8 cod^ .......... . . .

431
.
18,1t1, Nltwd vsgststlon , , . , . . . . . . . . . 431
19,1,2, Energy tree plmt(ctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
13,1,3, Speclflc energy crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
13,1,4. Uee, of wwtea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
CHAPTER 1
1S.1.50 Water-based biomass . . . . . .. . . . 433

*
lJ,I, Photwyntheerls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 ENERGY AND POWER
1B,El, Methods of Industrial Biomass Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
19,9.1. Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
1S~3p2.Pyrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
18,5,3. Gaelfication of biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
19,3,4, Llquid and gaseous fuels from biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 Energy is the capacity or capability to do work. All msiterllalr p-
13.3.4.1. Chemical reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 because they can all be utilised in some form of energy converrlan p r o m ,
13.3.4.2. Aerobic (alcoholic) fermentation . . . . . . . . . . . 439

8L4,
13,3.4.3. Anaerobic digestion to produce biogas . . . . . . . 440
Wood M a Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
example, most substances will burn or vaporle, and the c o n r e q n ~ ht&
can be harnessed within mechanical energy aystems that create
aome form of mechanical resistance.
G=
. Energy from Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 Energy can take several forms, as classified in Table 1.1. Mwr or m ~ W 8 b8
13,5,1, Solld waste disposalinlandfillsites . . . . . . 445 form of highly concentrated energy. Some forms of matter can be u t W d la a&
18,5.2. Solid waste disposal using municipal energy applications, as discussed in Chapter 8.
inclnerators (combustors) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Table 1.I . Forms of energy.
. 13.6,3, Worked examples on solid waste incineration . . . . . . . . . 450
13,6.4. Llquid and gaseous wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 biofuela (e.g. wood) mass
The &el Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 chemical -
mechanical klnetlc
Problem and Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . 453 electrical
gravitational
mechantcal -potentlbl
nuclear
C Y , , . . . . ................. ....... 454 heat (thermal) radiation
magnetic mound
~ T B 14R THE ENERGY FUTURE 457
2* Th Energy Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
b , An Energy Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.,' 14.3,1,
, . . 458
Thm Long-Term Energy h t u r e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Nuclear fbsion using breeder reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
14,S82. Solar energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
1,I, Energy Conversion
Tho many applications of the use of energy ususlly Involve trsnrformrtierpl
different forma of energy - a procese known M energy convsrrion. Any
I'
143.3. Controlled thermonuclear fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
" 14,9,4. Oeothermsl energy [4] . . . . . . . . ......... 461 b e m n different energy forme is Imperfect in that some of the anul~g
34A Whrt Shall We Do When the Oil Runs Out? . .. 462 wed to fullitate the converslon procsu. The conmrtad met@output
~ ~ U I C .M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 462 bhe uaargy laput m d thir festure L u u d y dwcrlbed u tho coavorul
m r a 1,1lllwtrrtu the large range af varlrtion of cmcrgy
from wry luge elmtrlolty gmmrma (&anid to h o t s
h#
our opwbts oontlawurb J bbwli 00% d?hbzwto tbs bw-t rh&
~ t o r & t m ~ ) w W L ~ & * ~ m t ~ 8 [ 5
~ ~ o o a ~ ~ a r u ~ ~
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= g c o y u =
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ow". a
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m dl m a 0
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dl * TI'**
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 1.3, Machuricd Energy
The widely used Laws of Motion for bodles of conatant mrus were dw&@
the Engllsh scientist Isaac Newton in the 1Vh century. It tr nuw
extreme cases Newton's Laws &re ineufflclent - for very r d mu#
mechanics must be employed; with very high apeode, Eincltsin's t h m q
W8br turblnr ;elatlvity becomes relevant; with very large masses,the concspte of rpcor
Large llrotrlo Motor ate modified by the theory of general relativity. Nevertheleas, for gene4
Dy Ooll Bottmry
,@a Warn Bollor llfe on earth using realistic sizes and time spans, the work of Newton
a Ourbox
b 011Pumrcr
)" '
1.1.1. Linear motion
When a constant force F is applied to an objec't and cltusea tt b
qtpanded:
W = Fx

o~iargyW has the unit of joules (J) or newton-metrea (Nm).

3
dbtance x in the direction of the force, then the work done W L qurT %WJ

SEI (1.1), if the force is in newtons (N) and the distance in metrsr (m],tlr,
If a body of mass m moves in a straight line with EL linear v&dty w
Ihe tlnle rate of change of its position,
ab
..
, 4 1 1 , .(

,,,+I
dx
v=- for small changes of x
dt
v = - for large changes of x
5
t
If s body of mass m moving in a straight line Is subjected to &mgw d
I fia rate of change of the velocity with t h e la known aa the .ofeler&tlrmD,

~n 8.1. unit@,mcatly w d 1 this book, ihr d o c i t y la mr-w~ tn mit&&

&/I) wd the .cooleration in rnetn/aec/ns or metw/laea (rn/rB).
W ~ BaAPorn F la applied to a body of constmt ~ I UmI and oruur th
,
I
k d t y v to chmga, the rrultlng .ccelurtlon a n bo &own cxporimanb+l$
mpartbad to the lppllod form:
.t - -4

Ftp. 1.1, ERfclonalw of onorgy converten (baaed on [I]).

Montz ( ! I I ( ~ I ' K ~~!o~lv(!r~Iol~ l)ro(wH(!H i11voIvi11~ ~ ~ l ( ! ( ! t ~ t ~ l ~ i(!ll(:rgy
(!t~l i~lcorport~t,(:ro1,tb
I,\OIIILI (I(*v/(Y*H. I"or ( ~ x I L I I I ~ ~ (~! ,! l ~ ~ ~ ~ l 8 r o l ~(!Il(:rgy l ~ ! ~ : collvcrtors
I ~ t ~ ~ ~ i ( use
~ t ~rotors
l that
IIILVI* t,Il(* I'or111of nolicl (:yIil~(l(!r~, l ? i ~ . 1 .:l(t~).I'cterol (!r~giilesand diesel engines usu-
r~.llyil~c~orl)ort~l.c! II,ywl~o(!Is, I?ig. I .:l(l)). 'l'h(: rot,or o f a water or gas turbine also has
1 , 1 1 1 ~ I I I I , ~ , I I ~ol' ( ~ t~ llo11-111lifor111 flywt~(:cl.
'1'0 ill~lnl~rt~t~c: so~llc:of f,Ilc principles of rotational motion, the example used is
I , l l ~ i t .oI' I L (:011('(:11(,rt~t,(:(l I I I ~ W S7 r ~ill circular motion at radius r about a fixed cen-
~,I.I* ~ ) o i ~ l1 t , 3, ~ .1.4. Tllr rrlotion is characterised by the angular velocity w in
r~~~llruln/sc:c+ (rtrtl/s) t~rldthe instantaneous tangential velocity v of the mass in
I I I I ~ I , I ~ I V I / H ( ! C ( I I I / S )wllcrc
,

A c~cl~lt,ril)(~t.til li)rc:c acting radially inwards is required to keep the mass moving in l a ' l ~ I 3. Structure of some mechanical energy convertorn. (a) 131c!ctsric~rnoI,or or Rntlrrnt,or (11)
I*'lywl~c.ol(internal combrrstion engine).
IL I~II.I.I(~ t ~ l i ( 1is provided along the tie rod. With rotational motion, the externally
r r l ~ l ~ l l o tTor(:(! l F t~ctingtangentially on the mass (through a rigid tie-rod), Fig. 1.4,
~ . I I I I ( ~ H ~ , I I ( * rti(1i11s is ci~lledthe torque T , which acts as a rotation producing force:

'Ii~rclllctin I I I ( ~ ~ L RillI I ~newton-metres (:II (Nm) and is a very important property of

roI.1il.111~ I ~ I I ( ~ (-o~iv(:ri,~rs.
S ~ , ~ The tangential or linear acceleration of the mass m is
~ , I v ( Q I I , ~ ' 1 ~ 0 1 1 (1 I . I l ) , l)y

( ! I I I I I ~ I I I I I I I K( I .12) I L I I ~(1.13) leads to

= mar

111 ( 1.14) t,11(: t,or111tu is the angular acceleration in rad/s2. The quantity m r 2 in
( I . 1.1) i~ ~ I I O W I IIW t l l ~po11~r111onlent of inertia J and is an important physical
~)t.o~)(~ i l lr trot,t~tio~it~l
~y st,r~i(:tllres,having the dimension kgm2.

