1 Introductory Concepts 1.1 INTRODUCTION The study of experimental physics in this scientific age is of great importance as the entire development in science rests upon the systematic investigation of the physical world around us. It has in fact laid the foundation of modem science and has given us a greater insight into the mysteries of nature The aim of practical physics is to familiarise the students with the various instruments and understand their working and the principles on which they are based. Experimental work does not consist merely in making a certain set of measurements. Students must also understand the physical principles underlying the measurements. They must know what they are doing and why they are doing so. A thorough understanding of the theory behind a practical is the first thing necessary before starting a practical. Without this the mere experimental work is not going to enrich the minds of the students. A genuine experimental work with a clear theoretical understanding produces scientific consciousness amongst the students and makes a foundation to build tomorrows’ great scientists. 1.2. ERRORS OF OBSERVATIONS In the first place, it is necessary to distinguish between a mistake and an error. The term mistake denotes a fault of measurement or of observation which can be avoided by care on the part of the observer. An example is the recording of a wrong number. On the other hand, an error may occur in the most careful observation, as in the case of the careful use of an instrument which suffers from an error of graduation. Here we assume, that the experiment is free from mistakes. The correction of mistakes is not under discussion but the study of the nature of errors, and their elimination is part of the subject here. We can classify the types of errors as (i) constant (ii) systematic and (iii) accidental or random errors. 1. Constant Errors Constant errors are those which affect the results of a series of experiments by the same amount. For example, if the graduations of a scale are faulty, the error due to it will be a constant error. