CHAPTEIt 6

NATURAL GAS

i .I . Introduction

rd;~(,urallyoccurring gas or natural gas is a mixture of hytlroc:ir~.l)or~ ILII~I ~IIIII

l~~tlrocarbon gases but is mostly methane (CH4). Many natnlill giw tI(:posil,s( I I Y . I I I
I ( I ( lcpendently of oil deposits and are then sometimes callcd "llol~-i~ssoc:ir~~,~-( 1'' ( w i I , \ \
a ,II) deposits. Non-associated gas is derived from organic ~rlirt,t.c!r (of,(!11( . I I I L ~ ) 11"
I ! I ( : thermal degradation and the natllral degasifi~at~ion of c:oi~1st#rn.l,;l (l(b,,osil.c*~l 111,

r,,t.t:aterdepths and increasing geological temperature. The (l(!l)osit,s,,r I I I L I , I I I . ~ I . ~ , I I , ~ I

I I I ; L ~occur in association with oil accumulations, either as a s(:I)itr;~I.(: giis Ill.yc.t.( 1 1 111
:.~lution, are sometimes called "associated gas" or "condelmiit,o". 111 (,llc (:;lrly 1 1 1 1 . ~ 1 1
a ,I' oil exploration, the fuel value of the associated gas was not, iilwr~~,ys al)l)rc.c.ilr~.~.
Sometimes it was flared off by burning, a practice still widcly ~lscnli l l t,11(: Mi1l1ll18

I*;;tst,and thereby wasted. In a modern petrochemical plant ill 1S1lrol)c:01. N I I I . ~ . ~

,111lericaa burning gas flare is likely to be a temporary saf(:ty f(:ill,~rrc.
The synthetic gas that used to be called "coal gas" or "town ciw" is nI~I.~~ill(~( 11y
1 . 1 1 industrial
~ processing of coal and is described in Sec. 6.8. Coal g;~s i ~ l ~ ItI Il L I . I I I I I (
13,;~sare used in the same applications but are entirely diffr,rc:l~till origil~I L I I ( ~ , l i l ( ; a ~

I I I composition.

In addition to methane, which is usually between 85% ailtl 05% of t,l1(:( Y I I I I , I - I I I . ,

11;~tural gas also contains the hydrocarbons ethane, propanc, l ~ t t ~ 1 1 1nllfl : 1,1~11f,rtl~1~

(sbort carbon chain paraffins), plus non-hydrocarbons inc1lldil:g ~ ~ i t r o g cI~yc l ~1r.c

, I~,I~II
:;lllphide and carbon dioxide. The precise cornposition dcl)c:lltls O I I t , l l ~I ~ r l l . t , i ~ .(11 ll 1

:iollrce and nature of the gas. Thc "dry" natural gas snltl ;w gt~sco~ls I'os~il1'11t.1
t.ol~tainsabout 96% mcthnnc:, 5.3% propanc and 2.6'%,\)utnilc. 13111;1,11(:;~1101)1.( 11111.1111
11l;ly be liqllcfic\tl al~cisoltl ;IS liq~lid~ C I , I Y ) ~ ( ! I I I IgI ; ~ ~ SII(:~I ( w ILS "(:i~.l(~~;~.s" 1 I 1. I\l,l.l,lll~fi
~J,;LS itself (*;LII bc li(l~~(>fi(:(l l)y r(>frig(!r;~I,io~~ 11,1111 is t,111:11 ~ I I O W I ;I.S I l i ( l ~ ~ iI ~I ~l ~ , ~ , I I I .p,l~.ti
~I,~
(I,NG) i l l Nort.11 All~(bri(*i~ or i~il.t,llrirI g11.sl i ( l ~ l i ( l (N( : I , ) 01.(.oII(I(:IIsIL(,(~ i l l 15111~(1[11~.
N;I.I,III.;LIg i ~ sis I I I ( ~ I L S11y I I ~V(( I:~(I I~I I I ( . (1101. 11y w(*ij:llI,)i l l (.II(' v ~ ~ l l l l l ~ ( ~ ( , ~l l. lil(i (- , ! l 01
(,11l)i(: I'(Y~I, (11, ( * l l l ) i ( , IIII>~,I,(!S.
Sligl~l,l,y III I - ~ ~ H , (I I, I ( * 00 I , \ ~ I ~
I I I I . ~ I I ~ ~ I ~ I ~ ,I I. *~ I I \~ ~, I - I . H I ~ I'II,(*I,o~Y
'
situation regarding gas reserves is simiiar to
oil and natural gas the world's biggest reposi
where the gas accumulations are largely untouched bec
profitability of oil.
-
%
The world natural gas supply will outlast the oil
with oil, it would be risky to assume that the reserve
This is particularly pertinent to the OECD countries
remained low and roughly constant since the early 1970s
to decrease.
All of the concerns regarding world oil reserves, discussed in
apply to natural gas. The world consumption of natural gas w u
than one-half that of oil but in 2000 constituted 24.7% of the
fuel consumption. The depletion of the world stock of natural
' is a world problem. -F
. - I

, '
I

6.4. Production and Consumption of Natural Gas

6.4.1. World natural gas production

Natural gas is produced and consumed all over the world. Moreover, the
of total world primary energy consumption taken up by natural gas la p
significantly increase in future energy demand. The relative production in
1 areas of the world is shown in Fig. 6.4, with much detail for the past 11 8

I in Table 6.2. World production has increased steadily, so as to doubh

1 I 25 years, for all regions except the former Soviet Union. In the 11y e w
production increased in the order of 15-20% in Western Europe and Nort
but doubled in the Middle East, Asia and Africa. In the UK there lam
increase in production of about 80% since 1985. In 1996 Britain becams th
gas market in Europe.
,:; ' '
.. T-7
6.4.2. World naturd gas consumption
The production and consumption of natural gas for different are
Figs6 . 4 and 6.5, both show a steady Increase. This is projected to co
[4,51. There has been a reduct=
now recovering. ThL is
am1ptlon for the pare 1
riat~rrol
nac
 11,ic I:cct ('I't c l')

History Projections

Sources: History: Energy Information Admirlistration (EIA), Office of

Energy Markets and End Use, International Statistics Database and In-
ternational Energy Annual 1996, DOE/EIA-0219(96) (Washington, DC,
February 1998). Projections: EIA, World Energy Projection System
(1999).

Fig. 6.6. World natural gas consumption, 1970-2020 (4).

I Southern Gar; Bmin, adjacent ta the Dutch North Sea setztm-
fields indub BF h 6 a 3 s ' 6 . 7 - ~ cLe"hum,
f Ohk&m'&id
and ShellPs 1.7-T-cf Inrlda+tigableand 0.8Tcf Clipp.
The W's mbmd@;as industry eur~et&ly iilr ag&h&m
&b~
IF- 9-7 -
'she prwms begm in 1986 with &? piwh*~
British G w British Gas remdmd thd &hg'a

. OFGEM, phml ts a d pri'e;e

the UK's gcuj i w b b r y , letding I%

helped gss fa repla& ki~uii'&f tihe
 Fig. 6.8. Major European natural gas pipelines [6]

and the pipeline was briefly used to send continental gas supplies to Britain. The
Britain-Belgium direction of the pipeline has now been restored. The layout of the
major European pipelines is shown in Fig. 6.8 [6].
A new pipeline to connect Ireland to Scottish gas sources in the Corrib field was
approved in November 1999, and a plan to connect Ireland to England via Wales
Year
was announced in April 2000. A pipeline would run from Manchester, England,
underground to Wales, and then under the Irish Sea to just north of Dublin. There
Fig. 6.9. UK natural gas production and cons~ln~[)l.ion
is currently one pipeline linking Britain and Ireland, connecting Ireland to Scottish
gas sources. Despite these pipeline projects, the UK will remain a much smaller
natural gas exporter than North Sea neighbour Norway [5]. A summary of UK Table 6.5. UK na.tural gas consurnpt.ior~[XI
production and consumption figures is given in Fig. 6.9. The country changed from -
-

being an importer to an exporter of natural gas in 1996 and the proportion of 1970 1980 1990 1008 I !)!I!)
exports is growing. Also, in 1999, 78% of home heating in the UK was fuelled by Electricity generators 1.8 4.0 6.5 2ti0.7
:{70 !I
"l f.l . ! l
natural gas [7]. The distribution of UK natural gas consumption between different Energy Industries 1.2 19.1 39.2 7li.O
20li 1 1
user sections is shown in Table 6.5. Since 1980 industrial consumption has been Industry 20.8 177.5 164.6 194.5
Domestic 18.4 246.8 :<00.4 :155.!l :15H I
relatively stable, growing by 9%, while domestic consumptiorl has grown by 49% and
Services :$.4 (i0.4 H(i.4
.
IIH % I I!) !I
services consumption has more than do~ibled.I-Iowcvc!~,sill(:(:1!I!) I t,llc,growl.ll i l l gas
use has been domirlatctl I)y it,s illc~rc~:~.silig 11sc: Sol. c~l(~c.I.ric.iI.y ~cvlcv.;~.t.io~~. IClc~c.I.~.i~.iI.y rI'ol.al 15.C; 507.H 5!)7.0 1 ,ofJs.:i 1 ,f)fiH.H
.-. .~

I I I , ~ . ~ I~I li X I .
gcncrxt.iol~IIOW ~ \ . ( Y . O I I I I ~ , : ; 1'01.I I I ~ ; I . I . ~ , V:10'%, 01' I I ; I ( . I I I . ~ I ~\:i~s(.I , I I : ; I I I ,II II ~
l.11cs
 ~ ( ! sI, I I ~ ~ I I I I YL I . I * I I I ~ Y I I I I ( , I I ( . \ r ( ' i ~ ~S :I iI I ( ' < 'l ! ) S r ~ .1 1 1 I!)!)!), l o t .
01' u ( ~ s ( ~ ~ . \II;I,S
iLS i i , ~ ) I . ( I ~ ) ( I I . ~ , I ( I I I

exarnplc, alrnost 6%)of' lL11c 0K's OIXIVPI I , ~ ) t ~ ~ t l ~ i ;t I, ,II)Nl (I~)os,<i ~ / ) I ( , /;;IS I Y ~ S ( , I . V { ~LSV ( ! ~ O
-
consumed. This should not be t,akerl as all ac:c,~lrt~tc 1llc;iLsrlrc: of t,l~c,fiit.11rc: lifc of
the gas reserves since additional sources continile to be discovered aiid devt:loped.
I t is likely that the production of natural gas will continue a t current (2002) levels i
for longer than is suggested by the present depletion rates [7].
The 1999 prices of natural gas in the domestic sectors of several countries in the 1

1
'1

!.i
r:
I

ti:

lllll\l.(l
Notes: Tax component represents all t,axc:s Ic:viotl wl~c,~.(: 1101 I.(.~I

(1) Converted using average 1999 cxcha~,gc:rnl,c:s.

;~utlI'o~'~.II!:;I~.
(2) No or only limited gas supply i r ~Sw<:ti(~r~
(3) 1998 figures.

Fig. 6.11. Domestic natural gas prices in sever;~lb;U ~LII([ <:7 (.ollllIl'i(~sI!)!)!) ( I ' I I I I V ~ .l aI ,~ . < . ~
p e n c e l k w h ) [7].

Natural gas production (left hand scale)

- Annual production as percentage of remaining

reserved') (right hand scale)
(1) Figures for reserves are the sum of provon, prc~t)nt)l(:; L I I ( ~ j)ossil)l(: J.(.s(:I.v(.:;I . ( - I I I ; I . ~ I I ~ I I R .
They are the historic est,imal.cs o r ~ ( ' I I I ~ L ~ I II.(~S(:I.VI.S,
~ ~ I ~ : i.1.. t.11(: I)(\SI. ( . X ( ~ I I I ; I ( ( > S !-,~vI.II
;I.( 0 1 ; 1 1 .
time.
 11, I I I I \ V : I I , I , I , ~ ) ~ I V /1 , 1 1 i 1 i 1,111. jr,;1:, 1111-tl [ I I I ~ I I I I II!;~ >,;I/I., I . ~ I , : I I I , I I I O I I ,

i . ( ~ c . l ~ ~ ~; IcI I~I I lIoI I~I (y. I I,I I I . I I I \ , I ~ I . ~(~i l;lI ~I . ( I I I I I ) : I I . ~ ~ I I Iw1l.11

iI.IIy ( . ~ I I I ~ ) ( : ~ , ~ I I K I
t,lti1.11,111 I\I;III
I I I I ( . I ( , ; I I . ~ ~ o w c ~ r ) :.
!
This 113s~)rotiil'l,t:c[ i L I)ig swil.c,l~ LO g;r,s l il.c>c l c~l(-c.t.ric.i~.y-~(~t~c~~.;~ I , ~ I I ~S ,, ~ S I , I > I Ii Il S l i~ot,11 :