tlw
ICx 111 I ~ H I ) I I ( I . 15) in l3rIl(!(lir~-t.t,ly for t,l~(*flywl~(!olt ~ ~ i (-yli~l(h>r tl of Fig. 1 .:I. 17or inor(! '1' ,ICY-:,I -
tit.
( ~ O I I I I I I ~ ( ~ I L I ( V ~I t , r l t ( * t , l l rwIt,11t ~ ~ ( l l n t , r i I ) ~ ~ t , ~IvI l~, I I - ~ I I ~ ~ ~ O IrltLnH,
I'III tell(! (~lf(!(*tliv(b rtuli~lsof
R ~ 1it.1o11I IH I I I O ~ I *( - O I I I ~ ) I I I - I L ~ , ( ~ ( I 1)11t, I.II(* r(qlt~t.ioll~I~I~) ( I . 15) IH nl.lll v l ~ l l ( l111 prillc.iplv. w l l l ( - l ~IN tllrca:l,ly I L ~ I I L ~ ~ K ~Lo (1.14) for
IIM lllltrrrr ~~lollo~l.
 '1'11(:kinetic energy, from (1.17), is

W I I ( ~,I
I I is ill kg11i2 and w in rad/s, the energy of motion, which is also the work
lollc~O I I t.l~c! rotating mass, has the dimension of joules (J) or watt-seconds (Ws).
I

= 2418 joules

'I'liis value also represents the work that was done in rotating thc nlotor fro111rcrwl,
A rioli(l IIIILSS 7n rotates around a fixed centre point at radius r with constant angular [,(I its steady speed.
vl~\oc.it,y w. Show that the force F which impels the motion is proportional to the
~ . I I I I I1.111.(*
~ of cvhange of angular momentum.
1.3. Electrical Energy
111 I'ig. I .1 t-llc: tangential force which causes the rotation and maintains it is
y,iv191111.y I':l(:ctrical energy is the universal clean form of energy that is ~llosl,I I H O ~ . It, In,
I~owcver,a secondary form of energy that has to be obtained by tho ~wc:oft1 ~)rllll~rry
I'rlc.1 such as coal or oil. Because of the great importancn of c!lec:i,ric:al c!llclrKy II IN
I . I I ( ~ subject of a separate section, in Chapter 3.

\"III. i.ol~sl.t~,l~i.
I I ~ R S S ,therefore,
1.4. Chemical Energy

(Illcmical energy may be associated with chemical reactions, comI~unl,lo~l (III~III~N,

= time rate of change tangential momentum, mu roc.kcts, electrical cells and batteries, heating from boilers, etc. Thc clic!rKy \H 1w11trlly
d d ri~,oredwithin materials and is released by combustion. Some twpoctn of' ( - l l c r ~ ~ l l ( ~ ~
= -(mwr) = r-(mw) c911c1rgystorage are covered in Chapter 7.
dt dt
= [r] [time rate of change of angular momentum]
1 .B. Nuclear Energy
I':r,rrrrrplri 1 . 3
,I ,111% rol,or of' (111 c:l(:c:tric: motor has a polar moment of inertia of 10 kgm2 and rotates ' I'll(* oncrgy stored within an atomic nucleus is nlnnifeated, for cborht~in(-11o111 I(-ILI
~ ~ l ( ~ r ~ i by
c n tradioactive
s, I)y t,11(1 [ ) ~ O I ~ ( * H H I ~oI'N
decay. Energy can bc nlatk: t~vnilnt~lo
11.1. 11. S I . ( > I L ( I , ~ sp(!cd of 1800 revolutions per minute (rpm). Calculate the kinetic energy
IIII(-I(:IL~fissioli i~ridnuclear fusion, discussed in Chuptcr 8.
I 11' ~ , I I ( Q111oi~io11.

.I I0 k ~ l l l ~ .
, I , I I . I I K I I I I L ~ v(:Io(:i(,yis ~iv(!11
1118 i l l rpln t ~ l l ( lmust be converted to the corresponding I . . Thctrmal Energy
S.I. 1111ii, oS r ~ ~ ( l i f ~ ~ ~ r i / s ( ! ( : ,
 I II%II,I,is it, I'or111ol'(-~i(:rg.y. 11, lii~st,li(!(.~LI);L(~I~.Y
1,o(lo work (lircctly as thermal warming Sliglil, i ~ ~ ) ~ ) r o x i i ~ loif ~t,Iu:
t i o al)ov(:
~l fijyir(1s is ofl,(:~ll)or~l~it,t,(:(I
so 1,1111,1, 1,111- I * I I I * Y R , ~or
1II I I e~o~~vc~rsior~
~ I,o ot,llcr ciicrgy foriris, 111i~i11lyi~icchailical.The quantity of heat work W ill jollies is giver1 hy
I I I V ~ I ~ Vl iI l ~l IiL I)roc.c:ss car1 be nieasl~redby some effect which accompanies the process.

' I 'I.III l i ~ . i )IIII.I

c l~riit,sof measurement for the quantity of heat Q are the calorie (in cgs
I I I I I I . : I ) ;I.II(I 1,11(: IIrit!ish thermal unit or BTU (fps units).
A well-known energy conversion process ir~corpor;~l,ig i ~ hot~t.-t,e
, I- we rl.lc H ~ ~ I I . ~ J I, IN*
I ~*l~.lori(:
is t,li(: amount of heat to raise 1 gramme (1 g) of water through 1°C.
c:lcctricity generation, illustrated in Fig. 1.5. Ch(:rrii(:i~I(!~i(!rg,yi l l 1,111, soli(1 I'II(II In
1 I{'I'1I is t,lic: i ~ l ~ i o u of
n t heat to raise 1 pound (1 lb) of water through 1°F.
released by combustion and used to boil water in (L c:losc:tl-c-,yc.l(bs,ysl,c*~~~ I , l ~ l r l . In

N I I,l1111,11(:111,is rlot, the same as temperature. The quantity of heat Q is a measure

1l.18 1,hermally insulated to reduce heat loss. Encrgy iri t,hc: for111of I ) ~ ( ~ H H I IHI~.. II*H I I , II I~
I (I

1)1' ~ , I I I *c.llcTrgyoi~pi~c:it,y whereas temperature T is a measure of the hotness. rotates the blades of a steam turbine. After iinpart,ing 11111('11 01' it,^ t?l~(!rKy1.0 I . \ I I ~
' I ' I I ( ~ I ~ I I I ~ I I I I of
L heat energy required to raise the temperature of a particular l,urbine, the steam condenses back into hot watcr that ~icotlsl,o I)($ I'orc-c~-e~e~e~l~~(I 1'10111

IIIII.SH oI' ~~llLl,(:rii~l through a specified temperature range is a characteristic property some large external source of cooling water such as a sea, lakc or rivcv. I ~ ~ I ~ , I L I , I O I I I L I
01' 1,1118 ~~~r~t.c:rii~l. I11 particular, the specific heat capacity is the heat capacity per ~licchanicalenergy is transferred from the turbine to the el;:c.tric: g ( l ~ ~ ( ! r ~ l/\, oIIIOI.(*r.
1 1 1 l i 1 . I I I I I . ~ ~I ,L I ~ ( is
I rrioasured in cals/g-centigrade or BTU/lb-fahrenheit. Water is the tlctailed consideration of electricity generation is givcn in Chi~pt~c!r 3.
HI,IIIIIIII.IXI I I ~ I L L (having
: ~ ~ ~ La ~specific
, heat capacity of 1 cal/g°C or 1000 cals/kg°C The conversion of heat energy into mechanical work also t,i~k(!sI)IH~*o i l l I M ~ I ~ I ' I I I
'11, 1 I~'I'~l/II)"I~'.
It is common to use a dimensionless property known as specific c~iigines,diesel engines, jet engines, gas turbines arid rockct niol,ors. 'l'li(~se~ I I I H , ~it11

