. T l ~ i smay be a significant cost advantage. .I.7. P r o b l e m s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s

Use the information in Tables 4.3 and 4.6 to list, t,lic: worlcl's I . ( > I I I I I I J : ~ . : ; ~
4.6.2. Pyrolysis producers and consumers of coal at the prc:sc:nt ti~tlc:.
In pyrolysis the coal is heated in the absence of air or oxygen, which breaks down Which countries of the world were big exporters 01. illi~)ort,cs~~s 01' 1.0i1.1 ( 1 1 1 1 I I I J :
the coal molecules to form ethane and methane, leaving a remnant called "char". the year 2000?
Hydrogenation can be achieved using the intrinsic hydrogen from the coal or by ap- In which countries of the world did coal product,ioll (;I) i~ic,~.c~i~.sc,, (I)) III~I.II~II!I~,
plying a stream of hydrogen which improves the liquid yield. Crude benzoil refining most significantly between 1995 and 2000:'
using pyrolysis began about a hundred years ago. Although the thermal efficiency In which countries of the world did thc c:ons111li1)t,ioli of (.oi~.I( { I , ) ~ I I I . I I . ; I : ~ I . ,
can exceed 80% the overall production cost is not at present (2002) competitive (b) decrease most significantly between 1995 ;~ritl2000'?
with natural crude oil. Use the data of Tables 4.7 and 4.8 t o discuss tlict fig~lrcsfor (.oi~.II I I ~ I I I - I I1 1 1 1 1 I
coal used in the UK from 1980 t o 1999.
Use the data of Tables 4.3 and 4.6 to discuss t,lic figures For (Y);I.I I ) I . O I I I I I . I 11 1 1 1
and consumption in the USA bctwecn 1'3'30 ant1 2000.
4.6.3. Solvent extraction
Compare the UK coal production siilcc 1970 t111c:t,o (a) ( 1 ( ~ - 1 ) I I I ~ I I ~ I I J : , ( 1 1 )
In the solvent extraction processes, finely crushed and dried coal is treated with a open-cast (surface) mining.
hot, liquid, hydrogenated solvent oil, derived from coal. How did the proporti011 of coal used in t,h(: U1< tlo~~tc:st.ic sc~c.~.o~. I . ~ I ~ I I I J ~ 1', 1I *1 1 1 1 1

The hydrogenation reaction is catalysed t o some extent by inorganic substances 1970 onwards? What were the reasolls for t,11(. (.lli~.~lg(!'!
in the coal. After processing it is possible to generate hydrogen plus a range of How has the: proport,ion of coal ~lscctill c,l(:c.tric.il,yg c ~ ~ ~ ( ~ ~ .i lil l .I I1 1,1i%o(~1 li~
hydrocarbon products that can be upgraded t o gasoline or diesel fuel. One of the changc:d si11c:c 1980:)
technical problems in the solvent extraction is how t o separate the undigested coal Dcspitc! lligll lt~l)o~ir caost,s,t,lto ~~ri(:c! 01' (IS (Y);I,I wi1,s low(tr I , ~ I : I I I I,IIII:-I- 1 1 1
and ash from the liquid products [I]. The heavier residual oils can bc rcryclcd as the l < ~ ~ r o l )t111(1
(~i~ , J ~~I ,l~ ~) ~ L ~ I ( , S('0i1,l
( ! c111ui11g I !)!)OS.W11.yW ~ I S1,Ilis >I I,!
t,I1(5

solvent oil [2,231. Thcrnlal cfficicllc:ic:s of GO (is'%,11il.vc:I )(Y:II rc!i~.liscs(l i l l ( t x l ) ( ~ i l l11.i1I