Europe and the USA. I11 the USA it is rcport,cd t,lii~.t, inorc: t ~ l i i ~ 275 ii 11c:wgi1.s-lirtlcl
elect,ricity-generating plants are planned to begin by tlie year 2006. To b~iilda gas- :
E
fired electricity generation plant costs about one half the cost of a coal-fired plant
of the same rating [9]. Soine misgivings are startieg ~5oarise as to whether future
natural gas supplies will be adequate and will last long enough to justify the present
(2002), and now contemplated, scale of financial investment in new plants [ l o ] .
The price of natural gas for the US domestic market is among the cheapest of
the G7 group of nations, Fig. 6.11 [7]. Significantly, the USA is the only one of the
14 countries quoted that does not tax natural gas.
Several projects are proposed to further increase the import capacity of natural
gas from Canada to the USA. The present (2002) estimate is to add 2 billion cubic
feet per day of pipeline capacity. Concurrently it is planned to increase exports ~ ~:;IS ~ ) i l ~ ~ . l r l ~1101
Fig. 6.15. Major Eastern European/former Soviet U n i o ~rlal~lrz~l r , . ~

of natural gas from the USA to Mexico. Although Mexico is rich in natural gas
resources, most of this is located in southeastern Mexico, far from the primary times the world consumption (2404.6 x 10' m3) of nnt,~irixlgas i l l 2000. 1 1 1 [ , - I 1 1 1 , ~
consuining areas of the north, and the country lacks the infrastructure to transport of other fuels the estimate of coal-bed inethane reserves is c ! c l ~ i i v i ~ . l 1.1, ~ ~ ~i t~l ll c, ~ l ~ l .
the gas [ I l l . 300,000 Mtonnes of coal or 200,000 Mtonnes of oil. Tlio fig~lrcfor c n c l ~ ~ i v i ~ l tI .~ ~i ~lI:Il .
Proven reserves of associated or condensate natural gas increased by 2% in the greater than the proven world reserves of crude oil (142,100 M ~ . O I I I I I + ~ )i l l !I: 11 I( 1.
USA in 1999, t o a total of 31,415 billion cubic feet. The areas containing the largest The largest known resources of coal-bed inethane arc in R.l~ssiir., ( : l ~ i Il ~ I . , ( : i l l l i l t 1 1 1 ,

proportions of these reserves correspond to the areas with the largest volumes of Australia and the USA (in that order) but there are al:jo sigl~ili(.i~.~~t. I . I ~ S O I I I . I . I * : ~1 1 1

crude oil reserves, i.e. Texas (25%), Alaska (23%) and the Gulf of Mexico offshore Germany, Poland, the UK, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, India ant1 so111.11c:1.11 A I'l.i(.il.. I{ I I : ; : ~ I J I
(21%) [12]. also has the advantage of a well-developed infrastruct~irewit11 c:xl.c~~~sivc~ I ri1~1.l I I I I ' : ; ,
Fig. 6.15 [6].
In conventional natural gas reservoirs, once the hole is tlrillt:tl I.llo g;~.s I ) I . I I I I I I I . I 11 I I I
6.5. Coal-Bed M e t h a n e capacity is generally a t a maxilnum level initially but declilic:~ovc.1. 1 . i l 1 1 1 . . A ~ I I ' I
the well starts to produce, the well pressure begins to dec:liiic: i1.11cl !:;IS ~ I I . O I ~ I I ( ~ ~ . I I I I I
It is known that deposits of coal undergo natural degasification and give off (mainly) decreases with time. Wit11 coal-bed methane wells, however, 1.1ic: wctll I I I : I V I I , I . ~ I I I 1I 1 \'
methane gas. The inethane content increases with depth and with coal rank. In increase gas production with time. This is because gas is 1il)c:rirl.c~t l ('I.(1 1 1 1 1,111, 1.1 1111
deep coal mines the presence of methane can present a serious health and accident by desorption caused by pressure release due to dewatering [1:3]. '1'11c~1.01.:1,1 I*III~I~:\'
hazard, as discussed in Sec. 4.1.2 of Chapter 4. Safe underground mining procedures content of the gas obtained by coal-bed methane extractiou will 1101, I I O I . I I II~ :S II ,~I ~~I I ~~I
require that the methane in deep mines be flushed out with large quantities of air, 1% of that of the host coal. Coal-bed methane extraction is ;L w;~yol'ol~I,i~.illi~~~: II:;I.IIII
a t considerable expense and considerable waste of valuable natural gas. In 1980 energy in a readily marketable form but is not equivalent to ~I.(.I,II;LIIY 1 1 1 i I I ~ I I J : 1,111.
the US Bureau of Mines reported that US mines were venting (and wasting) 256 coal. Nevertheless, it provides a meails of extracting soirlc c:nc:rgy I'ro111( . I );I.\ :;('il I I I:I
million cubic feet per day of methane, which was equal t o 0.5% of the total dry gas 7 that cannot be mined a t all.
production [12].