Ill~llt~ (,\'I/), I,c grouped under the title of "heat engines". Energy c:o~~vc!rsion oI' I,llix I ' I I ~ I I I I N
restricted in scope and efficiency by certain natural laws ant1 li~rlil,i~l,io~ls (~IIII)O(I~VII
specific heat capacity of a material i l l a formulation called the laws of thermodyni~riiics.
SH-
specific heat capacity of water
W I L ~ . ~,I~(:r(~l'or(:,
I~I., has the value S H = 1.
1.7.3. The first law of thermodynamics
A IIIJLSS?rr. of ~rli~terial raised through a temperature difference (T2 - TI) possesses
11 ( I I I I I I I ~ . ~ of energy Q where
~ , , h(:i~t
~ When the Principle of Conservation of Energy is applicd t,o ;L hc:;~l,worlc ( X ) I I V ( * ~ H I O I I
I)rocess, it becomes known as the first law of thcrnlodyniu~iic:~ i~11t1( * I I , I I 11($ ~ l , l t l , ~ ~ e l
(2 [11c;~tcapacity of the body] x [temperature difference]
l,1111s:
or (1.19)
In an isolated, enclosed heat-work system the totnl errc:r:cl~/rr,rrrtrirr?r
(2 - T ~ I , S H (-TTi)
~ constant.
I I I ( I . I!)), (2 liiw the dimension of mass x temperature. A I I c:xpa.nded statement of thc first law is
The chnn,ge of internal energy of n system is cr]lrnl to tlro ,/rcst Ircstrt
1.7.2. Mechanical equivalent of heat en,ergy input (Q) minus th,e n.et eztern(1,l umrk dorrc! ( W ) .
M ( ~ - I I ~ L I I ~oncrgy
( ' I L I is expressed in units of ergs (cgs system), f t lb (fps system)
(11. ,iol~l(,s (S.I. system). The equivalence between mechanical energy units and heat
rlc:t, 11c:i~tc:ncrgy ... 11c:t,work do~ic:I)y (*IIII,II~;(~ ill
O I I I ~ I ~11
,1
~ 1s t,o I)(: d c t ~ ~ . r r i i rby
i~dcx~)erinicnt.This equivalcncc has the internationally
s~lppli(:(I I.II(, syst,c:r~i sl,orcvl o ~ ~ e ~ r ~ y
r l , ~ r ( - ( ~V iI II , ~ I I ~ \li)r~ricrly
, know11i ~ st,ho "~riechi~nical t:qliivalr:iit of hoat",
1~;vI~ll
11 1111. 1,~~1'1111.111)'11'\'1'1 1 1 1 I Ill' :i\':,ll'lll 1~l11111):1':i (1.1: 1 1 l l ~ l l ~ l l l lIll
l ~ !! I,l l y I 1 lllp,lll~l
I l ~ v l1lI'Ill~ll.l.
~I 1 1 1 ~ ~ 1 1;1.111I
1 1~1111:;1~1~111~111 Ill,~I11~1~ ) , 1 ~ 1 1 1 1 1 1 111s ((,J
W l , I I \ l I ~ l l l l ~!.Ill, 1 1 ' ) 11'11111111
:it ~I.I.I.:;, ~ I 1-1l;.c.l.,
1 1 1 1 1 '1'11('I i t ~ i l l, i ~ w
1.1 111:;l I 1.1111.1. 1101. 1 1 1 0 1 ~ 1 * ~.II:III .I.I H(i ,I(III~I.!; I 11 III,'(.~IIIIL

II,:II lsl~1*r.j:y~.;I,III)(.o l ~ t . ; ~ . i ~I'I.I,III

~ c ~ r lI j: c.;~.lo~.ic> 01' s ~ l i; lI I I I ~ III.II,I.I~IIIIIIII.I.I.I:II 11 I 1 ' : i 1 ~ - 1 . l I \ '
III'IIII*ctl~cSl.gy
~.OIIV~~I.S~I,II II, is ~ i ~ : ~ ~ i l Ii .rl ~ i ~1,111,
~)roc.c~ss. ~l ,. ~li1.sI.
~ l . 111w(III(<:,1 1 1 1 1 I I ~ ~ I I I . I I I
; I I I ~(.II;I,II~,I:S l , l ~ i ~III:I,,~
, t , O(Y.III. 111 t , l ~ ((: l ~ ~ i ~ l 01'
i l , I,\I(*
y s l , o r ( ~(,II(,I,J~,,V
l IIOI. 111 il:i ~ , I I I I I 11
I ~i

1 0 (10 w01.1<.

1 .7..1. 'l'he second l(i717 of t h e r . r r ~ o d ? j r ~ a r r ~ . ' i . ~ n

'1'111. 11(~;i.l,c:llc.rgy c o ~ l t , a i n a t wit.11il1
i ; I ) o t l y v;r.ric:s tlil.c:c.l,ly wil,li i0s II.IIIII(,III~ I l l r * , 11
L

ill (1.1:)).Th(: procass o f ( : o o l i ~ ~i ~gl l p l i ( : s r ( ~ ( I ~ ~ ( tor

11111)li(*(l i oI l* lI I ( * ~ J ~ I, l~t + 1 1 1 III\VII\"
I\<
IWS s l ) o i ~ t a ~ ~ ( ; o ~fro111
is\y ib
i ~ ~ofl \ y\ i g I ~ t :(,(-II~~)(:~;),~,IIY(~
~ (,o 11, l ) o ~ l , y111' IO\VI,II,I*II\\II%
11

I IIII* ill i1.11i~t.te111r)tt o ot)t,;~ill a t , l l ( : r ~ l l i ~(,l~(:rg,y

l 01' 1111ili
(,(~11ilil)ri11111 11.111 I ( ~ III'I
I I 111
~ III I
'l'l11>1,(:
(:;I,II 1)~:110 s p o l ~ t a n ( ! o ~f ~
l osw o f 11(:i~l,(:Il(!rgy f'ro111;I, IY)I)I(,I, l ) o t l y 11 II~III
II I this would I l o w i ~ l j :III)IIIII.
bc a l ~ n l o g o ~ tl so wi~,tc:rsl)ol~t,;~~~c!o~lsI,v
transfer process is a l w a y s ilnpcrl'c:c,l,.
/\ I~c,i~t L l o w c - v c ~wc*ll
~ ~ I.l~c.:~Y:~I('III
I:I 111.

:;ij1,11(~
I i1,11(i ~ r i a i n t a i ] l e ( i some
, 11e:~t is lost, t,o t,11(: S I I ~ ~ O I I I 111
I ( It,ll(%
~ I li
I~ ~~
11 III (11' ~ +1111
i 111.1

j:;l:;tSs, c.ooling l i q u i d s o r gases, coll(luc:tiol~1ossc:s t l ~ ~ l,o

c * ;L ! , ( ~ I I I ~ ) ~ * I~i:,lt
~ ~ IIII
~~I 111
. I I I~ I~ ~
I J ,~

to t h e a l r ~ h i e l l ta i r , r a t l i n t , i o ~i ~ ~ t t.llc:
1.1111\1c~c~l.ior1 , o s ~ l r l . o ~ ~ r l ( sl)rl.c.t*,
l i ~ l ~ : (-11..

I ~ ~ \ , I ill
~ I I i1.11 i c l c i ~ lh e a t c11gi11c c : o ~ ~ t , i ~110i ~ loss(~s
~ i ~ ~ go r ( I r ~ s i ~ 1 I I1
I I ~ ) I ~ I ~ ~ I * I ~ ~1 .IIISI,
I~II:

IVI ,1111 I sl,ill r c m a i l l a n i l r l p o r t i ~ ~11i~t,11r;iI

lt ~ ~q)(b. '1'111s 1 ~ x)I 1~ Y I D I ~I I III
l i r ~ ~ i l , i ~ l01', i os1.1
4 1111. ()I's ( ! v c r i ~ lpossible f o r ~ ~ i ~ ~ l i ~of't ,t li loc ~i1111)orl,i1,11t,
~s ~ ) l ~ , y s i ( 1~)I.II(I,~I
i ~ . l 1 1 4 - I<I1 1 I\\'II 11,.

I 111, SIYY)II(I l a w o f t,llermodyllarl~it:s:

A cyclic lretrt w o r k opc~,cl,tiorr,,rt,c,c~d.s /,o c,orc/trirr /rr!o /.lr.c'r.~~rrrl

r.rc.uc.r.
l~oir:.;. E',i,erl, c1.n idccil Irc:ci/, t:rr!jirre i s cstrpc~bl(:of c,orr,~~c,t.Lr,rr!/
orrl!/ pccr.l
of tile irrprrt irr/,o tr~ork. 7 ' l r ( : r.c:~rrtr.i.rr%rr!jIrc,tr/ c8rrc'r!/:l/r r l ~r:;/
Irntrf. er~e,i:c/?g
hc l~clrrsf(:vred to a l o r u e , /,(~~iirp(!rc~.l.,trrr:
rr~scrl~o~i,~..

