Thesissssss

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The Clothes of the Dead White Man: Development or
Dependency?
Katlynne Wolf
INS 489- International Studies Senior Seminar
December 10, 2020

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Contents
Abstract………………………………………………………………... 3
Introduction…………………………………………………………… 3
Background……………………………………………………………. 9
Literature Review……………………………………………………… 13
Methods………………………………………………………………. 20
Research………………………………………………………………. 21
Conclusion……………………………………………………………. 22
Appendix………………………………………………………………. 23
Bibliography …………………………………………………………… 27
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Abstract:
The proposed project will work to examine the global industry of second hand clothing
and the secondary effects it has upon developing nations. This industry is composed of many non
for-profit charities, profit charities and businesses that utilize the surplus of donated clothing in
western countries to then resell in the markets of developing nations. This project works to
understand the costs and benefits upon the developing nations that are produced by this industry.
The methodology used is a quantitative approach through survey data collection. The research
investigates the experience and knowledge of clothing donations at an individual level. An
analysis of both primary and secondary sources will provide background information and the
scholarship surrounding the global industry of second hand clothing.
Introduction:
A lopsided stack of t-shirts from previous schools and sports teams reside to the right of
me. On my left, lay a pile of very poorly folded sweaters and jeans. The process in which, I sort
and identify between which clothes I didn’t need or no longer desired, occurs each summer
before I return back to school. This year, unlike the previous years, I was a little more informed
about the donation process, after reading an article by the New York Times on Rwanda’s ban of
imported clothing, in an International Trade class.
Typically, I would have neatly packed the clearly viable clothes into bags to bring to the
local donation bin with very little hesitation. I would bring the several hefty bags tearing from
the weight of the clothes to the blue bin on the corner of the block. Before, I would see no harm
in these actions because it has always been my impression that this act of donating would be
beneficial to those in need, as well as to the planet.
The minimal extent of knowledge that I had about the topic of second-hand clothing from
the Rwandan article produced a multitude of questions. I found myself wondering whether my
act of donating, would be more harmful than beneficial to the people of the world? I questioned
if my outdated clothing was of any use and if so what would be the impact?
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The purpose of research was to thoroughly investigate the interworking’s of second hand
clothing donations and the economic effects it has upon developing countries. A substantial
amount of clothing donations derives from major charitable organizations in the Global North.
Fast fashion and overconsumption in the West have contributed to an abundance of recycled
clothing. Second hand clothing donations allows the consumer to feel guilt free in their
participation in the continuous purchase of new clothing. While the act of donating is with good
intent, the research will demonstrate how it may produce more harm, than good. The proposed
project seeks to analyze the history of second hand clothing donations, understand the
relationship it has with developing countries, as well as, how their governments have handled the
various economic and environmental impacts. Through scholarly and primary research of the
entirety of the second hand clothing industry, I have come to better understand the impacts of not
only my personal participation in donation, but of the worlds.
The questions that will be asked within the project stem from the relationship of clothing
donations and the effects it has on the local economies of developing nations located in the
Global South. Initially, questions regarding the history of second hand clothing donations and the
process of deciding who receives the clothing will be examined. The research will seek to
identify the cyclical pattern of fast fashion in the West and its economic impacts on developing
countries. It will inquire about the contributing factors to the influx of second hand clothing
donations. A cross- examination will work to identify the various perspectives of second hand
clothing, especially from non-profit organizations that are the primary suppliers of recycled
clothing. One perspective in particular, that will be thoroughly explored are the negative effects
of the second hand clothing industry among developing nations.

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The concepts and questions that arise through this project are of great significance to the
industry of second hand clothing. Some of the entities that construct this industry are the
individuals in the Global North that donate their clothing, the nonprofit charities that transport
the clothing, as well as the local economies of developing countries in the Global South.
Therefore, a greater understanding and knowledge regarding the negative effects surrounding
second hand clothing may influence and deter from overconsumption and the recycling of
clothing.
A particular theme that makes this thesis noteworthy, is it challenges the
overconsumption of clothing and western material satisfaction. The fundamental values of
capitalism, instills a mindset that places an emphasis on material consumption. Through constant
purchase of latest fashion trends and the removal of “outdated” clothes through donations, the
second hand clothing industry continues to grow. This cycle of satisfaction is one that is
unsustainable in nature and continues to create harmful dependency among the developing
countries. This research provides yet again, another example of western countries and their
creation of dependency upon developing nations. This concept is similar to the arguments against
certain foreign aid organizations, such as the IMF and the World Bank that engineer the
developing nations patterns of dependency. The research, explores how materialism and
overconsumption among Western countries produce harmful economic and environmental
consequences in the developing nations.
This project will utilize data collection through surveys, in order to gain a numerical
value of individuals within the area that participate in clothing donations. The survey will
identify how often a participant donates, where they donate and their extent of knowledge of the
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industry. It will also account for the reasons the individual may donate and if they believe it is of
good nature.
The oral testimony provided by the local leaders and officials of certain African countries
located in East and Sub Saharan Africa will contest to the impacts second hand clothing has upon
the local economies. Such testimony, is provided by the secondary sources that incorporate
quotes and statements said by officials. This qualitative method of research is imperative to
understanding the reasoning behind the banning of donated clothing imports among Eastern
Africa and the impacts it has upon the local textile sectors.
The concept of second hand clothing can be traced back to the seventeenth century. More
specifically, the potential profit identified in the resale of clothes in African countries took effect
in World War 1 and II.1 But the early 2000’s was where the Western accumulation of clothing
and the developing countries need for clothing shaped the trade as we know it today.
The second hand clothing that is donated to common charitable organizations like
Salvation Army and Good Will, may never actually make it onto a shelf in the local, or
nationwide secondhand store. Instead, the excess is brought to a middleman, who then prepares
the clothing for export typically to Africa, India, and Pakistan. Once arrived, they are then sold to
traders, who then sell them to the consumers in the developing country. 2 Many citizens of the
globe participate in the second hand clothing industry as a source of income. It also has provided
low cost apparel to benefit the consumers affected by poverty.3 The problem is that the average
1
“Second-Hand Clothing in East Africa: What the Fashion Industry Doesn’t Want You to Know,” Forage and
Sustain. 2019, https://forageandsustain.com/second-hand-clothing-in-east-africa-what-the-fast-fashion-industry-
doesnt-want-you-to-know/.
2
Brenna Matendere, “Covid-19: SecondHand Clothes Ban Sparks Outrage,” The Standard, 2020,
https://www.thestandard.co.zw/2020/05/10/covid-19-second-hand-clothes-ban-sparks-outrage/.
3
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cost of secondhand clothing is between five and ten percent of an item of clothing that is made in
Kenya’s local industry.4 This makes the local African industries unable to compete with the
prices of second hand clothing items. These imports are harmful because they undermine the
local clothing and textile industry. Africa produces close to 10% of the world’s cotton, yet many
African textile businesses are unable to compete with second hand clothing.5 According to
African officials and leaders, second hand clothing has had a negative impact upon African
apparel production and the textile industry. In 2015 alone, East African imported $151 million
worth of used clothes and shoes, mostly from Europe and the United States. This is due to the
fast fashion trends embedded within western consumerism. It was estimated by a British charity,
Oxfam, that 70% of the clothing donations are transported to Africa.6 The President of Rwanda,
Paul Kagame, said “For countries like Rwanda, a small landlocked state with few natural
resources to extract and export, building local manufacturing is vital for long term economic
development.”7 Another problem will second hand clothing identified by doctors, is the
possibility of contracting ring worm, body lice, or skin candidiasis.8
These harmful factors pushed members of the East African Community to desire the
implementation of an outright ban on used clothing imports in March 2016. The EAC is similar
to NAFTA and the ban was constructed by Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda (refer to appendix for
4
“Rwanda Does Not Want Our Used Clothes and Is at a Standoff with the U.S. as a Result,” TFL, May 23, 2019,
https://www.thefashionlaw.com/rwanda-does-not-want-out-used-clothes-and-now-is-at-a-standoff-with-the-us-as-a-
result/.
5
Lynda Fitzwater, “History of SecondHand Clothes,” Lovetoknow, Accessed September 5th, 2020, https://fashion-
history.lovetoknow.com/fashion-clothing-industry/history-secondhand-clothes
6
Frank Kuwono, “Protectionist Ban on imported used clothing,” Africa Renewal, 2017,
https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/december-2017-march-2018/protectionist-ban-imported-used-clothing
7
8
Eleanor Goldberg, “These African Countries Don’t Want Your Used Clothing Anymore,” HuffPost Canada,
September 19, 2016, https://www.huffpost.com/entry/these-african-countries-dont-want-your-used-clothing-
anymore_n_57cf19bce4b06a74c9f10dd6.
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graph of EAC). Other countries, such as Kenya, South Sudan and Burundi also committed
themselves to implementing this ban in 2016. The same year, Rwanda raised its import tax per-
kilogram from 20 cents to $2.50. This was done in efforts to rebuild Rwanda following the 1994
genocide.9 The ban was desired in order to transform these countries to an industrial bloc as well
as instill pride among the regions people.10
A previous attempt of a ban on second hand clothing importation also occurred in 2005.
Zimbabwe, instituted this ban but after two years the restrictions were uplifted, due to an outcry
by the public. This ban directly affected the men and women whose livelihoods were based on
the selling of clothing that entered Zimbabwe from Mozambique.11
The implementation of the 2015-2016 ban among the East African Countries met
resistance from the US Trade Representative’s, as well as from the Trump Adminsitration. The
EAC were told that if such tariffs were kept in place they would lose benefits from the African
Growth and Opportunity Act, which was intended to increase trade and economic growth across
sub-Saharan Africa. This response came after US based organizations, “represented by
companies that collect and resell American used clothing, complained that the East African trade
barriers were responsible for the loss of 24,000 jobs.”12 Rwanda, specifically was suspended
from shipping apparel products duty-free to the US, in July 2018. The ban placed limitation on
9
10
“Rwanda Does Not Want Our Used Clothes and Is at a Standoff with the U.S. as a Result,” TFL, May 23, 2019,
https://www.thefashionlaw.com/rwanda-does-not-want-out-used-clothes-and-now-is-at-a-standoff-with-the-us-as-a-
result/.
11
12
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Rwanda’s $1.5 million annual apparel exports, while other duty free benefits under the African
Growth and Opportunity Act were temporally suspended.13
Background:
The exchange and repurposing of used clothing has been an ongoing process that dates
back several centuries. In the Renaissance, servants used to sell their masters apparel in local
markets, in exchange for currency.14 While in 17th century London, a diary of Samuel Pepy’s in
1660 described the various transactions of repurposing and reselling material of recycling
clothing. It wasn’t until the mid-19th century, when London saw an increase in international
trade. This occurred when competitive pricing between cotton and wool allowed for more
Londoners to consume cheaper ready to wear garments, thus reducing the demand of used
clothing in domestic markets.15 This shift in the domestic market caused a switch to the focus on
the international market, specifically in Africa.16 The recycling of used clothing can also be
identified in the United States, during the Great Depression. The lack of economic opportunity
and difficult financial times, caused a high demand for affordable apparel.
A significant alteration of the way in which the second-hand clothing industry presented
itself, can be identified following post World War II. The economic recovery and spread of
liberalization, through various international trade and tariff treaties, is one of the many
contributing factors to the current construction of the second-hand clothing industry.17

13
14
Hannah Shell, “A Global History of SecondHand Clothing,” Spreadable Media.
http://spreadablemedia.org/essays/shell/index.html#.X4XvotBKg2x
15
16
17
Kelsey Gasseling, The Threads of Justice: Economic Liberalization and the Secondhand Clothing Trade Between
the U.S. and Haiti (Boston College Law Review, 2017), https://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
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The Second Hand Clothing Industry has seen exponential international growth following
the economic recovery of post-World War II. The influx of clothing within western nations
stems from the fast fashion industry. This industry has been even more so popularized through
forms of social media and technology. Its significant growth can be attributed to an increasing
population, along with the reduction in clothing prices, due to mass production and labor
migrants within both the United States and UK.18 The increase of items, as well as a continuously
expanding economy has allowed for decades of clothing overconsumption. The culture of
overconsumption has led to consumers guilt and desire to be free of their conscience. This
concept has contributed to the overwhelming donation of clothing within the United States. For
example, in the United States there is an estimated total of 20 billion garments purchased
annually and about 70 pounds of clothing per person, each year being discarded.19 Scholarly
work reflects the idea that this is neither sustainable for the environment, or for the economy of
the developing nation. Scholarship has shown that this particular industry is a form of
neocolonialism, also referred to as eco-colonialism. The result of the industry has caused
developing countries to be burdened with an increase in the continuous dumping of donated
clothing each year. Thus, leading to an increase in waste within the nation and undermining of
the local economy. While the industry of second hand clothing is never been explicitly stated in a
form of neocolonialism, the consequences it has upon developing nations discussed in
scholarship demonstrates several commonalities.
Used clothing items today are commonly donated to various profit and non-for-profit
charitable organizations, such as Good Will, Salvation Army and Oxfam. Once the donations are
article=3600&context=bclr
18
Hannah Shell, “A Global History of SecondHand Clothing,” Spreadable Media.
http://spreadablemedia.org/essays/shell/index.html#.X4XvotBKg2x
19
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received the clothes are sorted into different categories and separated, through an identification
process of which clothes will be sold within the local communities and which ones will be sold
overseas. Once the sorting is completed, the donated clothing that is to be sent overseas is
packaged, sold, and transported to intermediary companies, or middlemen. Once received, these
companies will then sell to local vendors in the developing nations where they will finally be
purchased by consumers attending the local markets.20
This industry’s original intent was to aid in the creation of economic opportunities and
developing nations. This approach of trade is considered unilateral, meaning that instead of
stimulating the growth in the developing country, it is providing benefits for the exporting
nation.21 This observation is one that is consistently alluded to in recent scholarly work. For
example, the United States which is the largest exporter of used clothing, earns a substantial
profit in this type of trade. The industry employs several thousand Americans, while establishing
a form of dependency upon the developing country. In the past several decades, this trade has
lacked any type of sustainable economic growth for the developing nations, which was said to be
its original intention.
A particular developing country that reflects these findings is Haiti. The expansion of
liberalization, produced a reduction in tariffs and quantity restriction. It also created free trade
zones, designed to attract foreign investors to the nation. In return, the United States agreed to
20
21
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reduce export obstacles.22 This ironically, led to the entryway of second-hand clothing in Haiti.23
In theory, these goals would allow the developing nation to catch up to the nations of the west,
but after decades of this trade policy, it is evident that this in fact is not the case.
The trade of second-hand clothing is rooted among many civilizations. The repurposing
and reusing of garments for various uses dates back centuries. It wasn’t until the last few decades
where an alteration, in the way the exchange was carried out, can be observed. The economic
success of western nations and the spread of globalization after World War II, contributed to the
international trade of used clothing between developed and developing nations. Other
contributing factors such as overconsumption, fast fashion, mass production and labor migration
have all greatly influenced the global expansion of the Second-Hand Clothing Industry. The
understanding of whether this industry accomplishes its intended goal, which was to aid in the
creation of economic growth in the developing country, can be identified in recent scholarly
work.
Literature review:
The scholarly work surrounding the second-hand clothing industry demonstrated the
various negative impacts used clothing has upon the local economies of developing countries. An
in-depth analysis of the vast literature regarding second hand clothing donations in developing
nations examines the interworking’s of the donation process. It specifically focused on the
industry’s main contributing factor as being western overconsumption and over donation. A
22
23
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large body of literature reflects the negative effects in response to the importation of used
clothing in developing nations within their economies.
A scholarly article by Rebecca William introduced the process of second-hand clothing
and analyzed the American fast fashion industry. The article suggests that the fast fashion
industry is a key part of the second- hand clothing industry. This scholarly work provided
information on the American consumer society and its external effects. For example, a consumer
in a fast fashion culture will focus on the latest fashion trends and get rid of any attire that may
be outdated.24 The article stated that in order to provide a guilt free conscious the consumer will
donate their clothing to second hand stores, like Salvation Army and Oxfam. The research also
showed a positive correlation between the quantity of clothing purchased and the amount
donated.25 This correlation was identified to be enacted, due to the consumers guilt of purchasing
new clothes and simply throwing the old, or outdated items away.26
Andrew Brooks an educator of Development Geography published a book that also
references the concept of fast fashion and its relevance to second hand clothing. This book
provided an analysis on the second-hand clothing industry. It identified Western “throw away”
culture as the root of the issue. The promotion of fast fashion industry has created an influx of
clothing donations within second hand stores.27 The scholarly article identified that through the
24
Rebecca Williams, “Textile Recycling: The Influence of Moral Licensing on the Overconsumption of Clothing,”
Western Washington University, 2020, URL
25
26
27
Andrew Brooks, Clothing Poverty: The Hidden World of Fast Fashion and Second Hand Clothes, (2015),
https://books.google.com/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=vXC1DwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PT9&dq=andrew+brooks+clothing+poverty&ots=5YC2aFy_LF&sig=mn
2usTlaAtSPu0kP1XZuiDl4Mjo#v=onepage&q=andrew%20brooks%20clothing%20poverty&f=false
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influx of clothing, a global industry was created. The industry of used clothing is reported to be
worth $4 billion and amount to tens of billions of garments.28
Maria Hernandez-Curry provided a detailed analysis regarding the interworking’s of this
global industry titled, “Global Production Network for Secondhand clothes from New Zealand to
Papua New Guinea.” The industry is composed of a variety of charities, sorting firms, exporters,
import wholesalers and retailers. Many westerners fail to recognize that their unwanted garments
go through a global process of commodification. Value of the item is redistributed and through a
process of sorting, the clothing items are then sold to wholesalers in developing countries that
desire these used garments.29 The article stated that this industry is made up of two-thirds of the
donated clothes collected.30 Twenty percent of the donations received are sold within the country
of origin, while the other portions are either dumped into a landfill, or sent overseas for disaster
relief.31
Similar to other scholarship, it highlights that the growth of the second-hand clothing
industry, derives from fast fashion in the western countries. A common misconception among
members of the west is that the clothes donated in western countries are directly given to the
people in developing nations. In actuality, there is an entire system of exporters and retailers that
form the basis of the second-hand clothing industry.
28
Andrew Brooks, Clothing Poverty: The Hidden World of Fast Fashion and Second Hand Clothes, (2015),
https://books.google.com/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=vXC1DwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PT9&dq=andrew+brooks+clothing+poverty&ots=5YC2aFy_LF&sig=mn
2usTlaAtSPu0kP1XZuiDl4Mjo#v=onepage&q=andrew%20brooks%20clothing%20poverty&f=false
29
Maria Hernandez-Curry, “Global Production Network for Secondhand Clothes from New Zealand to Paua New
Guinea,” Auckland University of Technology, 2019, https://openrepository.aut.ac.nz/handle/10292/12780
30
Maria Hernandez-Curry, “Global Production Network for Secondhand Clothes from New Zealand to Papua New
31
Maria Hernandez-Curry, “Global Production Network for Secondhand Clothes from New Zealand to Papua New
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“The Travels of a T-shirt in the Global Economy,” provides an example of the
interworking’s discussed in Maria Hernandez- Curry scholarship. Specifically, in chapter 10, the
author introduced the Stubins family from New York, who own Trans-Americas Trading
Company. This company employs about 80 people and has been a main player among the other
3,000 firms in the U.S textile recycling industry.32 The process begins with the purchase of
clothing from charities near their warehouse. It is said on average they receive 70,000 pounds of
clothing. The clothing is sorted and categorized. Most of the time there is nothing wrong with the
clothes itself, other than the fact that the original owner got tired of it.33 Lastly, the clothing is
then shipped from Trans-Americas to wholesalers and import retailers to countries such as the
Philippines, Chile, Guatemala, and most commonly to various countries within Africa. Once the
used textile has been received by the country it will then be sold to the desired consumer at local
markets.34
A substantial amount of scholarship surrounding second hand clothing has attempted to
identify the impacts of companies such as Trans- Americas has upon the local economies of the
nation’s receiving the clothing. The research conducted has focused mainly on whether the
industry of second-hand clothing is harmful to the development of the local economy in
developing nations. Most of the research produced in recent scholarly work maintains the
narrative that the second-hand clothing industry negatively impacts the developing nations
economy, by preventing development.
32
Pietra Rivoli, “The Travels of a T-Shirt in the Global Economy,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2005,
http://faculty.fairfield.edu/winston/The%20Travels%20of%20a%20t-shirt.pdf
33
Pietra Rivoli, “The Travels of a T-Shirt in the Global Economy,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2005,
34
Pietra Rivoli, “The Travels of a T-Shirt in the Global Ecnomy,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2005,
Wolf, 16
One scholarly work in particular, “Dumping of Trash in Peripheral Countries Through
Landa Bazaar: System Analysis of Second-Hand Clothing Business” raised the question of who
specifically is benefitting from this industry. It was concluded that while the western countries
are providing members in third world countries with the ability to fulfill their basic need of
clothing, it also allows the core countries to dump their waste upon the developing countries.35
The scholarly article noted that the price of clothing being sold in the local markets of
developing regions is significantly cheaper than the price of clothing produced within the
country of origin. For example, in Kenya a used man’s shirt cost eight time less than a new one.36
This significant price reduction has caused many consumers to purchase the cheaper clothing,
which in this case is the second-hand clothing, instead of the domestically manufactured clothes.
According to the scholarly article “For Dignity and Development, East African Curbs
Used Clothes Imports,” The inability for the developing nations to compete with the price of
clothing from the second-hand markets, undermines any type of developmental progress. This
source, specifically identified the influx of used clothing to be harming the African domestic
textile industry.37 In response leaders formed the East African Community, in 2016, to place a
ban on the importation of used clothing, in order to promote a nationalist policy approach. The
ban would curb any type of second-hand clothing importation, allowing for the country to
35
Anzak Sohima, Zuliqar Somia, Mohyuddin Anwaar, “Dumping of Trash in Peripheral Countries Through Landa
Bazaar: System Analysis of Second Hand Clothing Buisness,” Bahria University Journal of Humanities and Social
Sciences, 2020,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339335769_Dumping_of_Trash_in_Peripheral_Countries_through_Lan
da_Bazaar_System_Analysis_of_Second_Hand_Clothing_Business
36
Anzak Sohima, Zuliqar Somia, Mohyuddin Anwaar, “Dumping of Trash in Peripheral Countries Through Landa
Bazaar: System Analysis of Second Hand Clothing Buisness,” Bahria University Journal of Humanities and Social
Sciences, 2020,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339335769_Dumping_of_Trash_in_Peripheral_Countries_through_Lan
da_Bazaar_System_Analysis_of_Second_Hand_Clothing_Business
37
Kimiko Freytas-Tamura, “For Dignity and Development, East African Curbs Used Clothes Imports,” 2017,
https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/12/world/africa/east-africa-rwanda-used-clothing.html
Wolf, 17
develop and invest in their own manufacturing.38 The produced clothing would provide the
various firms within the country to sell in a competitive market, or a market with less price
variation. The scholarly article, also provided information on the pushback received by the EAC
in their attempt for the used clothing ban. For example, the United States became concerned with
the loss of potential business and in response threatened to disregard the African Opportunity
Act, which allowed the EAC duty free access to the US apparel market.39
Scholarship by Emily and Anne, thoroughly analyzed the East African Community’s
summit in March 2016, that attempted to phase out the importation of used clothing within the
three years.40 This pledge was done in order to protect the local textile sectors’ that were being
undermined by the used clothing industry. In February 2018, Rwanda was the only country that
remained determined to carry out this commitment.41 In response, the US moved to reimpose the
duties upon Rwanda’s clothing exports, creating what became known as a U.S. and Rwandan
Trade War.42
The desire for a ban on the importation of used clothing from western countries, has also
been discussed in the country of Haiti. The scholarly article, “Haiti Doesn’t Need Your Old T-
Shirt” provided another example, of the economic harm second hand clothing from western
NGOs, has upon developing nations. The scholarship described the United States national
athletic associations as being a common disliked donator among developing countries. For
38
39
40
Emily Wolff, Anne Wolff, “the Global Politics of African Industrial Policy: The Case of the Used Clothing Ban in
Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda,” 2020, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09692290.2020.1751240
41
42
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example, the National Football League prints shirts and hats for both competing teams to be