6.5.2. US reserves of coal-bed methane

6.5.1. World reserves of coal- bed methane
A map of tlic priilc:ip;~lTJS c:oi~It);lsil~si1.11cl c ~ s l . i ~ ~ ~"il~-l,li~(:c:"
i ~ . l . c ~ ~ l(.oi~,II ~ ( - t l I I I ( ~ I . I I I I I I I -
rc:sollr(:(!s is givct~i ~ sFig. 4.7 of ( ; I I ~ I , I ) ~ . I - I .,I.
11, I!)!)!), 11s l.(;s(~l~Vibs o r ( ~ o ; l , l . l ) , ~ l l l l l , ~ I , l , , l l , , ~ l l l ~ ~ l l ~ , l : ~!YX,
l ~ t l l , l ) l:!,:?:?!l l l i l l i l l l l l ~ l l l l l t ~

li*(.l.I'I.OIII I . 1 1 c ~ I!)!lH II-VOI ( 12, 17:) l ~ i l l i o l( . ~I I I I I I . I',*I-I ) 1 . 1 1 J I I . I . ~ I I I I I ~1111 , S'I.;, 1 1 1 : I I I I'l!I!) 1 1 1 v

l l l 1 l 1 l I I l lI ! 'I'lll. 11:; I',III I I,,, l 1 1 l ~ ~111:ll
1 Ill11 1 . 1 1 l o l l ( I ' : l . \ ) ~~:,t.l111.1l,'lI
:\~l1111111~:I

t11:1,(, (,11(: I!)!)!) ~;:I.s \,I,:; TIIl i ~ * l ( l : I(II.III

I(*s(+I : 1li1.11 I,II:IIII(,,I I I I I , ~ ~ I ; I I I ( *LV,*I.(~III(I~.(,
;I:< II;I;.III~~,

than triple thc vol~~nlc: l I!)S!), I?ij:. (i.I I i 1 1 :)I.

r c y ) o ~ . t , c ~ill 'I'III(Y. l i S s ~ , i ~ ~ . c . s N V W

Mexico, Colorado and Alabn~l~il. iLr(! I)vli(~v(~(i(.o~it,i~ili 75'X) of' 11s prov~11(,o:~l-
bed methane reserves. It should be noted that the incrcase of i1atnr:tl gas rcscrvcs is
due t o a combination of new exploration, revised utilisation estimates and iinproved
extraction techniques. Coal-bed methane production grew by about 5% in 1999 to
1252 billion cubic feet, which is about 7% of US dry gas production [14]. It is
obvious that coal-bed methane is an important component of the US fuel supply 'Ihble 6.6. World c a r h o ~dioxide
~ c~~~issiorrs
I'rolll II;L~.III.;L~ gas IIV- Ily II-~:~IIII,
II,~,.IO,II(
1. 1 .t,ll,, 1'1~111

network that is of increasing importance year by year. 2020.

Experience in other countries has been less encouraging, generally because their (Million Metric Tons Carbon Equivalent)
$ -

coals have low permeability compared with those in the two main coal-bed methane-
producing basins in the USA [13,15].
The USA and Canada are working jointly to develop the vast, deep, unmine-
ReglonlCountry
lndustrlallzed Countrlea
1 1990 1
Hlatory

1998 1 1999 I 2005 1

Projections

2010 1 201; -

North America ..........

able coal-beds in the Canadian province of Alberta. A process of injecting carbon United statesa . . . . . . . . . .
Canada. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
dioxide is used. When absorbed into the coal this displaces the txapped methane. Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
There is an abundance of deep coal-beds in both countries, providing sites for the Western Europe .........
United Kingdom . . . . . . . . .
geographical storage of carbon dioxide froin nearby coal-burning plants and thereby France . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . .
reducing greenhouse gas einissioils [16]. Ilaly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Western Europe. . . . . .
lndustrlallzed Asla ........
Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Australasia . . . . . . . . . . . .
Total lndustrlallzed ......
EE/FSU
Former Soviet Union . . . . . . .
Eastern Europe . . . . . . . .
Total EEIFSU ..........
Developing Countries
Developlng Aala ......... 45 86 92 155 204 263 328 tl 7
Chlna. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 13 14 31 47 76 IIIH lo I
11 I
lndla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 13 12 19 26 36 13
,0 ,s
South Korea . . . . . . . . . . . 2 8 10 15 19 23 :I()
Other Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 53 56 90 111 129 111 .I /

Middle East. ........... 56 100 102 120 156 187 220 ;II

Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 6 7 7 7 I0 I:! I0
Other Middle East . . . . . . . . 54 94 96 113 148 117 :'W 'I /

Afrlca ............... 22 29 31 36 40 48 54 7 I

CentralandSouthArnerlca ... 32 49 51 70 111 173 228 I 4

Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 3 4 8 20 35 1H I1 I
OlherCentralISoulhAmerica.. 30 46 47 62 92 138 IHO 11 l b
TotalDeveloplng . . . . . . . 155 263 276 380 510 672 831 54

Totalworld ............ 1,072 1,216 1.247 1.512 1,Tl4 2.096 2.425 :I 1

Annex l
lndustrial~zed . . . . . . . . 488 606 622 71'2 811) !IIG l , ~ ; ' : l .' .I
EUFSU . . . . . . . . . . . 341 29fi 277 ?HI 2H4 :I05 :i4:1 I0
Total Annex 1 . . . . . . . . . . 832 7 ll
-- - . -. - - 902
p ~
900 1.023 1.103 1,220 1.3RI
alnclud~sItlo 50 Sl;ltas ar~d11113Dlstrl,.t (11 C;uh~rr~lrl~ ( 1 S rlbrrllorlr~~. 11111 1111~111111111 111 A1l~lll~~l~l~bl#t

Nolos. Lt/FSU E.islnrr1 k ~I~IJ~III/~ or!llor SI>VIOI(lr11~111

Sc~~rr,:~>s
Hlmtory: LIIRI!]~ l l l l ~ l r n l ~ lA~1~~~l1~/~11~~1/1111
l~n (1 IA). l l l f ~ l l l i t f l t ! r l i a lI I I ~ L I I ~AIIIII~JII
V 111 )I11 IA lI.'IO(1lIl) (WIIIIIIIIIUIIIII
fll'l'l,
DC. ~ ~ I I I I 1001)
IIHI~ ProJmcllon.: I-IA, A,I,II~I~Irl,,ryy r I,rfb,oh .'rHl.', 111 II /I 1A 11.l11ll.'lll1.') (WIII.IIIII~JII)II 1 l ( lano 1 1 1 1 1 1 ) o l ,'11111)
li~l,luAI'I, .t,\tl Wolltl I IIIII,~~
I1~o)on 111111 !;y.filq~tn(:'IHI;')
 Iig 1 . 1 1 1 ~r , 1 1 1 I ( 1 1 I I l l . I!,lIl I l ~ l l I I I I \ I ~I l l . : 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 I 1 1 1 I 111 # 0;1I ll:,l~lI I l l I l l i l l !:;I:> I
~ l ~ l l l l l l 1l 1 1 1 1 I l l