'1'111. lirsl. i ~ l ~ soc:or~tl

ci I;LWS 01' I . ~ I ( : ~ I I I ~ ( I ; Y ~ I ~ L I I ~i l( l..s( : i l l ~ l s l , ~ . i ~1j.y
. l . ~~ ~I .l~ I ~ I ~IOII
I ~ . I II1I1 1111

1 ~ l ~II(\;I,I,
~ i 1 (1Y I ~ ~ I I ( : ill F i g . I .(j.
11' t,l~(:r(ti s 110 st,orc(l (;~i(:rgy, ~,II(:II l'ro111 I,ll(: lirsl, 111,wS~,;I,~,(,IIII-II~~01' ( I ,.'? I ) ,

N o w , 1,111- cs~~c>l.j:,y
c~llic~ic~l~c~,y ry 01'
is 1.111. ~.;~.l,ic,
of' i ~ . ~ c.o~~vc~t~l.c:r. 1.1118 I ~ I I I ~ I J ~ ,IIIIIIIIII
,~ 11)
I I I I I . 111 I . l 1 ( 5 (.;IS(' 01' ;I l1oi1.1.wo~.l((.~IIV(*I.I.I'I.1.111' OII\.IIII~
('II~~I.):~
I:i ~'1111111

1 I 1 111, IIII*I.II;III~(,~IIwo~.l<11o11cb:
 II.III,OIII( 11 b i l l - 111~1~1.olI , I I ~ , ~ I I IIII,VI)
I ~ W O I . I ( I I I ~ , ~ ~ f l i ( ~ i ((11'~ ~111~I I (~ I. I Ii ,XI'K~,
~ ~ ~ (liivs~*l ~ V I I ~ , ~ I IL II I I~I W

I:II,S I . I I I . ~ ) ~ I I I ~r1.110111,
S :15'%)11.1111 ~ 1 . 1 ~ 1 ~ 1 I1 .1I I I . ~ ) ~ I I ~I ~L Is ) O I I I . 4r)'KI. 'l'lli~I I I ~ ~ I I , I II,IIII.I.
S 11. 101 I I I

~ ~ u ~ ~isr l wrrsl.c!tl :y (1101, cli!xl,~~o,y~*(l!) I I I I I I I I : ~ I IoI Il l ~ ~ l isi oi ~i ~~ l ~ i 'l I .' I I ~ ~

111os1, (-,lli(:i(!~~t,~ I I ~ ~ o111y I I ~ ISI , ( , I I ~ I ~ V ( *I L l~r;~,(:l,i(:;~l (:Hi(:iv~~(*,y J I , I ) O I I ~ , 1,wo l , l ~ i ~ ~~, I iI I lI .~~ 111'
,
I . l ~ c , ( l;~.r~rol, c:Hic:ic!~~c:y.
'I'll(: vilrio~lsallergy 11tilist~tio11 L'(:R~,II~cs of'a solitl-fi1c.1c!l~hc.l.r.ic.il.y ~ c - ~ ~ c ~ ~ I. rJ r~ l ~~ I i Io
~.ibli~rr.c~l ($0ill Sec. 1.7.2 above, arc illustratctl i l l Fig. 1.5. 'I'II(: (!~l(!r):y i l l ( . ( ) 1.111+ 1 1 1 1

(3--
crlpine
External
work
W=QH- QL 0 engine
External
work
w
I ) i l l c ! , 11,194,000 BTU, corresponds to Qrrin Fig. l . ( i ( ; ~ ) , I)III, or~ly5,'Llil ,(I011 11'1'11

is c,o~~vcrt,ed
s ~ o ~ ~tot QL.
I.o~~~pc:rature
to illechanical work W. The reinaii~ing11(:t~l,, 5,!):1:1,000 11'1'1 1 , 1.1 11 I i t
l s This heat energy is dissipated t o tllc: o n v i r o l ~ ~ ~c~: on~~~l ls .~i,~~I (~~ ~I . I ~ ~ I .
of the coolant source water. In a s t c : i ~ ~e~~giilc:
sil~lcis often referred t o as a condenser.
r~ 1,11(: low ( , I * I I I I ) I + I . I I ~ I I I I '

1.7.4.3. Ideal reverse heat engine

Low temperature
source I I'c-xkrnal work is done on the engine (instead of by it), hcliit,c!llclrgy ( - I L I I I)(< c*nl.~rn.i~l.~*
I'I.( ) I I I the low temperature source and injected into the liigli ( , ( ? I I I ~ ~ ~ ~I IwI . ~I ,. II~ N O I , VIII.,
I

Il'ig. 1.6(b). The best-known example of this is the donic:st,ic: rc:l'l.ixc~~~l,o~., ~~'IJJ,, 1 . 7 ,
(11) 1tlc;rl heal engine (b) Ideal heat pump i l l wliich heat is extracted from the food inside and expc:ll(:tl i ~ ~ tI ., o I I I ~ I ( i l , i ' l ~ ~ u ~I I~I . 11
or refrigerator 1.c-I'ri~crator the reverse heat engine converts the electrical (or ~11,s)
i r ~ l ~ l l Il ~. I I I - I , ~ 1111
, , ~11

I , I I ( ! ~ I I I ~ L energy.
~ The refrigerator mechanism of p i m p , (:ooli~~~t,
~)il)~bs 11.1111 I ~ O I I I I I , I I I
Fig. 1.6. Schematic function of a n ideal heat engine. 1.1 11t111ica1 (liquid or gas) acts as a heat punip.
111 an ideal reverse heat engine, Fig. l.G(b),
II c.rl.ll I ) I , ~ I ~ ~ !fro111
I I (1.23) and Fig. 1.6(a) that the most efficient heat engine will
111. 11, I ~ ) I . I I I i l l wlli(:h QH and TH are as high as possible and QL and TL are as low
1111 ~ ~ ) s s i l )13111, l ( ~ .it, is important t o note that QL and TL cannot be reduced to zero,
w l ~ i i , lw~ i ~ ~ ~represent ltl 100% efficiency. Cyclic interchange between Q H and W in
111 I.II(:refrigerator of Fig. 1.7 heat energy is extracted fro111tllc: rc!l'rixor~~.l,o~. ~.IIII~.IQII~.
I'ie. I . I i ( : l . ) , with QL = 0, would then constitute a form of perpetual motion machine
: I { . ;L I.ime rate dQL/dt. Additional energy enters fro111 t,lrc! c:l(~c:(.ric.rr.l s111)11lyn!, 11.
wllic.l~(.II(- li~wsof thermodynamics declare to be impossible.
tlCJll/tll. ' I ' I I I I
I . ~ I I I ( r~ i ~ t eP and energy is expelled into the snrrolindillgs i ~ 1 ,i~ rr~.l,c~
I I I IN24 i~young French engineer called Sadi Carnot deduced that an ideal heat
1.1 ~r~sc:rvation law (1.25) is satisfied by a timc rate ccluatioi~
c ~ t ~ gWOIII(I i ~ ~ i have ~ a theoretical maximum efficiency that has come t o be known as
1,111' ( !r~.r~~ol, c?fficiency,qcarn,
dQ13 ~ Q I-
-, -
dW
=P
dt dt tlt

; I . I I ~itleal heat engine or reverse heat engine, it call ha S ~ I O W I II.llr~.l, ( 1 .:12) I)I'II)W
I"oI.
111 ( 1 .%I),TI, and TH are absolute temperatures measured from the absolute min-
I.rw!. Corri\)illing (1.26) and (1.32) givcs a relat,ioiiship for I , l l c r 11c3cnlsssrl,l.y
I:; il11)11l,
I I I I I I I I I I . I : I I I I ) ~ ~ ~ L -273OC,
~~I~C in units known as Kelvin (K). The two expressions,
00wc~1.I' i l l tc:riris of teinpcratr~res:
( I . % \ ) n.11tl (1.24), can be linked via the property of entropy, which is discussed in
Sf.1.. 1.8 IJc:lOw.

A for111of' ~I(!II.I, ( ! I I ~ I I I I : (lo(:s llot, r(!aliso ?L w o r k i ~ ~(>Hi(:i(:~lcy

III~II.~,I,~~!IL~ g t~,~rywli(:r(!
11c:ar
I , I I 1,111, l(-v(!l ol' I,II(U ( ! ~ ~ r ~ i ~olll,i ( * i i ~ ~ ~'I'II(:
( - , y .(!ffici(!~i(:.y
( l i ~ ~ g rof'
r l ,l p~i x~. ~I . I sl~owst , l ~ r ~ t ,
 Heat removed
at rate dQ I1 Heat added
='
at rate dQ
Mechanical energy eq~livalclit
of the thermal energy
= 1055 x 5933000

:= 6259 M.7

Now 1 joule = 1 watt second, so that

Electrical energy equivalent = 6259 MWs

of the thermal energy

Fig. 1.7. Thermal action of a refrigerator [3]

I I . Woi-ked examples o n thermodynamics and heat energy

l~;.ll l , l / t / l / f ' 1 . 4
A I,l~l~rtrlal system has an initial internal energy of 50 k.7. Net, work is tl(111c1 1111 1.111t

A I I I I L A H (11' IIIIL~,(:I.~;L~ ,1111 of specific heat SHl, a t temperature T I ,is mixed with a mass energy value 100 kJ, after which the final intcrn;~lcmc:rgy is fo111~l
- , v s ~ , ( ' I ~ Iof 1.1, 1111

(11' I l ~ ~ i 1( 1l 1 ~01' s1)c:c:ific heat SH2 at temperature T2. Express the final temperature ','TI I<.!. Calculate the net heat transfer to the system.
111' I , l ~ oI I I ~ x I . I I ~ . ( ! ill tcrins of its constituent parts.
11'1.1 11 I I (1.21), for a lossless system,
1 ,(*I, 1,1113 I of the mixture be T f
I ~ I I I L I,(:~i~~)(:ratllre
I ~ '1'1 > T2,SO that Tz 5 T f T I .
A H H I I I I It.I1;1.t, < Q - W = final stored energy -- init,ial storctl c:rlc:rgy
I l f . t ~ . l , Iosl, I)y 111iwsrnl is
Q - W = 7 5 - 5 0 = 2 5 kJ

Now, i l l (1.21), thc term W rcprcscrit,~work donc I,y tllc: s y h l ~ ~ t l111

~ . 1111% I ) I V * I U I I ~
c ~ t lIIliLSS rn2 is
I I ( ~ I I I j l , r ~ i ~ ~ I).y work is done on thc system (i.e. W is an enc:rgy i~lpul,)J L I I ~ I ~l~c~rc~li)~.c-
I ilhc-

Q2 = mzSH2(T' - T f ) (b)
A S ~ I I I I I ~~, lI ~I; ~l (,II(:
t . mixing is thermally ideal and no heat is lost, then

91 = Qz (c)
( ' ~ I I I ~ ~( ;~I ) ,I (II ) I) I~ IL I~I (,(r)
~ givw
 A l ~ i p , lI ~, I ~ I I I ~ ) I ~ I ~ I I , l~ l, I~I ~~ iI ~(111,
l fil)O"(: is l,~~r~~~sl'f!rr(!(l via IL 11ioc11;~11i(:t~l
work (;o~~v(!rt,cr
I,II 11 IOWIV t , ( s ~ ~ ~ l ) ( s(~(.:r~~ItI,C~~~(~: si11k .I(I!S ( t: ~~t),I.00"C. If thc! flliici 11th~an initial heat
( - I I I ~ I . ~ , Y01' 250 Ma],(11) ~ 1 1 1 is ~ 1l,Ii(: liii~xi~~llrln theoretical efficiency of mechanical
c ~ ) ~ ~ v c * ri is. l lit lo (~I ) )~ ,w h i ~ lis the: rri;~xirriumtheoretical work output?
'I'llo totsal "load" on the refrigerator, to frcczc tlic frcc!xc!r ~ : O I I I ~ ) ; L 111111
~ ~ , 1.0
I I I1-0111
~#II
I,II(: main space, is many times the above value.
The rate of heat extraction from a freezer coliip;~rti~lc:lil, is lil(ol,y 1.0 01' 1,1111 111s

ortlcr 1-3 kcallmin. If this machine extracts heat at (say) 2 I(c.ill/l~~i~~, il, will (.II,I(I~
(11 ) 1 1 ' 1 ~ (111rlxil1111nl
~ or Carnot efficiency of mechanical conversion is, from (1.24),
17.5212 or 8.76 min to freeze the water.

1.8. Entropy

1.8.1. Entropy i n heat-work systems

'I'lio second law of thermodynamics has basic and proforlricl sc:ic:~il,ilics~ I I I ~ ) I I ( ~ H I . ~ I I I I W
I'~LI. beyond that of heat-work interchange in heat cngirlcs. It (:1111 I)(:i ~ ~ l , ~ ~ ~ * l ) r cI I$I l . c
I.cS~.liis of the probability of molecular arrangement in a rriatc:rit~lor i l l !,(*I.IIIH 01' 1.1113

~ ~ i ~ , lof, ~spontaneous
rre change in materials and systems [3].
In any isolated physical system the direction of spoiit,;~ncous(-IIII.IIKI: in I I ~ W I I . , V H
1'1.0111molecular order to disorder. A container of hot wat,or, for c:x;w~i~l(b, IIIH I~QI~,O(W
:q~olltaneouscooling as the energy of motion of its niicroscopic: pi~rl.i(.l(:s (I(Q('I.I~II.HI~H.
'1'11~: molecular change is from a condition of higher ordcr to ;I c:oli(lil,io~~ 01' I I ~ I I I ,
~wtlcr what mathematicians now describe as greater chaos. 'I'll(! srullo ( ~ I I ~ L I I K I !In,
-

~.oriversely,from a condition of lesser probability of arrangcniclit lto ;L ( - o ~ ~ ( l i L111'i o ~

jl,~.c!i~t,er probability of arrangement.
Elitropy is a concept, not a physical property. It is a irletwlrrc: or I , I I O c!xl.c\l~l.01'
A clo~~~cbsl.ic- refrigerator has a freezer compartment with its temperature set at ~lisorderin a system or of the probability of the arrangomclit, of pr~ri~s of ;L H ~ H ~ , ~ ~ I
20" '1'l1(~ rooirl temperature is 70°F. What is the minimum external energy input
11'. ( :~,c!;~ter probability implies greater disorder and higher oiitropy. Tlc:ssc!r ~)rol~~.l)lll
I ~ Iit, takes 40 kcal of heat extraction t o freeze a tray of ice cubes?
I ( ~ ~ ~ I I ~ I . ( - I I I ( -if' i~~~l~ l i e sdisorder (more order) and less entropy. The erlt,ropy is I I S I I I I , ~ I~I (, ~~ I I o ~ . I ~ I I
lesser
Si~~c.cs xc:ro I<c:lvin = -273.15"C, I I , ~ I.lic symbol S and was defined in 1865 by tshc Gcrr11;~li~)liysic:isl. (:I!LIIH~IIH,

IG:cl~~i~tsiorl (1.28) defines a small changc: of c:rlt,ropy of i~ sysl.c:l~itlS I)c:l,wc~c311 cbcl~~illl~

Q L = 40 kcal r 40 x 4.18 = 167.2 kJ t l i ~cliallgc of licat e11(:rgy dCJ tlivitl(:tl by il,s 11.1)sol~~l,c:
I . ~ I I I I I S L ~ L ~ C SihLi I . ~ * I I I ~ ) ( - I . ; L ~I.($
.II
' 1 ' . 11, is scc:ii 1;ll;~tentropy has t,llc! (li~ii(!~isior~ 11(!>~1,( ! ~ I ( : ~ ~ , ~ / ~ , ~ ! I I I ~ ) ( ~ ~wiL11ILI,III~~- 1Ll11j

1 1 11i1, of' , j ~ ~ ~ r l ~ : s / l <(,J/K)