ready to sold as post- game merchandise.43 The apparel of the losing team is then shipped off to
be donated to the people of developing nations. In Haiti specifically, this trend resulted in the
twitter hashtag “SWEDOW”, meaning Stuff We Don’t Want.44 The article identified that many
items that are donated are typically not what the people need. Another problem it referenced is
that the University of Toronto estimated the increase of used clothing imports has contributed for
about half of the decline in the apparel industry employment in Africa between 1981 and 2000.45
Although, a large quantity of scholarly work has focused on the negative impacts of the
used clothing industry upon economic development, there has been two main counter arguments
among the research. The first argument in favor of the second-hand clothing industry derives
from the amount of jobs it provides. In the chapter ten of the book, International Economic
Nationalism and Trade Polices in the Globalization Era,” the focus is central to the East African
nations, which include Kenya, Ghana, Nigeria, Zambia and Rwanda. The second-hand clothing
industry generates a large income, supporting 1.4 million people.46 The article also stated that it
created an estimated 355,00 jobs in the EAC. In Rwanda, alone SHC in 2017, imported $17
million in used clothes.47 The placement of the ban is believed to negatively affect 40,000 jobs in
43
Charles Kenny, “Haiti Doesn’t Need Your Old T-Shirt,” Foreign Policy, 2011,
https://foreignpolicy.com/2011/10/11/haiti-doesnt-need-your-old-t-shirt/
44
45
46
Harish Chandan, Bryan Christiansen, “International Firms’ Economic Nationalism and Trade Policies in the
Globalization Era,” IGI Global, 2019, https://books.google.com/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=ffiEDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR1&dq=internaitonal+firms+economic+nationalisma+nd+trade+policie
s+in+the+glbalization+era&ots=1vMIE6zTy2&sig=kLDqozs8CTj1xpUa4ebr1C8muWI#v=onepage&q=internaitonal
%20firms%20economic%20nationalisma%20nd%20trade%20policies%20in%20the%20glbalization%20era&f=false
47
Globalization Era,” IGI Global, 2019,
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the US and tens of thousands in East African countries.48 While it is apparent the current jobs
provided in the SHC industry within the developing nations would be harmed, it is not certain
that the African countries would be unable to replace these jobs in the country’s domestic textile
industry. The scholarly work referenced a study that estimated an increase of $500 billion in
2016 to $930 billion in 2025 if Africa revived local manufacturing industries.49
Another scholarly journal that presents a positive analysis in regards to the importation of
used clothing is presented in “Defining Benefits of Second-Hand Clothing.” Similar to the
previous article it identifies the opportunity of employment and inexpensive clothing to be
beneficial to both sellers and consumers.50 The article also takes an environmental approach, over
an economic one. The recycled clothing industry provides a more environmentally sustainable
method of clothing use, as opposed to throwing clothes in landfills.51 This closed cycle is more
environmentally conscious compared to the linear model of one-use clothing, which in turn
produces a significant amount of waste.
The published scholarship surrounding the second-hand industry has listed the industry’s
largest contributing factor to be fast fashion. Western over consumption and over donations, in
efforts to curb guilt has led to this global industry. The far from simplistic process is composed
of many middle men, in order for citizens of developing nations around the world to be able to
purchase the recycled clothing items. A significant amount of scholarship identified this industry
48
49
50
Karoliina Sallden, “Defining Benefits of Second Hand Clothing,” HAMK, 2020,
https://www.theseus.fi/handle/10024/334948
51
Karoliina Sallden, “Defining Benefits of Second Hand Clothing,” HAMK, 2020,
https://www.theseus.fi/handle/10024/334948
Wolf, 20
as negatively impacting the economies of developing nation, by preventing any type of growth
within the country’s domestic clothing manufacturing industry.
Methods:
The thesis utilized a data collection method, consisting of several questions in survey
format. This quantitative approach was structured to reflect on the topic of fast fashion in
western consumer society. The responses of thirty individuals were collected through this format
within the Dubuque area.
Research:
The collection of data was composed of six total questions that were formatted to provide
an analysis of the individuals experience and knowledge of secondhand clothing donations.
Figure 1 in the appendix, demonstrates that an overwhelming majority of those who completed
the survey donated their used clothing. Figure 6, suggests that eighty percent of donating are due
to the desire to get rid of outdated or unused clothes, while ten percent is reported to be for
helping others. These donations are shown to be between every six months or year, in figure 3.
According to figure 2, the organizations most commonly donated to are Salvation army and
Goodwill. While the data shows that majority are unaware of where their clothes go once
donated, it was assumed by all that it was to only to the donation store, rather than markets in
developing nations. This information is noteworthy because it suggests that out of the small pool
of people within the area most do not know that there used items be utilized in the global
industry of secondhand clothing.