l(>~ 'I'll(: 1ISA ir.c:c:o~l~ll.s 1;1r111or1~ 1,11;1.11 o 1 1 ( - I I I I ; I I . ~ . ( P I . 01' w01.111I.IIII.I ~ . I I I I S I I I I I I I ( ~ I I I I
l)ro(~wir(~i~,(,l,ors. Solv(~i~l,
(txI,r;~,(.l,io~~
111(~1,11o(ls ,yioI(l 2.5 :i1111,rr(,ls
( ~ 1 ~l,,yl)i(~>~~ll,y
1 01' WII:I.I,is I . I I ( ~ c > c ~ r l lIISIYI 1'o1.?
Iic111i(l ] I I , I . I , I I I I I I I ' I X I I I I .
 W ~ I I II I,, I~X - ,lLl113( 1 1 , ) I I I ~ V I I I I ~ , I I ~ II,II(I
~ ~ , ( ~ S( I ) ) I I I S I I ~ ~ I V I I I I ~ ~ I
01'I I .I ~I I ~I II~~I ISI I I ~ ~~, l o ~ ~ ~ ( ~ s l , i ( ~ 1.1. t L l ~ ~ ~ ~I ; ~I I ~~ I~I ILI -~ ~ ,l~t ,( ~vl 1 1 1 1 11, 1 1 1,111, ~ I I I I V I I , I (I{II:IIII(YI!I
I l ~ ~ l ~ lI ~tIsI I,I I ~ O I I I 1 IIIIISI', NI'W \ ' I I I(,
I I JSA)
~ yivl11101\!Is:\, :!I(!I * I ~ I ~ I O I (I V I I I ~ I I ~
co11,li 1 1 O I ) ( ~ I I [in! ~)IIL(Y)S'!
1:). I ) , ) I I,, I{, ( ', 1 l!)781 NII.~*,I:~/!/, / ~ ~ , . V O II I I, I I.I /J ,/ '~o ~/ ~,i ,, ,~~( /A ~ l ( l i s Wt~sI(.,y
o ~ ~ I ' I I I I I I H I I(I !II II I ~I I ,
Wllal, arc: t,llc: (;I) ~ L ( I v ~ L I I ~ , ~~ ~L I~I ( I ! (I)) s (lisi~(Ivi~~~I,i~g(:s oC I I S ~ I I(.O;LI ~ ;LS I,h(:
I ) I I . I I , ~ ,I { I > ; I . I ~ ~ I I ~ MA,
, [ISA), (;IIII~)I,(T(i.
prime fuel for electricity gc~icratiori'! I(;. AII~.~IOI.'s (WS) ~)c*r.sol~;~l rc-~r~ii~isc~c~l~c(..
How is coal transported from t h e pit-head t o t h e user sites? I " I I I I ~ S S ~ ~ I I Sof ( ~ I I I ~ I I SI ! S I I 1 , ! I':x('(.III.~v(' S I I I I I I I I I I II':IA .~",
Explain t h e n a t u r e a n d purpose of coal slurries. l l , ~ p o rEIAI t 1)OE 057:%(!1!)),LJS l)(:pt. of 14>r~crgy, W ; I S I I ~ I I ~ II)(, ~:,I IIIS, A , ( ) ( . I , ;!II~II
W h a t a r e t h e main pollutants due t o coal burning?
Is. Arr~tlur,M . [I9761 "'l'oxicological Guidclirlcs for lt('~(~il.~.(:l~ O I I SIII~)IIIII. Oxirlt~rrI I I I ~ II'III
t.ic:ulatesn, E'roc. Fourth Symp. Statistics and the 13irrriro1~7t~cirl, N I L ~ . ~ A~ ~~ I~I II I~( ~1 1 I1 ~
Explain w h a t is meant by t h e t e r m "acid rain". How does this occur a n d
Sciences, Washinglon, DC, USA, pp. 48-55.
w h a t a r e its effects'? I!). Myers, R. A., ed. [I9811 Coal Handbook (Marccl Ilckkcr Ill(:., N(-w Yo~,l(,IISA)
Briefly describe t h e n a t u r e of t h e electrostatic precipitation operations used :!O. ''Natural Gas Fired Combined Cycle", from "Greenl~olise(;as I ' : ~ I I ~ S IS' I I~I I I~I II ' III WHI Q I
in power utility boiler emission systems. Stations", London, UK, 2000. http://www.ieagrccn.orgg~ik/c~r~is5.1~i~~~~
? 1. "Feasibility of a Solar-Driven Combined-Cycle", Section 3 S y s l . c ~I )('siy,ll
~~ I I I I I~
Briefly explain four methods of obtaining synthetic liquid fuels from coal. 1'111

formance, ConSolar Project, Feb. 2001.

W h y a r e such methods not widely used t o supplement t h e world's dwindling
http://magnet.consortia.org.il/ConSolar//Tintin/stepp4.ht~l~
oil supplies? :!?. "Annual Electric Generator Report Utility", Form EIA-860A, ~ C I I I - I . ~ ,I ~III;I I 111111 11 I I I
In t h e USA, a s in Western Europe, t h e coal mining industry h a s passed Administration, Washington, DC, USA, Dec. 2000.
through deep recession in t h e past 20 years. W h y is this so? :I:\. Ezra, D. [1981] "A Review Plan for Coal", The M,ining E~~gincrr,, IJ I<, .III.II. l!)H I

References

1. "Energy in Transition 1985-2010n, Final Report of the Committee on Nuclear and

Alternative Energy Systems, Chapter 4, National Research Council, Washington, DC,
USA, 1980.
2. McVeigh, J. C. [I9841 Energy Around the World (Pergamon Press, Oxford, England),
Chapter 4.
3. Arnold, G. [I9851 Coal, Energy Today Series (Gloucester Press, New York, USA).
4. "UK Energy in Brief', Dept. of Trade and lndustry (DTI), London, UK, Dec. 2001.
5. "BP Statistical Review of World Energy", BP Amoco plc, London, UK, June 2001.
6. "International Energy Outlook 2001", US Energy Information Administration (EIA),
Document DOE/EIA-0484(2001), Washington, DC, USA, Mar. 2001.
7. "The Market for Solid Fuels in the Community in 1996 and the Outlook for 1997",
Directorate-General XVII-Energy, European Commission, Sec (1997) 1093, Brussels,
Belgium, June 1997.
8. "UK Energy Sector Indicators 2 0 0 0 , Dept. of Trade and Industry (DTI), London,
UK, Nov. 2000.
9. "Coal Information 1997", International Energy Agency, Paris, France, Sep. 1998.
10. "Conclusions of the Review of Energy Sources for Power Generation and Government
Response to Fourth and Fifth Reports of the Trade and Industry Committee Energy
Review White Paper, CM 4071n, Dept. of Trade and Industry, London, UK, Oct.
1998.
11. "US Coal Industry Annual 1998 Executive Summary", Energy Information Adminis-
tration (EIA), Electric Power Mor~thly,Document DOE/EIA-0226(99/03), Washing-
ton, DC, USA, Mar. 1999.
12. "Impact of Technological Change and Productivity on the Coal Markct", Edwi~rdJ.
Flynn. From "Iss~lesin Midterm Analysis and Forecasting 2000", 1311rrgyI~~for~riation
Adrnir~ist.ri~l,ion, Wi1shi11gt.011,
I)(:, f JSA, 2000.
I:!. " M ( ~ ~ , ~ I~ 'I~IOII II I(;(III,I
< - S(>;I,IIIS
' I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I I I O ~IIS
O ~ ,(;IW
~ " , I ~ . ( * H I ~ I ~ . I , ( . ~I I I I H ~ , ~ ~ , I I ~W
,(,~
> ~sl~i~~gl,ot~,
I ) ( ! , IISA, MIII..l!l!lll