c ~ l v i iri
~ ~S.I. 1111it,s.I~C:(:~LIIS(: [,\I[: 1ir1,1,11r;~l I,(*II(I(-II(-,~ (I[' ( < I I I I , I I ~ , I !
I 11' ~)l~ynic.;i.I sys0c.111~ is i~lwr~ys tow;~rtlsgrc!r~t,c!rclisor(l(3r( I I I O I . ( Q c.l~r~.os), l,Ii(~ S(*I*OIIII IILW
I 11' l , l ~ ~ ~ r ~ ~ ~ o ( l( y~ ~~ i I)(,
1t 1~ (~xl)r(:s~(:(l 01' (~111,1.ol),y:
, ~ ~ ~ i ( : s111 1,(!r11is
 ~ J L C I ~ I L ~is, ~ ( ~, iI~It tI I I I , ~ I I I J L ~ ,I I *I ~ I I , I~ *, I I I * I . ~H ~I ~I I ~w \ i , l ~I ~ I I ~ , I , I I ~ ) ,10"
V I I I V I ~ ~ H II~, I I V ~ I , I ~ I Ivoll,~
II
110 I ' I I ~ ~ , I II I ~~ ~I I P I( ~l ~~ ~ ~ r ~ ~ (11,~( l~ ~ I I~ I Vl I, ~i ~oi~
H t~ l~ ~~I oI ~ ~ i l1 )11. l(t
'I'l~ost.r~lc.t,~lr.o 01' 1,111- I I I I ~ V ( U I . N ( *i~ 11ot.i l l l l ( ~ r ( , ~ ~H ~ ~. I L,I l)I('. y It. ~ ) ~ s . L I ( ~ s H (11,~ H~ l l ( . ( * ( w 111 ~l(
of clllr~nl,il,tLt,ivc! [(*ILI,IIIX:S, H I I ( : ~ I 11sI.II(* VILIIIOH oI' i~ I I I I I I I I ) ( I ~ or I ) I I Y H ~ ( * J L I ('OIIHI.ILIII,N, wI1lc.11
(!lI'(!rt,iv(:lyt~rrcst,t,li(: 11orlri1~1 pro(:(!ss(!s of cIl(:rgy ( l ( ~ g r t ~ ~ lS~I I~, VlO, IiIo~ I~Yl),y ~~ ~ , I I I U ~ I I I I I
I?or.;I, li11i1,c: ~ L I I (iilci~s~irable
I hcat flow, the entropy can be obtained by integrating ,l,y~~i~iiii(!s.
For cxi~iiq~l(:,
t,llc 111t~ii1(;i~(:rgyllow is t~sso(:i~~l;(!(i
W I O I I l,li(u ~ I ~ I L V ~ ~ . I I , I , I I I I I J I I
( I .%). c:o~~lri~c:t,ionof vcry large massc:s which coi~vcrt,~ the (:i~(~rgy
r(:l(i~~s(!t 1 i11l.o11011.0, I I K I I I
rl,lltl ~rlotion.Gravitational energy remains, after 15 billioi~yoil.rs ~ I ' ~ - o H I I I ( ~ (h' ~ o l ~ ~ ( ,
11spredominant in quality and quantity. This is in apparcmt c.ot~l,r~rclic.l,io~~ I,o l,lrc! I'n,~,l,
I;lli~tlarge masses are unstable against gravitatio~lalcollnl)sc!. '1'11(:r(-i~ rlo ~ c . ~ r c l c ~
ICIII.I,I ) I )y ~II(.~(:~Ls(:s for heat gain when d Q is positive, but decreases for heat loss sc-icntific explanation for many paradoxical qliestions with rc:grLrd 1,o I , I I ( ~ n l . l ~ ~ r c * l . ~ l r . c
W ~ I I ~t lI( JI is I,lic:r~negative. r1.11dphysical operation of the universe.
All.or~~i~t,ivc:ly t o (1.28), it is possible t o define entropy in terms of the natural
Iojl:1t.i(.11111 of' 1 1 1mathematical
~ probability, but this aspect is not pursued here.
111 itloi~lhcat engine of Fig. 1.6(a) the entropy flow is negative from the
1.1115
1.9. Power
I ~ i p , lI.c-tt~l)~~riLt,ort:
~ source SH= QH/TH and positive into the low temperature sink
()1,/71,. The change of entropy J dS is therefore I'ower P is the time rate of doing work or of expending c:ilorgy I L I I ~ I ( . I I ( ~ I . I ! ( ~ I ~ I * 111t,n
5 ,
r,llc: dimension of energy (or work) divided by time.

p = -d W
for small increments of t,ime
dt P is called the instantaneolls powc:r
( I ,:\,I )
for larger increment,^ of time
p = -W
S I I I ( ,tl.5'
I- . 0, (1.31) can be rearranged as t P is called the averagc power

111 S.I. units the unit of power is the joule per second (J/s), wllic:l~is ('ILIII*(I 1.111'
WII.~.~, (W). For practical purposes it is often convei~icntto IISC 011(! Itilow~rl.t,( k W )
I C I ~ I I I I . I . ~ O I I(1.32) can be combined with the laws of thermodynamics for an ideal ,)I. 111ogawatt(MW). Power in watts is not concerned crxc:llt~ivclywil,l~I ~ I I Q ( . I , I . I I ~ I L I
:i,vsI.1~111 (1.23) to give the thermodynamic efficiency. tk~~giricering. The power ratings in watts of various animals or mnl~~rliLc:t,~lrc!tl cl~~vlc'cln

r 1 l . t . r?;ivenon a logarithmic scale in Fig. 1.8 [2], which has I,o I)(: rc!rl.tl c-rl.rc:l'~rlly. Ili~r
t,xli.l~~ple, the installed electricity generation cay~acitiesill tllc: TJSA r l , l ~ ( l\Ili 1 ~ r c 1(.IIINII
l,o~:c!l,hcron the scale but differ in magnitude by u, fnct,or ol' t,c!~~!
111 terms of human perception it may sornetilnos bc hclphll u ~ t ~,II(:
: oltl 1i1.ll.l~l1
'1'111% I I I I L X ~ I I I theoretical
efficiency deduced by reasoning based on entropy from
I ~ ~ ~ ~
( I .:I:{) is I.llc!rc:Sorc: that q,,, = 1 - TL/TH, which is equal to the Carnot efficiency I ,I )wcr unit of horsepower (HP).
01' ( I .:!/I).
1 horsapowcr (I-IP) E 74(i W ( I .31)

I .H.'L. E n t r o p y on a c o s m i c scale
S I I I (>tl(!rgy ~ Y ~ ILIWILYSflows in such a direction as to make the entropy (disorder) in-
I . I I - I I . S I ~ , ( 1 i lli,r(:~~l,
f'ortris of co~mologicalenergy can be arranged in increasing entropy
111-111.1.. ' 1 ' 1 1 ( ~ ( : is I I O i~ssocii~t,c:d tcinpcri~t~ire for gravitational energy or for planetary
i o t . ) \ t . i o ~ >\.11tl
r oriit.;11il~ot~io~l
so t.lln.tthe: c:rltropy is zero. Chemical reactions have en-
11 ~ i ( > s ~ , I I v or(l(*rI 10 it~v(urs(!
()[ (!l(v*t,ror~~011,s.TIIC(:os111i(:lxii(:rowav(:l ) t ~ ( : k g r o ~ i ~ ~ ( i
 Power (watts)

n'Ois Solar power inout to earth

, ,
I 110 IIIOSI, ( : O I I I I I I SO, ~I SI ~ , ( S I(11'I I I I I I I I , ~ IISIYI t,o(l~~,,y
111 S ( . I I * I i1,11(l
I ( ~ S( * I I K ~ I I ( * I ~ ~ I11,111
I I ~ ,IIII.II,

t,iolls is 1.11(: I ~ l t , c : r ~ ~ i ~ .Sl ,~i So (~.~( !i01'~ I IlII111il.sor Syst.i!~r~o l ~ ~ l . ( ~ r ~ ~ i( Illl l. ~i ~oi~l ,~i (S.*~n ~I ..))
Mosl, ~)l~ysi(!iil scio11c:c:s t~11cI (!~~pj~ic!(:ri~~g tsc:xt,l)ool~si ~ ~ cI I !O W wriI,1,1~11 i l l S.I. I I I I I I , H , 111

l,l101ig11older books s t d oli library sholvc:~n1n.y Iir~vc!wl.i(,t.c!r~i11 l i ) o l , - l ~ on~c ~~ c~~~c ~~

(fps) or centimetre-gramme-second (cgs) rinits.
Table 1.2 lists the basic physical propertics of cl(!c:tsric:t~ln.iitl I I I ~ ~ ~ . I I I I . I I ~ I ~ I IO. I I I ~ , I
~~c:c!ringsystems together with their units and the sy111I)oIsr~so(Ii l l 1,llin (.(!xi. ( W I I I I * J I
iirc common but not all universal). T h e commou mult,iplc:s i ~ l l ( 1s l ~ l ) - l ~ ~ ~ ~ l l111 . i lS) II ~ ! n
1 0 :om Installed electricity generating
~ l l ~ i twith
s , their names and symbols, are listed in T t ~ t ~ Il .3. c
capacity in U S A in 2000 AD
UK Electricity generating +
Conversion factors between various basic S.I. units ~ L I I (t,ll(!ir ~ Illi or IIS ( ~ ( I I I I V I ~

-
capacity in 2000 AD Ic!~ltsare given in Table 1.4 [4]. Many of these units arc! risc:tl ill S I I ~ I S ~ Y ~ IcI*~I ~~ In I. ~l ~, l c
of the book.
Large electric power plant
Table 1.2. The International System of Units (S.I.)
,08

Large wind turbine -I 1-1

(-1
1-
C - Train

lo6
Automobile
Property
Basic
Length
Mass
Unit

metre (UK), meter (US)

kilogramme
Symbol

111
kc
Ti me second s
IJK I loclricity generating capacity Electricity generating capacity per Temperature kelvin K

-
per capita in 2000 AD Electric current ampere A

- -
Horse #lo4 capita in U.S.A in 2000 AD Derived
Domestic light bulb 1-1 1O2 Velocity metre per second v (I~/H)
Artificial heart
MantWoman resting Area square metre A (1112)

1-
'-----Flashlight
Force newton 1s' (kc111/3~)
Energy (Work) joule (newton-metre) W ( J 07. N I I I )

-
Power watt I' (,I/s)

Human heart
1 1lo-'
Silicon solar cell

Table 1.3. Mi~ltiplesand sub-mult,ipl(:si r ~S.I. ~u~il.ri.