Wolf, 21
Through an examination of the data collected it is apparent that most of the participants
donate to clothing store under the belief that they stay within the walls of the store. When in fact,
the clothing is most likely to be sorted and sent into the global second-hand clothing market,
composed of many developing nations.
Conclusion:
The project thoroughly examined primary and secondary sources as well as used data
collection to explore the interworking’s of the second-hand clothing industry. Through the
utilization of each dimension of research, it can be concluded that overall the industry produces
more harm than good upon developing nations. These findings are of significance. because it
provides another example of the creation of dependency upon developing nations, through
western organizations and programs. Through the spread of awareness leaders and policy makers
of the world can begin to recognize that this industry has become another example of cyclical
dependency within the economy of developing nations. Although the intentions may not stem
from a harmful place, the consequences of the surplus in donations is inhibiting and halting any
potential growth from the domestic apparel sector of the economy. The secondary consequences
stem from western consumer society that is focused on the latest fashion trends, or styles. This
material would hopefully work to heighten the awareness of consumers to be more conscience in
regards to the clothing they chose and purchase.

Wolf, 22
Appendix
Figure 1. Do you donate your used clothing?

All thirty participants responded.
Wolf, 23
Figure 2. If you donate, which organization do you donate to?

Twenty-nine participants responded.
Figure 3. How often do you donate?

All participants responded.
Wolf, 24
Figure 4. Are you aware of where the clothes go once donated?

All participants responded.
Figure 5. If answered yes to question 4, where?

Five participants responded, 25 skipped question
Wolf, 25
Figure 6. Reasons for donating?

All participants answered.
Wolf, 26
Figure 7. Map of East African Countries.
Secondary Sources Bibliography

Wolf, 27
Anzak, Sohima, Zuliqar, Somia, Mohyuddin Anwaar “Dumping of Trash in Peripheral Countries
Through Landa Bazaar: System Analysis of Second Hand Clothing Business.” Bahria University
Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences.
Brooks, Andrews “Clothing Poverty: The Hidden World of Fast Fashion and Second Hand
Clothes (pg 1-9)
Chandan Harish, Christiansen Bryan. “International firms’ Economic Nationalism and Trade Policies in
the Globlaization Era,” IGI Global. 2019. https://books.google.com/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=ffiEDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR1&dq=internaitonal+firms+economic+nation
alisma+nd+trade+policies+in+the+glbalization+era&ots=1vMIE6zTy2&sig=kLDqozs8CTj1xp
Ua4ebr1C8muWI#v=onepage&q=internaitonal%20firms%20economic%20nationalisma%20nd
%20trade%20policies%20in%20the%20glbalization%20era&f=false
Freytas-Tamura, Kimiko “For Dignity and Development, East Africa Curbs Used Clothes Imports”
Hernandez-Curry, Maria, “Global Production Network for Secondhand Clothes from New Zealand to
Papua New Guinea.” School of Business, Economics and Law, 2018.
Kenny, Charles, “Haiti Doesn’t Need Your Old T-Shirt,” Foreign Policy. (2011).
Opati Zaphania, Thaisaiyi, “International Firms’ Economic Nationalism and Trade Policies in the
Globalization Era.” IGI Global. 2019.
Rivoli, Pietra, “The Travels of a T-shirt in the Global Economy,” 2005.
Sallden, Karoliina, “Defining Benefits of Second Hand Clothing,” HAMK. 2020
Williams, Rebecca. “Textile Recycling: The Influence of Moral Licensing on the Overconsumption of
Clothing. Western Washington University, 2020.
Wolff, Emily Anne Wolff, “The Global Politics of African Industrial Policy: The Case of the Used
Clothing Ban in Kenya, Uganda and Rwanda, Review of International Political Economy.” 2020.
Primary Sources Bibliography

Wolf, 28
“Eastern Africa.” www.courses.psu.edu/test/test100_hkr/AFIM/Main_HTML/RG_E.html.