. i ~ ~,j11:;1 I I \ , I . I I : \ I I I I I I I O I I I o I I I I ~ . : ; , \vl111.11 w i l : , 1 1 1 0 1 1 . I . ~ I ; I I I 1 1 1 1 l 1 1 1 ' I I , : . ~ . 01

I l r i l , ; ~ W;I.S
t,og(!t#ll(~l~ 11~1.
111 i3rit,i1,i11, l , l l ( \ oI(l sl,~,l(s " ~ ; I ,\ ~ s( I I . I ~ S " w i l , l ~11,s( . I I ; I , I ~ ; I I ~ ~ , ( ~ II I~I ;IIs~ ~I ) ~I ~~( II I~~ I I I I :: ;; I I , I I I , ~ I ,
piles of (:oi~lf o r i ) ~ ~ o ( . ( : s ;sI .iI~I ( ~ ~ , O I . ; I . JJ~; ;(I ,>S O I I I ( S ~ , ( * I , [,;I,III<S I I : I ( I I ~ I , I . ~ ~ , I (, II ~, :~; ; I I I I I I ~ ; I I ( ~ I ~ I I \ ,
~ Sg
6.7. E n v i r o n m e n t a l A s p e c t s of N a t u r a l G a s the early l!)tjOs. 11, is ;LII ir~l,c:~.trst,ir~g il.oll,y ~,II;I.(. WOI.I(I ~ I . o ( . l01'i ~( . o i ~ . l will I O I I J : ( 1 1 1 1 I I I ! I I
I
the reserves of oil ai1(1l l i ~ t , ~ ~ gi~s.
r t ~TIIV l I I S ( \ of (:o;l,I;IS i1, II;IS(> I I I ; I ~ ~ . ( - I . ~L ;I II ~( I I I I , I - ; I J ~ . ~ I I I I
Natural gas is increasingly viewed as an environmentally friendly fuel. It burns manufacture coal gas (ai~clalso possil)ly oil) is i~ l)ossil)l(: I'II~,III.(* s ( . ( ~ I I : I ,1I' 1 .1 1~ (I ,l l ( .
cleaner than coal or oil, causing less local air pollution. The latest figures for early part of the 21st century.
carbon dioxide emissions from natural gas use are given in Table 6.6. Comparison The UK policy of drastic curtailnlcilt of tllc o11c:o grc:i~t.(:o;~.lI I I ~ I I ~ I Ii l~l :( III:;I I \,, I I I
with the corresponding Table 5.8 of Chapter 5 for oil shows that gas results in about favour of natural gas and importccl coal, inay t.ur11out t,o I)(: s l ~ o ~ ~ l , - s i j !~~ I,~lI ~I I lI ~ ~ ~ 11

one half of the oil emission rate a t present (2002). The future projections indicate geologists in the UK have commented tlmt it will 11ot I)(: l ) o s s i l ) l ( ~ / l ) ~ ~ ; \ t ~( 0~ , i ( ~
an increasing einission rate over the next decade or so, for all areas of the world, reopen the old deep coal mines. Things would llavc t,o st,;~rt111) il,g;~.i~l 1 ly 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~ :
becoming 65% of the oil eillission rate by the year 2020. new shafts and boring new tunnels if the need agaiil nriscs to iilc~rc.;~.sc* 1.111. I 11 1 1 1 1 . 1 I I I I I
)I-(