I'ig. 1.8. Power ratings of various devices and animals (based on [2]). Unit Syrnbol Valrlr

pic0 p 10- I "

nimo n I"..!)

rnicro /L 10-6
I '( I\V(#I. is i~.~~o(.ii~.I,(:(l
wit11 t,irne, whereas energy is independent of time. ~rlilli 1.11 10-
c:c:nt.i c: 10 "
kilo k 10:'
III~.KIL
M 10"
c:ncrgy work
powc'r -- -- - - - y,i):~~ ( : 10"
t,i111(! t,irne
-
l.l.1.1~
, -2
'I,
-- 101~
 I,c!r~gl,h
-.---- ... .. -
I 111illi111c~1.rc-
(IIIIII) 0.0393701 inch (in)
I 111t!I,r(!(111) 3.28084 feet (ft)
.
Area
. -- I'owcr
I HIIIIILII! (:~~lt.irrlclre
(crn2) 0.155000 in2 1 watt (W) I ,Ior~l(!/s(:r(.l/s) . 0,OOI:bl I I l l '
I H C ~ I I I L I I ! r~rct,rc(m2) 10.7639 ft2 1 kilowat 1 (kW) 1000 W = l.:14 111'
I I~tv.l,irrc- = 104rn2 2.4710 acres 1 horsepower (HP) 745.7 W = 550 1'1 I l ~ / n c v ,

Volume Power density

1 W/m2 3.6 ~ . J / I I I ~ / \ =
I 0.317 lYl'll/l'12/l~
0.0610237 in3
35.31477 ft3 Heat energy
1.75985 UK pints 1 calorie (cal) 4.1868 J
1 British thermal unit, 1055.06 .I - - 778. I(;!) 1'1. 11)
I I ~ L gallon
IIII~I'II (UK) 4.54596 litres
(BTU)
I lIS g~rllor~ 3.78531 litres 1 therrn
I 1 1 1 1 42 US gallons = 34.97 UK gallons = 159.00 litres
-

Heat energy denslty

Weight 1 kcal/m2 0 3687 HrI'~J/ft2 I I(;:{ W ~ I / I I I "
1B T U / ~ ~ ~ 3.726 x 10"/rr12
I ic~lt'gri~~rlrne (kg) 2.20462 Ib
1 Langley 1 c a l / c r r ~41181jH
~ .I/III'
1 I ~ ~ ~ (lo3 I I I kg)
~ ~ ~ 0.9984207 ton (UK) --
1 I , C I I I (IJK) or statute or long ton = 1.120 short tons
Energy
1 Joule I watt-sccond (Ws)
Force 1.602 x 10-'!' J
1 electron volt (eV)
(N)
I ~~t!wl,or~ 1 kilowatt hour ( k w h ) 3.6 x 10" = 3.4 12 x 10:' 1Y1'11
0.2248 Ib force

Pressure
Table 1.6. Scales of temperature.
I ~ ) ~ i ? i c , t r(Pa)
l 1 N/m2 4

I L'IL~ - lo5 I'a 14.50 Ibf/in2 The centigrade (Celsius) scale of temperatllre 11us 100 tl~:grtst'l l r ~ i l . ? l
I IOl'/ill2 (one pound per square inch or psi) 6.89476 kPa between the freezing point O°C and boilirlg point 100DC01' wtrl.c:r 111.
At ~ r ~ o h p l l ~pressure
ric = 14.70 Ibf inp2 101.325 kPa standard pressure.
Velocity
..- The Fahrenheit scale has 180 degree unils bet.woc:n t,ho frt:t:xil~g
I r ~ r i l t spcr hour (rnph) point 32'F and boiIing point 212OF of watcr. Tlrcl.aforc?
0.447 m/s
I kilo~lrc:t.rc:per hour (kph) 0.278 m/s 10O0C 180°F =
=- and
OC = 519 ( O F - 32)
I
I rrl)l(- 1.5 list,s some useful conversion data relating to heat energy and power
?

r111,l 'li~.l)l(b1.6 rcprc!sents conversion between different scales of temperature [4].

1. I 1 . Prok)loms on Energy and Power

I .:I,. A 110tIy (11' IIIIISS l ( l l l l(p, I I I I I , I I I , I I ~ 1 ~ ~ xO1I I . ~11 l(vlj:(- 25 111 ;LI)OV(> 1,1115 ~ * , I , O I I I N ~ .11, (11) ( I I I . I I ~ I I I I I . I . ~ 1.11(1
~ I t ~ l - l c i t ~V ~
I I I I \ . N ~ I I I ~ I I Iw I I :, I I I ~ * 01' 1.111- t~llic-ic.~lc.,v
I . I I ( ~ I I 1'11.11s I'r(~*l,y 1.0 1.111' KI.OIIII(I 1 1 1 i ( l ( ~ 1(.. \ I ( ' i ~ ~ l l ~ l ( * ~oI'~s;l.vil,,y.
~t.(% Ail, I'ri(.t,io~i (I)) W1111.1is 1.l1(- I I I I I . N ~ I I I I I I I IW I I I ~ OIII.~IIII.'!
I I I ~ I . , I~) ( , ~ ~ t y , l ( x ~ l , (( ~~l r. t ~ ~ v i l ~ ~( :~ ( ) lI I, si~o, ~~ L I~
!JI ~t ~~ ,!1.81
l 111/s2.
I . 12. [>or 1)11rl)os(\
I,l1(1 ~ l ' ( : ~ ~ ~ v ( ! rII(:~L~,
l , i ~ (~ bp ,~ ~ (i111,o ! r ~IIS(-I'III
y worlt I'ro111I I , I I I I , I I I I I I ( - I I I ,
(I) Wht~t,iLr(: illitiiil ii~ldfinal values of the potential energy? l,(:~~i~)(:riit,~irc!
o f LOO"(:, is it, l ~ ( ~ l , L lo, (l~i ;r~ v ( O! I I V II(*II,I, S O I I ~ ( (2
Y ~01' l , ( s ~ ~ ~ l ) ( s ~ , ~ ~ . l , (*

( I ) ) Wlii~t,arc thc initial value and final value after impact of the kinetic 400°C or two cq~ialsollrc:c:s Q of tclrlpc:riit~~rc~ 'LOO"( :'!
c:~ltrrgy'! A heating boiler has a full-load workiiig cHic.ic:i~c:y01' (iT,'%. 11, is 11sc~c1
I .13. 1,o 11(-11l
(r) (:alcuIate the instantaneous velocity a t the mid-height of the fall. Hint: a building from the outside temperat~lrcof 35°F 1.0 (iH" I:. W l ~ r ~ is t , 1,111- 1.1 ,l.11.1
TJse energy balance. thermal efficiency?
(t I) Ciilculate the values of potential energy and kinetic energy a t the mid- 1.14. For the steam boiler-electricity generat,or systclll of Fig. 1.5
height of the fall.