Fitzwater, Lynda. n.d. “History of Secondhand Clothes.” LoveToKnow. Accessed September 20, 2020.
https://fashion-history.lovetoknow.com/fashion-clothing-industry/history-secondhand-clothes.
Gasseling Kelsey. “The Threads of Justice: Economic Liberalization and the Secondhand Clothing Trade
Between the U.S. and Haiti.” Boston College Law Review. 2017.
https://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3600&context=bclr
Goldberg, Eleanor. 2016. “These African Countries Don’t Want Your Used Clothing Anymore.”
HuffPost Canada. HuffPost Canada. September 19, 2016. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/these-
african-countries-dont-want-your-used-clothing-anymore_n_57cf19bce4b06a74c9f10dd6.
Kuwono, Frank. 2017. “Protectionist Ban on Imported Used Clothing | Africa Renewal.” Un.Org. Africa
Renewal. 2017. https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/december-2017-march-
2018/protectionist-ban-imported-used-clothing.
Matendere, Brenna. 2020. “Covid-19: Second-Hand Clothes Ban Sparks Outrage | The Standard.” The
Standard. 2020. https://www.thestandard.co.zw/2020/05/10/covid-19-second-hand-clothes-ban-
sparks-outrage/.
“Rwanda Does Not Want Our Used Clothes and Is at a Standoff with the U.S. as a Result.” 2019. The
Fashion Law. TFL. May 23, 2019. https://www.thefashionlaw.com/rwanda-does-not-want-out-
used-clothes-and-now-is-at-a-standoff-with-the-us-as-a-result/.
“Second-Hand Clothing in East Africa: What the Fashion Industry Doesn’t Want You to Know | Forage
and Sustain.” 2019. Forage Sustain. Forage Sustain. 2019. https://forageandsustain.com/second-
hand-clothing-in-east-africa-what-the-fast-fashion-industry-doesnt-want-you-to-know/.
Shell Hannah. “A Global History of Secondhand Clothing.” Spreadable Media.
http://spreadablemedia.org/essays/shell/index.html#.X4XvotBkg2x

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Wolf, 1

The Clothes of the Dead White Man: Development or

INS 489- International Studies Senior Seminar

December 10, 2020

imported clothing, in an International Trade class.

beneficial to those in need, as well as to the planet.

only my personal participation in donation, but of the worlds.

of the second hand clothing industry among developing nations.

A particular theme that makes this thesis noteworthy, is it challenges the

overconsumption of clothing and western material satisfaction. The fundamental values of

overconsumption among Western countries produce harmful economic and environmental

consequences in the developing nations.

possibility of contracting ring worm, body lice, or skin candidiasis.8

as instill pride among the regions people.10

the selling of clothing that entered Zimbabwe from Mozambique.11

sub-Saharan Africa. This response came after US based organizations, “represented by

Growth and Opportunity Act were temporally suspended.13

contributing factors to the current construction of the second-hand clothing industry.17

developing countries to be burdened with an increase in the continuous dumping of donated

form of neocolonialism, the consequences it has upon developing nations discussed in

scholarship demonstrates several commonalities.

purchased by consumers attending the local markets.20

its original intention.

clothing in developing nations within their economies.

A scholarly article by Rebecca William introduced the process of second-hand clothing

Andrew Brooks an educator of Development Geography published a book that also

worth $4 billion and amount to tens of billions of garments.28

Maria Hernandez-Curry provided a detailed analysis regarding the interworking’s of this

form the basis of the second-hand clothing industry.

“The Travels of a T-shirt in the Global Economy,” provides an example of the

A substantial amount of scholarship surrounding second hand clothing has attempted to

industry of second-hand clothing is harmful to the development of the local economy in

economy, by preventing development.

One scholarly work in particular, “Dumping of Trash in Peripheral Countries Through

2016 to $930 billion in 2025 if Africa revived local manufacturing industries.49

used clothing is presented in “Defining Benefits of Second-Hand Clothing.” Similar to the

previous article it identifies the opportunity of employment and inexpensive clothing to be

produces a significant amount of waste.

within the country’s domestic clothing manufacturing industry.

within the Dubuque area.

an analysis of the individuals experience and knowledge of secondhand clothing donations.

industry of secondhand clothing.

composed of many developing nations.

regards to the clothing they chose and purchase.

Figure 1. Do you donate your used clothing?

Figure 2. If you donate, which organization do you donate to?

Figure 3. How often do you donate?

Figure 4. Are you aware of where the clothes go once donated?

Figure 5. If answered yes to question 4, where?

Figure 6. Reasons for donating?

Figure 7. Map of East African Countries.

Secondary Sources Bibliography

Primary Sources Bibliography

“Eastern Africa.” www.courses.psu.edu/test/test100_hkr/AFIM/Main_HTML/RG_E.html.

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