The countries of Eastern Europe and China, which now rely heavily on coal for of domestic deep coal. On the other liand, the use of import.cxl (:O;I.I O I . I ~ : ; I ~ I \ ~ I1 ~1 1:1~.
electricity generation, increasingly tend to regard natural gas as a nlore attractive indigenous coal, which can be used as a source of coal-hcd il~(:l,lli~.~~('.
fuel. As one might reasonably expect, there is a direct correlation between the All modern high temperature coal gasification proccsscs follow si111il;lr:;I.IIJ:I*:~ ( 1 I
amount of natural gas consumed and the consequent production of carbon dioxide produce either low BTU, medium BTU or high BTU coal g;~sc:s. {!oild (11. ( ~ 1 1 l i 1 , I:I
emissions from its use. crushed and heated in the presence of air or oxygeil. Scvc:r;~ltlilli-~~c~~ll. i l l 1 l11!;1 I 1 1 1 1
An offshore gas platform or any facility handling natural gas is part of the methods, such as the Lurgi process, have bceil developccl i l l E ~ l r o l ) ~' I'' .I I I ~ S I - 1 1 1 1 1 ( . 1
pet,roleum industry and represents some degree of industrial hazard. The safety only with regard to the method of bringing the reactant;^ irlt,o c:oi~l.;~.c~l, wil,l~I , I I I ~1 . 1 I I I , ~ .
record of gas exploration and production, for routine industrial accidents and ex- Gas made from passing air or a n air-steam mixture ovt:r hot c:o;~lis c . : ~ , l l ( \ t l LOIII I{'!'( 1
plosion risks, is excellent in the OECD countries. Nevertheless, gas production, like gas and has the low calorific value of 3-6 MJ/m? This gas, wliic.11c,oirsisl,sI I I : I i l l ,!I 1 1 1 '
oil, is required to apply the most stringent safety practices and regulations during nitrogen plus the conlbustible components carboil moiloxicic: ;LII(I I I V ( I I.( IJ:(*II, ( , : I I I I I I 11
exploration and production to guard against leaks, fires and explosions. There has be economically transported or used in eqliipniellt designc:d li)r I I ; I . ~ ~ I I I . ; I jl,;l.s. .~ 11. 1 . 1 1 1 1
never been a major accltlent due to gas leak~gefrom transmission pipes or spillage be used to power on-site industrial boilers. A l~sefiil; q ) ~ ) l i ( * ; ~is l . i foi l ~l . ~I Y , I I I I I I I I I I I .
from LNG tankers. Nevertheless, any pipe leaks tend to blanket the surrounding electric power generation using combined-cycle plants, ;LS t1c:sc~ril)c~cl ill ( !II;II)~ '1
area with gas, thus excludi~igoxygen, and can leave an area barren for months. If oxygen is used, rather than air, the rcaction protl~lc:c:s;L gi1.s I , ; I I I I ~ I I 111c.rl1111rr
The combustion of natural gas causes the oxidation of atinospheric nitrogen. BTU gas, which has a calorific value of 1 0 2 2 MJ/nl:'. Most, o f l . l ~ c sc l i l 1 1 l . i l 1 ~ 1 , 1 1 i l I I IJ:(.II
Nitrogen oxides are formed whlch contribute to acid precipitation. In association is removed by this process, leaving maiiily carbon inonoxitlo. 11' I I I I ~ I . I I I I . I I I * 111, 01 1 1 1 . 1
with sulphur dioxide the nitrogen oxides can be toxic to plant life. The total effects hydrocarbons are added to increase the upper-entl c:;~lorilic:I ) ~ . o I I o I . ~ . ~ I ~ sI ,,l l i : ; 1 1 1 1 . 1
of natural gas use are, however, much less severe than those of coal. acquires a heating value about one half that of ilat,ilrirl gi1.s. It, I)III.IIS ~ . ; l l ) i t l l \ l 1 1 1 1 1 1
can produce a flame temperat,ure higher tllan tllat of II;L~.III.;L~ gi1.s. ' ~ ' I I I : I l i j ~ , l1~, 1 1 1 1 1 , 1 1 1
monoxide content prevents it from 1)cing dist,rit)~itc:cli l l 1.11(1 I I ~ I . ~ , I I I . ; I t1,il.s ,~ ~~JII*IIIII-
6.8. Synthetic G a s from Coal network [I].
Hzgh BTU gas is thermally (:(~~iiv;~,l(:~~t, to I I ~ L ~ , I I ~g;~,s, : L ~ l ~ ; ~ , v i:I,~(~ ~ ;pI ., I I I I ~ ~ \';IIIII.
I~I~
Until the widespread use of natural gas in the 1950s and 1960s the term "gas" nleant
of 37 MJ/m3 or 1000 BTIJ/ft:'. It, is i~it,c:rc~l~;~.l~gc:i~I)l(~ witall I I ; I . ~ , I I I ~ : I , IS ~ ; I I I I I I.:III 111,
"coal gas" or "town gas" in most countries of the world. It has long been known
transmitted in the nnt,~iralg;w ~)il)c,li~~c. ~~c~i,worlt. 'I'llis sy llt.l~ol,ic. I I ; I , ~ . I I I . ; Ij:;~::
~ (SN( : ) I:I
that coal undergoes low temperature natural degasification, tiescribed in Scc. 6.5
prodlicc:tl t)y t,llc: I I I ~ ~ , ~ I ~ L I I ; L ~of' , ~ ~O I~I ~ ( v l i Ilrl'll ~ l l ~ J!,;I.s. l A I I I I I I I ~ I I ~ 111' I . ~ I I ~ ~ I ~ s ( . ~ J : ; I ( ~, ~I II I I. I : ;
on coal-bed methane.
c~irr(:~~t,l,y 1)ro(:(:(vli11j; l,o ( I ( ~ v ( ~ l 1 I1I I1I I)I . I > ( ~ I I ' I Y ~ I , ~ v I *; I I I ( I ( * I ~ I I I I O I I I ~ I(I ~I ( ~ I , I I O I I : , I 11' 1 1 1 I I I ~ I I I ~ I I I ~ ~ ,
Coal gas was IISCXI iLs i~ l'~i(,lfor st,r(!(:l,li~;l~l,iil~: i l l s(~v(:r;11 ~ C I I ~ O ~ ) ( * ; (I ., ~I II I I I ~ , I . ~ ( lx:f'or(,
!S
SN(:. '['II(, ; ~ . i ~ lisl 1 . 0 I , I . O I ~ I I I Y > 1 1 i j : l l I I I ( ' ( . ~ I ; L I I ( ~j ; ; ~ : . i l l 1 1 1 I . ( Y I I I I Y - 1.111' 1 1 1 ~ ~L 1I I oxyj0,t.11 1 1 1
t , l l ( \ o11tl 01' I . I l ( - IS111 l . ( ' l l I 111.y. ' I ' l l l ~ 1!)11 1 ( ~ ~ ' I ~ ~ . IS;I.\br I I ~ Y I . l l ( ' ~ v i l I l ' ~ ( l ~ ~ l ' ;l ll ~. 'l\ l~ l ' l l l ~ l 1 1 1 l ' 1 1 1111'
.
1 1 1 1,111. I l l i I I I I ~ I . Ii:;~ ; I I I i ~ l c l ~ ~ : : I . ~( .i; :I I~: IlI \ , I I I .
t , l 1 1 , j:;~silic>l.. I I I I I I , I , : ; : ; I ~ I I I I I I I I I I I I . ~ I I ~I ~I I, I I I I I I I I
1 L l 1 ( 8 I.II:I,I !::IS i~lll~lsl.l.\, ~ i ! : l l l : I ( . I . I ) S S1 1 1 1 * \ L . I I I I ( I . 1 1 1 1.111' IISA I l i j : / ~ I ~ * I I I ~ I ( , I : I I ~ I I I I. ~O *; I ~
JI,:IS ( I I I I ~ ~ , ~ I ~ I II I II II I~ I )I 1)iI
! ' . ; ~ : . i l i l . ; ~ l i l ~ \l\ ~, ; I : , : I I . I I I I I I I I V I I I ; I I I I I I I I I . ; I I \ , ' O I \!#(I \ , I . ; I I . . , I . I I I ~ I I I ! , , I I I I l l , . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1!)110:, jI';l
 11, is ~ ~ o s s[ , I iI ~
~ 1 ) 1 ~~ 1~ 1 ~~( . I~I ~1I I 1 I1,;ls ~ , ~ ~ v:I (.o;11S ( ~ ; I , I I I 1j.y I I I I ( ~ ( ~ I ~ J ! , ~ ~ I I I I ~ ~
~ ~ ~ I ~~ I I ~ I Y ~ I'l'o111

gt~sificatioii.A ( ~ o ~ ~ t , r oIi1.o l l ( is~ lsI,;I,I.I,(~I I I I I I ( I ( * I . K ~ ( I I I I I I I l, i ~ ll).y O X , ~ K (i1,ir: I Ior