I :I. A li~rccof 100 N acts on a mass of 100 kg. (a) Show that the first law of thermodyriamics is satisfird.
(b) Calculate the efficiency of the turbine.
(;I.) What is the resulting linear acceleration? ~,I~II
(c) What information is needed in order t,o calculat,c t,hc cncrgy 11isc.lln.1
(I) If the steady-state velocity is 10 m/s, what are the values of the kinetic through the chimney?
clicrgy and momentum? (d) Calculate the efficiency of the generator.
1 .,I. A IIL;I.SS of 1 kg is rotated in a horizontal circle, at the end of a rigid tie-rod, A Carnot engine has a low temperature sink of 10°C tind ii I I I ~ I , X ~ I I I I I~I. II I~( '
1 .15.
wi(.li i~ll angular velocity of 10 rad/s. If the radius of gyration is 0.5 m, what oretical efficiency of 38%. By how much does the ternpcsi~t,l~sc: 01' t . l ~ t *I ~ i p , \ l
is 1,11(: iiistantaneous linear velocity of the mass? Calculate the torque and
temperature source need to increase in order to raise t,htr c:Hit.icb~~cy 1.0 :,0'Xl'I
:I,IIJ:II~;LI. iicceleration if a force of 10 N is needed to maintain the rotation. Explain what happens to the power input to a refrigerator if il,s 11oo1,i~
I .lG. 1181'1

I !I. ( !i~l(.~~li~(,(! the moment of inertia of the rotating mass in Qn. 1.4.
open in a warm room.
I I; A 11li1.s~ ol 1 kg rotates in a horizontal circle, a t a radius 0.5 rn about its A high temperature fluid contains 1000 M J of cncrgy iit (i0Oo(!. ' l ' l ~ i ll11i11~
1 .17.
l i x c s t l ;l.iic:hor point, with an angular velocity of 10 rad/s. What is the kinetic
powers a mechanical converter of Carnot efficicncy 30%.
c>r~c~~.g,y of the motion?
1 'I' II' ;L Iiiass of 10 kg rotates around a circle of 1 m radius a t 1800 rpm, what
(a) What is the temperature of the sink fluid?
is il,s c:iicrgy of motion? (b) What is the change of entropy?

lhrits and unit conversions

1.8. An i~r~perial gallon of water is uniformly heated so that its temperature
i11c:rciwesby 20°C. What is the rise of its heat energy content? 1 . 18. What are the centigrade (Celsius) equivalents of thc f o l l o w i ~~ ,~~ :~I I I ~ ) ~ ~ ~ I L ~ ~ I I I .
I.! 'I'wo (!qua1 masses of water are mixed in a container. What is the final in degrees Fahrenheit? (a) 212°F) (b) 10O0F, (c) 32"F, ((1) O01?.
I,c,~lil)criit,ure of the mixture if (a) the two initial temperatures Ti, are equal, I .I . What are the Fahrenheit equivalents of the followirig tc:~~~l)c:ri~.l.~~rc~s i l l I I(?

( I ) ) on(: Illass has an initial temperature twice that of the other? grees centigrade? (a) 212"C, (b) 10O0C,(c) 32"C, ((I) On(:.
1 .lo. 111 t,lio UK the original steam engines designed by Watt and Newcornen O . At what value of temperatlire is the tempcratnro rc:ndirig i l l tl(!gl.t~-s I.(~III,~
~lsctl~.c:servoirtemperatures of 100°C and 10°C. What was the maximum grade ccl~lalt,o t,hc reading in degrees Fahrcnhcit,?
I,llc:orc:t.ic;~l efficiency? I.?I . What is t,lic: c:c:rit,igradc c!cl~livalcntof 75.8"F?
I.I I. A Ilc~~ crigine
t operates with a high temperature source of 900 K and ini- I .:?2. Wllt~t,is t-11(! I~t~l~r(:~~hcit, (.!(l~~ivtilt!~lt, of l!).V'(:'!
t.irl.l l~cnt~t clicrgy of 500 MJ. Its low temperature sink operates a t 300 K. I .:!:\, A 111o,l(:r11 (!l(!(:l,ri(:pow(:r st,tit,io~~ II~\,s I L 1'1111 Io~i(l01' 2000 MW. WIIII,~, II,I.I+
r ,
I I r c ~I I I ~ I , X ~ I I I I I I Ir(>i~lj~i~I)l(:
I cffi(:i~~lr:y
is om-hidf tl~c:~ii111(?of th(: tll(:oreticaI I,l1(8 ~ , l ~ ! ~i l ~l t( ,t ~ ) llors(!l)ow(:r,( I ) ) ~oIII(~s/s(:(~oII(I,
( ~ ( ~ ~ ~ i v t vtil~l(bs lkilow~~,l,l.~ ((s)

I I I ~ ~ . X ~ I I I I I VIL~II(:.
III ((1) ~ t I l ~ l , ~ ~ l ~ l l l 1 l l s / s ~ ~ ~ ~ o l l ~ l ' !
 C1IAI"l'E:It 2
1 S I I I I I I I I(:. I ~M I ~. S[1!)71]
, "Energy and Power", in The Conversion of Energy (Scientific
I ~ I I I I~ ~( . I; I I I , I J S A ) , Chapter 5 ,
ENERGY RESOURCES AND ENERGY U S E
' 1 )o1.1,I f . (:. I1!)7XJ Enerqy, Reso,urces and Policy (Addison Wesley Publishing Co., IIIC.,
1 ) , ( ! I I ; I , I ) ~ , I \ ~:3.
w.
:I I ~ ; ~ I#~. I . 1 l97'2] CXari~:aLand Modern Physics, Vol 2 (Xerox College Publishing,
I I ~ * x i ~ ~ ~M;I,ss., : t o ~ ~IJSA),
, Chapter 14.
I h l ~ , V ( * i j : l ~.I.. (:. [ I!)H4] Energy Aro,und the World (Pergarnon Press, Oxford, England),
I,
( ~ l l l l l l t ~ l ~ ~ ~
2.1. Energy Input to the Earth
' SI&:II.S, I:. W. 11 !)A71 P~.i,nc~:ples of Physics I (Addison Wesley Press, Inc., USA).
1; l i l t t , ~ , l , (:., I<t~iglll.,W. L l . , and Ruderman, M. A. [I9651 Berkeley Physical Course, ( ~ shows the accepted energy flow patter11 for t,hc: (:i~r(.111 I ( . All 01'
I ~ ' ~ J ~ , I I I . 2.1 ILIIII

110l I ( M d :~.;~w-llill 13ook Co., Inc., USA). (III,~,II. I ) I I I . 11.11'

I I I I I I I I ~ I . ~ ( : ; L ~values in this are ohtaincld frorrr sc:ientific:;tlly III(:~LSIII.(YI

: , I I I I , ~ I Y . I . t,o lrieasurelrlent error and t,o slight intrinsic variatiolis of vl~ltrc!.

2.I . I . Solar radiation rate and annual variation

,L:t~I:~,~. ~.il~li;ltion flows continuo~islytllrough the eartlr's i~t,1rlos1)11(:r(: o111.oi1.s S I I I . ~ ' J I , I ' I *
I * : r l c . l ~ sclll;~rc metre of surface area a t thc atniosplicric !>oulrtlary i~it.(!r(:(!~ 11,sI L I I I 1l.111111
( I I . . ~)c*~.pcndicular) radiation, when fac:irig the s u n , of n l ~ t ~ o s( t:,~ I I S ~ , VI LI LI ~I I~I ,~'l'l111 ~.
I I I I I i I (,I' (.lie e a r t h around t h e suii is ]lot precisely circul;lr bllt is sligl~l~ly (!IIil~l.ic.n,l.1411.
I III:-: ~.o;~.soii the sun- earth distallce is 91.4 niilliori nlil~:sill ;l;~rllr;~ry I I . I I ( ~!)4.5 111i11lo11

I I I I ~ ,ilk ~ ~July. This small variation accollnts for a11 aniin;~lt1ifforc:ncc: ol' :\'%I 1.0 ,I1%111

I III~ s ( I ~ ; Lr;~diation
~ rate a t t,hc cdgc of tllc a.tniosp11cl.c:. For (:i~l(:~rli~,l,io~r I ) I I ~I (IIHI!H 11.
I , . c.ol~vc!riicntt,o assllme a corlstarit ratlintion rate and t,his is crril)o~liocI i r ~~ , I I ( , " n c t l ~ l . ~ ,
1 I I I I X ~ . ; I . I I ~ . " wliich has a present vahlc? 1377 W/11i2.

11' I.lr(: carth is assurncd t o hc: perfectly splicric:;~lit lir~s;L (li;~rrr(:I,t.i~- ~ I I ~ L I I nI ~I , ' ,
\ v l ~ c . l ~I c. ~is the mean c:;~rtliradius. Tlic: solar radintaiori inl;c:rc:c:pl,c!tl is I3llc:rc:fo~.c. n,ll tr
I I I I , I > I :{77 x,r2 wi~t,t,s, 7 , is iri 111(!1,r(;s.A figtrr~!lor 1,lic 111(!t~riI ~ I L ~ I ~, ~I IL, I ~ \ I I In
if r~;~cIi~rs M

I , :\:!,I lr~illior~ rnctr(:s, r(:s~rll,i~igill