MODULE WEEK NO.

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College of Education
EL 107: Teaching and Assessment of the Macro skills
1st Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021

Introduction

Speaking is a productive skill. Theoretically, according to O’Grady

(1996), it is a mental process. This means that it is a psychological process
by which a speaker puts a mental concept into some linguistic form, such
as word, phrases, and sentences used to convey a message to a listener.
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So the speech production is the process by which the speakers turn their
mental concept into their spoken utterances to convey a message to their
listeners in the communicative interaction.

Much recent work on optimal conditions for the teaching of

speaking in second and foreign language classrooms has been grounded
in educational psycholinguistics or in cognitive and social psychology.
Theoretical constructs for language pedagogy have been drawn
extensively from empirical studies, underpinned by the central notions of
second language acquisition: communicative competence (Canale and
Swain 1980); comprehensible input (Krashen 1985), negotiated interaction
(Ellis 1990, Gass and Varonis 1994, Long 1983, Pica, et al. 1989), input
processing (VanPatten and Cadierno 1993), developmental sequences
and routes of acquisition (Meisel, Clahsen and Pienemann 1981), and
communication strategies (Faerch and Kasper 1983). Such constructs are
widely taught in teacher preparation programs in second and foreign
language teaching and clearly have relevance to oral language
instructional practice.

From a communicative view of the language classroom, listening

and speaking skills are closely intertwined.

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Rationale

In speaking, one needs not only to learn its vocabulary and grammar, but
also the context in which words are being used. It is a vocalization of human
communication. Being able to express and iterate an idea, a concept, or an opinion
through speech or speaking is essential in the communicative process. Being able to
create relativity on what we are thinking in effective and direct manners which allows
us to communicate effectively with others in a variety of situations.
There are skills that can be implemented in speaking; to appropriately
accomplish communicative functions according to situations, participants, and
goals. To use appropriate styles, registers, redundancies, pragmatic conventions,
conversion rules, interrupting, and other sociolinguistic features in face-to-face
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conversations. In conveying links and connections between events and

communicate such as relations as focal and peripheral ideas, events and feeling,
new information and given information, generalization and exemplification.
Conveying facial features, kinetics, body language, and other nonverbal cues along
with verbal language is also implemented in speaking.
Developing and using the battery of speaking strategies, such as
emphasizing key words, rephrasing, providing a context for interpreting the meaning
of words, appealing for help, and accurately assessing how well your interlocutor is
to understand you.

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of these weeks, the preservice teacher (PST) should be able
to:
a. select differentiated learning tasks in teaching speaking to suit learners’ gender,
needs, strengths interests, and experiences;
b. demonstrate how to provide timely, accurate, and constructive feedback to
improve learner performance in the different tasks in speaking through simulations

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c. craft a learning plan according to the English curricula that is developed from
research-based knowledge and principles of speaking and the theoretical bases,
principles, methods, and strategies in teaching these components; and
d. conduct a teaching demonstration of the assigned learning competencies in
speaking.

Activity

Speaking Task/Performance

(Focusing on Confidence, Speaking Simulation, Varied Speaking

Concepts Applied)
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Individual/pair/group preparation and presentation of speaking tasks

(storytelling, oration, acting, conversation simulation, role play, theatrical
play, etc.)

Discussion

Mechanism and Process of Speaking

BREATHING STAGE

 Which is primarily concerned with

maintaining life, is secondarily a force assisting
in vocalization. It consists of two phases ---
inhalation and exhalation.

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1. LUNGS - Serve as the reservoir of air. As you inhale, fill the lungs comfortably
in preparation for speaking.
2. Diaphragm - A large sheet of muscle separating the chest cavity from the
abdomen. Forms the floor of the chest and the roof of the abdomen. Gives
pressure to the breath stream.

PHONATION STAGE

 Phonation takes place when voice is produced in speaking as the expiratory

air stream from the lungs goes up through the trachea or windpipe to the
larynx.
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1. Larynx - Principal organ of phonation. Found at the top of the trachea.

Protuberance is known as the “Adam’s apple”.

2. Vocal Cords - A pair of bundles of muscles and cartilages. Open and close at
various degrees.

3. Trachea - Also known as windpipe. Passageway of air going up from the lungs.

RESONATION STAGE

 The voice produced in phonation is weak. It becomes strong and rich only
when amplified and modified by the human resonators. Resonation isthe
process of voice amplification and modification.

1. Pharynx - Common passageway for air and food. Located behind the nose and
mouth and includes the cavity at the back of the tongue. Divisions of the pharynx: –
Nasal pharynx – Oral pharynx – Laryngeal pharynx

2. Nose - Consists of the external and internal portions• Nostrils – openings of the
external nose• Nasal cavity – internal nose; directly behind the external nose through
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which the air passes on its way to the pharynx• Septum – divides the external and
internal nose into two separate passageways

3. Mouth - Divided into the vestibule and the oral cavity proper• Vestibule – felt by
placing the tongue tip outside the teeth but inside the lips• Oral cavity – felt by
retracting the tongue, closing the jaws and moving the tongue about

resonators: Upper part of the larynx, Oral pharynx cavity, and Nasal cavity

ARTICULATION STAGE

 Articulation occurs when the tone produced in the larynx is changed into
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specific sounds. This is the result of the movement of the articulators towards
the points of articulation.

1. Lips• Highly flexible• Can be moved into numerous positions essential to

articulation

2. Teeth• Serve as important surfaces in articulation• Embedded in the alveolar ridge

or gum ridges of the oral cavity

3. Dome• Also known as the hard palate• Bony roof of the mouth• Serves as an
important surface against which the tongue makes contact

3. Uvula• Small nub on the lower border of the soft palate• Movable tip at the midline
of the free border of the soft palate

4. Velum• Also known as the soft palate• Separates the nasal pharynx from the oral
cavity• A flexible curtain attached along the rear border of the hard palate

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5. Tongue• Flexible organ consisting of muscles, glands and connective tissues• Parts
of the tongue: – Apex or tip – Blade • Front • Center • Back • root
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Speech Styles and Registers

What the functions of communication? 1.To control / regulate 2.To socialize 3.To
motivate 4.To give/get information 5.To express emotions

Types of speech style range on a scale from most formal to most informal. The five
levels identified have been specialized names by linguists such as: Frozen, Formal,
Consultative, Casual, Intimate.

1. FROZEN • This style of communication rarely or never changes. It is “frozen” in time

and content. • Example: the Pledge of Allegiance, the Lord’s Prayer, the Preamble
of the Constitution, the Alma Mater, a bibliographic reference, laws

2. FORMAL • This language is used in formal settings and is one-way in nature. • This
use of language usually follows a commonly accepted format. • It is usually
impersonal and formal. • Examples: sermons, rhetorical statements and questions,
speeches, pronouncements made by judges, announcements

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3. CONSULTATIVE • It is formal and societal expectations accompany the users of this
speech. • It is a professional discourse. • Examples: communication between a
superior and a subordinate, doctor and patient, lawyer and client, lawyer and judge,
teacher and student, counsellor and client

4. CASUAL • This is an informal language used by peers and friends. • Slang, vulgarities
and colloquialism are normal. • This is “group language.” • One must be a member
to engage in this register. • Examples: buddies, chats and emails, blogs, letters to
friends

5. INTIMATE • This communication is private. • It is reserved for close family members,

or intimate people. • Examples: husband and wife, boyfriend and girlfriend, siblings,
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and parent & children

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Speech acts are the speaker’s utterances which convey meaning and make
listeners do specific things (Austin, 1962). According to Austin (1962), when saying a
performative utterance, a speaker is simultaneously doing something.

Example: “I am hungry.” • expresses hunger • requests for something to eat

There are three types of speech act:

1. A locutionary speech act occurs when the speaker performs an utterance

(locution), which has a meaning in the traditional sense.
 This act happens with the utterance of a sound, a word, or even a phrase as
a natural unit of speech.
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 What is required for the utterance to be a locutionary act is that is has sense,
and has the same meaning to both the speaker and the listener.
2. An illocutionary speech act is the performance of the act of saying
something with a specific intention.
 In an illocutionary speech act, it is not just saying something itself, but
the act of saying something with the intention of: stating an opinion,
confirming, or denying something , making a prediction, a promise, a
request , issuing an order or a decision , giving an advice or permission.
3. A perlocutionary speech act happens when what the speaker says has an
effect on the listener.
 This is seen when a particular effect is sought from either the speaker,
the listener, or both.
 The response may not necessarily be physical or verbal and elicited by:

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Why should we teach speaking skills in the classroom?