, sl,(:i1,111,
producing low BTU gas ill t,lio ( : O I I ~ ~ ) I I~SL~~, (~'I.'llis xOLI.~t(>(:ll~li(l~~(s 1 l i 1 , ~so111(:(:~iviro~i-

mental appeal and was tried extensively in the former USSR tll~ringthe 1930s [18].
In the UK the underground gasification process would be in direct competition witli
the most profitable coal mines and is not presently economical [19]-[21].
I M ~ . V ~ - i g l, Jl. , (:. [1!)81]1hrr.,11/1/
: \ I I I I I I I I ~ 1111. Il'r111rl ( I ' I . I I : I I I I
I ' II IO
. : ~ I: ~I, 1 ) \ 1 1 1 1 t l , I K I I ~ J , I I I I I I I )
:! "111' St.i~1.ist.ic.;1.l ltcview 01' WOII t 1 I , : I I I . I ~ltl' : \ " 'A. I I I I1 1~ 111,
~ , l l t ~ ~ ~ I /~ I \l , t , 1 ~1 1 1~1 ~:'I1111 ,

:I. 'I'il.;~t.soo,13. N. [I9721 N I I I I I I I I I( : I I V , :!111l 1 t a 1 1 l 11111 ( SI(.III Ilia I ' I I ~ : ~ !1 ~, 1 1 1 , 1. ~ I I I ~ I ~ ~

l~;ll~l;11l(i).
6.9. Problems and Review Questions 1. "IjI' Iteview of World G;Is", I \ I 1 1 1:,11 l'1.1 1 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 1 1 1 1 ( ' I I I I I ~ I I I I I \ , 1 1 1 t , , 1 , 0 1 1 ~ 1 0 1 1 , I K I I ~ V . I I I I I ~ I l'I4l!1 ,
. "Illlited Kingdom", US I,;III.I la,^ I I I I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1011 A ( ~ I I I I I I I : ; ~ 1.1I1 1I 1I, ( W I I ~ I I I I I 1I1 ~ 1 , : 1I1I1 I , I I:;/\,
6.1. Use the data of Tables 6.2 and 6.3 to list, in order, the world's current ten May 2000. http://www.tii~..~I~~t~ ~ ~ , I B \ ~ / iI1 1*1 : ;I/ 1 1I1I( I111~ 1I1 1I1 / I
largest producers and consumers of natural gas. I . "l~~~,c~rl~aiionalEnergy 0 1 1 1 . 1 0 ~ 1 1l!t!l(in,
~ I ~ : I I I ~ I ~I ~I I, ~VO I I I I I I ( I I I I AI I ~ I I I I I I I : ~ ( I I I I11,'; I ~ I I1)1'111
I,
6.2. (11' Energy, Washington, I)( :, I IS/\, I ~ I ~ I ~ I I B11I )~l ~ ; / l ~ : l A 1l~lS~l(!ltij, l!I!IIi, 1 1 1 1 , \ ! I I!\
Why did the consumption of natural gas in Eastern Europe start t o fall so
7. "IJK Energy Sector Indic.;~l~tl,i :'(10(1", 1 h.111 1 1 1 '1'1 ; I I I I , i l l 1 1 1 I I I I ~ I I : I ( I v ( I l ' l ' l ) , 1 l ~ t ~ ~ l l
significantly after about 1990?
IJK, Nov. 2000.
6.3. In which countries of the world did the annual consumption of natural gas H. "1JK Energy in Brief", D(bl11 ' I ' I I I I ~ I . 1 1 1 1 1 1 111~111:il
111 1y ( 1 ) ' 1 ' 1 ) , I , I ) I I I ~ I I I I I, / I \ . l 1 t . i :111111
increase most rapidly during the 1990s? ! I:olls, 1. [2001],"Renewat)l(~ I~:III.I):\, 10',!<I11" :!(Il()", I * : I I I : I I I I - I ' I I I I ~ : S V I I *, - III II III I l ' : , l 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 u t 1 1
6.4. What are the world's busiest trade routes for natural gas? ,lo~~rnal, Institution of El(-c.l.~ I , 1 1 1 I ~ ; I I J ~ , I I I I . ( ' I : ; , I , I I I I I I I I I ~ , I l l \ . I 0 (:!). .I:! I:\
10. Sweet, W. [2001], "An U I I I I ~ I I I,( II I I: ~II II I ~N I I I . I I I1~:II:,'!". I~ 1 1 ~ ~ 1.\',II.I
~ : l ~ 11
~ 11111 :It4 ( l ) , ){.I
6.5. Is the UK self-sufficient in the use of natural gas? Explain using figures of UK I I. "l~~ternational Energy OII(I I I I V I { :!OO 1 " , I IS 1 J I . ~ I ( 01 l s ; ~1 :~~ ~. 'I ~~ : I I I - I ~ , v I I I ( O I I I I I I I ~I 1 1 1
production and consumption of natural gas from 1984 t o the present time. Alninisation ( 1 W ; I I I I I I I ,, 1 A I )( 1 / 1 1 A 1 I ( I j I :'IIIII
6.6. Is the USA self-sufficient in the use of natural gas? Explain using figures of 12. "IJS Crude Oil, Natural (:;I:; i l l 1 1 1 N I I I I I I I I (Ii l l ! ; I , I I ~ I I I I ~I (XI ' : ~ I , I \ * I ' : ~ I!lO!l A 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1I I I ~ I I C I I I " ,
US production and consumption from 1984 to the present. (IS Energy Information A ~ ~ I I I I I I I : ~ ~( II' ~: l IA~) ,. W I I I II HI ~ I I I I J :I ~) ( I I:,I IISA, I, I!l!lll, 1 1 . \ I
I:\. "Erlropean Energy a I'OI,II:I , 1 1 1 ( ' I I I I I " , 0 1 ! I l l ~ ~ / A l ll!l!l!l
- ~~,
6.7. The consumption of natural gas has slowly risen in the UK since 1990. What
l~t,t~://www.energ~-coal-~~~~~ I o 1 1 1 / ' 1 i vI I I I ~ I ~ ~ I ~ ~ , ~ / I I I I I ~ ~1 I 1 1I1I1 1\ ~ I * I I ~ ~ I I I I I I I ~
has been the average annual increase? 1.1. Murchison, D. [1988], "SI,III,II,, 01 1 ' ~ I I I I I I I V I k l r * I~I I I I I I * I ( I , ~ , I I \ J ~ %\. I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . I I I I I I ~ ~ !c ~ II I I I I ~ I I " ,
6.8. The consumption of natural gas has slowly risen in the USA since 1989. What ICl~crgyInformation A ~ I I I I 1I1 1I1 1I, 1 1:1 ~ (~I , : I A ) , N i l 1 I I I I I ~ ( :)I:, klc1111I l l y , I J ( )18:/1':1 01.IIl
has been the average annual increase? (88/09), Washington, D( 1, l I!;!\, I ~ I - I . I !IS8
I ! IIla.ck, H. T. [1991], " U p ~ l i l1 ~ l 1 1, ~11:; ( ! I I I I I I ~ I ~ I ~I ~ I - I . ~ I I I I II 'I I$ I I I ~ I I I~ I ~ I I I " , I * : I I I - I ~ , I~ I I ~ ~ ~ I I I I I
6.9. What proportion of the world consumption of natural gas was used by the
(.ion Administration (EIA), N J I II ~ I I I I( :II:, I I I I I I II~l l y , W I I : I ~ I I I I ~I ):(~' ,. ~I I:(A, I I , I!I1)I
western OECD countries in the year 2000? 1 1 . "ll~ternationalIndustry/( :# I \ , ~ . II I I I I I * I I I ' 1 111:it I I I I I I I I I I I I V I Y ~I I~ : I I I s y 1 1 1 . 1):v l(1.1 W I ~ I ~ NI II I ~
13:i