Motivation
Many students equate being able to speak a language as knowing the
language and therefore view learning the language as learning how to speak the
language, or as Nunan (1991) wrote, “success is measured in terms of the ability to
carry out a conversation in the (target) language.” Therefore, if students do not learn
how to speak or do not get any opportunity to speak in the language classroom they
may soon get de-motivated and lose interest in learning. On the other hand, if the
right activities are taught in the right way, speaking in class can be a lot of fun, raising
general learner motivation and making the English language classroom a fun and
dynamic place to be.

Speaking is fundamental to human communication

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Just think of all the different conversations you have in one day and compare
that with how much written communication you do in one day. Which do you do
more of? In our daily lives most of us speak more than we write, yet many English
teachers still spend the majority of class time on reading and writing practice almost
ignoring speaking and listening skills.

Types of spoken language

 Monologue eg lectures, speeches, recitations.

 Dialogue eg conversations, interviews, debates, meetings.
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Functions of Spoken Language

 Referential : utterances that provide information.

 Expressive : utterances that express the speaker’s feelings.
 Transactional: utterances where the main purpose is to get something done
or acquire something.
 Interactional: utterances where the main emphasis is on the social relationship
between the participants.
 Phatic : utterances devoid of any serious content ‘small talk’, usually
conducted with strangers or people only slightly known.

What makes speaking difficult?

The main cause of what makes speaking difficult in the second stage the formulation.
The smaller lexicon or a lack of vocabulary can cause the problem, a weak
grammatical and phonological encoders deteriorate the accuracy and fluency of
speaking.

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Others cause can be the lack of:

• Clustering: it’s the fluent speech not word by word, learners can organize their
output.

• Redundancy: it’s making the meaning of the speech clear

• Reduced forms: it’s necessary to learn the reduced form to sound like a native
speaker because the reduced forms are used in the daily speech.

• Performance variables: it’s the process of thinking as you speak.

• Colloquial language: it’s the acquisition of idioms and phrases of colloquial

language.

• Rate of delivery: it’s the acceptable fluency and speeds at the moment of speak.
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• Stress, rhythm & intonation: it’s the right intonation and pronunciation of patterns to
send important messages

• Interaction: it’s the creativity to produce the component waves of language, the
creativity to negotiate the conversation.

Tips for the teacher:

– Use the authentic language in meaningful context.

– Give the feedback and be careful with their corrections

– Teach in conjunction with listening

– Allows to the student initiate communication

– Improve the Motivation using a range of many different techniques.

Tips for the improve of the fluency and Accuracy

Fluency:

– speak at normal speed

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– self-correction

– smooth use of speech

Accuracy: Speaking using the correct form of grammar, vocabulary and

pronunciation.

6 TYPES OF SPEAKING PERFORMANCE (THE KINDS OF ORAL PRODUCTION THAT THE

STUDENTS ARE EXPECTED TO CARRY OUT IN THE CLASSROOM):

1. IMITATE

A very limited portion of classroom speaking time may legitimately be spent

generating “human tape recorder” speech, where, for example, learners practice
an intonation contour or try to pinpoint a certain vowel sound. Imitation of this kind is
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carried out not for the purpose of meaningful interaction, but for focusing on some
particular element of language form.

New teachers in the field always want the answer to this question: Is drilling legitimate
part of the communicative language classroom? The answer is a qualified yes. Drills
offer students an opportunity to listen and to orally repeat certain string of language
that may pose some linguistic difficulty-either phonological or grammatical. They
offer limited practice through repetition. They allow one to focus on one element of
language in a controlled activity. They can help to establish certain psychomotor
(“to loosen the tongue”) and to associate selected grammatical forms with their
appropriate context. Here are some useful guidelines for successful drills:

 Keep them short (a few minutes of a class hour only)

 Keep them simple(preferably just one point at a time)
 Keep them “snappy”
 Make sure students know why they are doing the drill.
 Limit them to phonology or grammar points
 Make sure they ultimately lead to communicative goals
 Do not overuse them.
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2. INTENSIVE

Intensive speaking goes one step beyond imitative to include any speaking
performance that is designed to practice some phonological or grammatical aspect
of language. Intensive speaking can be self-initiated, or it can even form part of some
pair work activity, where learners are “going over” certain forms of language.

3. RESPONSIVE

A good deal of student speech in the classroom is responsive: short replies to teacher
or student initiated questions or comments. These replies are usually sufficient and do
not extend into dialogues (#4 and #5). Such speech can be meaningful and
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authentic:

T: how are you today?

S: pretty good, thanks, and you?

4. TRANSACTIONAL(DIALOGUE)

Transactional language, carried out for the purpose of conveying or exchanging

specific information, is an extended form of responsive language. Conversations, for
example, may have more of a negotiative nature to them than does responsive
speech:

T: What is the main idea in this essay?

S: The United Nations should have more authority

T: More authority than what/

S: Than it does right now
T: What do you mean?

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S: Well, for example, the UN should have the power to
force certain countries to destroy its nuclear weapons.
T: You do not think the UN has the power now?
S: Obviously not. Several countries are currently manufacturing nuclear bombs.

1.
5. INTERPERSONAL(DIALOGUE)
Carried out more for the purpose of maintaining social relationships than for the
transmission of facts and information. These conversation are a little trickier for
learners because they can involve some or all of the following factors:
·A casual register
·Colloquial language
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·Emotionally charged language

·Slang
·Ellipsis
·Sarcasm

For example:
Amy: Hi, Bob. How is it going?
Bob: Oh, so-so
Amy: Not a great weekend, huh?
Bob: Well, far be it from me to criticize, but I am pretty miffed about last
week
Amy: What are you talking about?
Bob; I think you know perfectly well what I am talking about.
Amy: Oh, that …. How come you get so bent out of shape over
something like that?
Bob: Well, whose fault was it, huh?

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Amy: Oh, wow, this is great. Wonderful. Back to square one. For crying
out loud, Bob, I thought we’d settled this before. Well, what more can I
say?
Learners would need to learn how such features as the relationship between
interlocutors, casual style, and sarcasm are coded linguistically in this conversation.
2.
6. EXTENSIVE (MONOLOGUE)
Finally, students at intermediate to advanced levels are called on to give extended
monologues in the form of oral reports, summaries, or perhaps short speeches. Here
the register is more formal deliberative. These monologue can be planned or
impromptu.

PRINCIPLES FOR TEACHING SPEAKING SKILLS:

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1. Focus on both fluency and accuracy, depending on your objectives

Accuracy is the extent to which students’ speech matches what people
actually say when they use the target language. Fluency is the extent to
which speakers use the language quickly and confidently, with few hesitations
or unnatural pauses, false starts, word searches, etc.
In our current interactive language teaching, we can easily slip into
interactive activities that don’t capitalize on grammatical pointers or
pronunciation tips. We need to bear in mind a spectrum of learner needs, from
language-based focus on accuracy to message-based focus on interaction,
meaning and fluency. When you do a jigsaw group technique, play a game, or
discuss solutions to the environmental crisis, make
sure that your tasks have a linguistic (language-based) objective, and seize the
opportunity to help students to perceive and use the building blocks of language.
At the same time, don’t bore your students to death with lifeless, repetitious drills.
As noted above, make any drilling you do as
meaningful as possible. The student cannot develop fluency if the
teacher is constantly interrupting them to correct their oral errors. Teachers must

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provide students with fluency building practice and realize that making mistakes
is a natural part of learning a new language.
2. Provide intrinsically motivating techniques
Try at all times to appeal to students’ ultimate goals and interests, to their need for
knowledge, for status, for achieving competence and autonomy, and for “being
all that they can be”. Even in those techniques that don’t send students
into ecstasy, help them to see how the activity will benefit them. Often students
don’t know why we ask them to do certain things, it usually pays to tell them.
3. Encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful contexts
This theme has been played time and again. It is not easy to keep coming up with
meaningful interaction. We all succumb to the temptation to do, say,
disconnected little grammar exercises where we go around the room calling on
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students one by one to pick the right answer. It takes energy and creativity to
devise authentic contexts and meaningful interaction, but
with the help of a storehouse of teacher resource material, it can be done.

4. Provide appropriate feedback and correction

In most EFL situations, students are totally dependent on the teacher for useful
linguistic feedback. In ESL situations, they may get such feedback “out there”
beyond the classroom, but even then you are in a position to be of great benefit.
It is important that you take advantage of your knowledge of English to inject the
kinds of corrective feedback that are appropriate for the moment.

5. Capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening

Many interactive techniques that involve speaking will also of course include
listening. Don’t lose out on opportunities to integrate these two skills. As you are
perhaps focusing on speaking goals, listening goals may naturally coincide,
and the two skills can reinforce each other. Skills in producing language are often
initiated through comprehension.
6. Give students opportunities to initiate oral communication

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A good deal of typical classroom interaction is characterized by teacher initiation
of language. We ask questions, give directions, and provide information and
students have been conditioned only to “speak when spoken to.” Part of oral
communication competence is the ability to initiate conversation, to nominate
topics, to ask questions, to control conversations, and to change the subject. As
you design and use speaking technique, ask yourself if you have allowed students
to initiate language.
7. Encourage the development of speaking strategies.
The concept of strategic competence is one that few beginning language
students are aware of. They simply have not thought about developing their own
personal strategies for accomplishing oral communicative purposes. Your
classroom can be done in which students become aware of, and have a chance
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to practice, such strategies as:

·asking for clarification (what?)
·asking someone to repeat something (pardon me?, Huh? Excuse me?)
·using fillers (uh, I mean, Well) in order to gain (to get) time to process
·using conversation maintenance cues (Uh-huh,Right, Yeah, OK, Hmm)
·getting someone’s attention (Hey, Say, So)
·using paraphrasing for structures one can’t produce
·appealing for assistance from the interlocutor (to get a word or phrase, for
example)
·using formulaic expressions (at the survival-stage) (How much does____cost?
How do you get to the____?)
·using mime and non-verbal expressions to convey meaning
Role of Feedback

 Students need to get feedback as they work. What specific feedback they
need depends, of course, on exactly what they are doing and how they are
doing it. Take two students who are learning biology by playing the part of a
manager of a wildlife park. One might need guidance on how to balance

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short-term and long-term goals. Another might need details about what
habitat herons prefer.
 Schools tend to not be very good at giving students the feedback they need.
Sometimes, the only feedback a student gets is a grade. When students do
get feedback that has some content to it, it’s typically because they get it
during class discussion when all the students are getting the same feedback
at the same time.

ASSESSING SPEAKING IN THE CLASSROOM

Assessing speaking skills in the classroom has one clear advantages over
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assessing listening: speech is observable, recordable, and measurable. However,

once the criterion of your assessment moves beyond the phonological level, this
advantage quickly disappear as acceptable responses are more difficult to
specify reliably. There are three criteria in speaking assessing in the classroom :

 Specify the category of speaking performance ( from imitative to extensive)

 Describe micro and macro skills that are to be assessed
 The genre of spoken language that being assessed

Item Types and Task for Assessing speaking

There are some options for assessing spoken language at the various levels of
performance :

Imitative speaking tasks

 minimal pair repetition
 word/phrase repetition
 sentence repetition

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Intensive speaking tasks

 directed response
 read-aloud
 oral sentence completion
 oral close procedure
 dialogue completion
 Picture cued elicitation of grammatical item
 Translation

Responsive speaking tasks

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 picture cued elicitation of response or description

 map cued elicitation of directions
 question and answer
 question elicitation
 elicitation of instructions
 paraphrasing

Interactive speaking tasks

 oral interviews
 role plays
 discussions and conversations
 games

Extensive speaking task

 Oral presentations ( in academic or professional contexts )

 Picture cued ( extensive ) story telling
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 Retelling a story or news event
 Translation of an extended text

Evaluating and Scoring Speaking Tasks

The evaluation of oral production performance can quite complicated. The first we
have to be clear about the level language that our targeting. There are at least six
possible criteria that we can use :

 Pronunciation
 Fluency
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 Vocabulary
 Grammar
 Discourse features ( cohesion, sociolinguistic appropriateness)
 Task (accomplishing the objective of the task )

Some scales add “ comprehension “ to account for the extent to which a student
has comprehended directions or elicitation. We can use categories such as,
beginning, intermediate, and advanced as potential levels. Whatever category
that you use the most important is to describe them as clearly as possible in order to
make reliable evaluations.

Exercise

Speaking Task Feedbacking Simulation

(focusing on Feedbacking Process, Use of Rubrics, and Appropriate Tips/Feedback
Provided to Learner)

Pair feedbacking practice and simulation on speaking task performed

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Assessment

Making a Learning Plan in Teaching Speaking

(focusing on Completeness, Appropriate Approach Used, and Facilitative Process)

Pair learning plan making in accordance to the English curricula speaking

competencies

Reflection

Reflection Essay on Lesson Plan making and feedbacking simulation exercise

Resources and Additional Resources

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