6.10. What proportion of the world natural gas reserves is currently located in 11r:~lGas Production ~ , I I I I 1 1 1 1~1 1 , t . 1 1 1 ~ I I ~ I ~ I I ~ I , I I (I :i lIl :~, - I*:IIII:IHIOII*I", A I 1 I I ~ 1I 1 1 ~ ( I ~ I I I ~ I 1I 1 I I
(a) North America, (b) Europe, (c) former Soviet Union, (d) Middle East, (:orlncil, Alberta, Canatlrl, I!IIIH
(e) Africa, (f) Asia and Australia? 1 1 t , t , ~ : / / w w w . ~ c . a ~ . c a / ~ l 1 ; ~ 1 ~ i 1 1 ~ ~ t ~ ~ /:!!)(1 1 ' ~
I tk,l
~ ~ 1v1 1~
, 1 11
11 1 1 ~ l ~ ~ i 1 ; , 1 ~ ; i / ! 1 ~

17. "Worltlwide Look at H . ~ ~ S I , I I I I I ~ I 1 ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 I O I I " , ( ) I / 111111 (:II.V . I O I I I1 1 r r 1 I I!)!) l j I12 (!I:'),
\ , ~ ~ ~ t
6.11. Why has the world stock of natural gas "proved reserves" increased since
42 11.3.
1980 in spite of a continuous rise of consumption in the same period? IS. "I<~~crgy in Transitiorl ]!)H!I;'lIIll", 1 ' I I I I ~ I I I * I : \ , 1 { 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~1 ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 ~1 1 1 1 N I I 11'111
~
6.12. If the Middle Eastern countries become the chief exporters of natural gas by i111tl All,c!~.~la.tive
Energy S v : i ~ ~ .N~I I lI I~I I:I ~ I I I,II ( ~ ~ : ~ I ~ I 11I I I1 ' I I I I I I I , I I , W I I I ~ ~ I I I I I~11I , ~ I. II! III IAI, I ,

the middle of the present century, how will this gas probably be transported I !)HO.
to Western Europe? I!). Willi;\l~~s, 'I'. 1. [1'381] A I/I:,/IOII/ 111, I ~ I I / I ~( : ,~ r~- iI I I I I ~ I I/I ~( (~) \~I I II I I I 1 I I I I \ ' I - I I I I ~ \. I ' I I ' I I ! ~ ,
l'~l1~l;l,l1ll).
6.13. What is the probable chief source of synthetic natural gas? . I . "(!II;I~ I1ritlgc. l,o t.ho I ~ I I ~ , I I I I ~ l" l ,t . 1 1 1 1 1 1 01 1 1 1 1 . W ~ , ~ l ( l' 0 l1 1 1 :;l11(1~, I \ I I I I I I I ~ : I ' I I'IIIIII~III
6.14. Draw up a table of low BTU, medium BTU and high BTU gnscs i n t e r ~ n sof ( :(I,,( : ; I I I I I I ~ ~ ( I K ( , ,M;I,ss., ll:i,4, ll)!{ll
their calorific values. :!I. I , \ I ~ I * V ,( : . I1!)7(il 'I'lrc I:'r~r,r,/r/ r , , l l r . i / r t , r r ( I ' ~ . I I ~ , I I I I I1 1,OII,~OII, I,:II~:~IIIII~)
( 0 1 1 1 < : ~ ~

6.15. Why is nk~,t,l~ri~l giI,S ~)ro~(!ct,(:(I t80I)(:(Y)III(\ i ~ ~ ( ~ r ( : ; ~1)01)111;1,r s i ~ ~ ~ ;I.S I'II(?I

l , y;I. l)ri111(5
S O I I ~ ( Y >( Y, ) I I I I ) ~ I , I I Y I wit11 (.O;I,I, ~ J I (, ~ l ~ ~ ( ~ I , ~ ~~(i~( I~I i( l~ ,~, ;yI , ~ , ~ I ) I I ' !

li. Ili. I ' : x ~ ) I ; I . ~ I I I 111. I I ~ I I ; * I I . I I I . I > : ; ~ I I ~ ~ . \ V I . II~II :I I I . I I,:;I:;,I ' ~ I( .~I I I I I I ) I * I I I I I I ~ I I I I I I I I . I I I I ( I J::I.s.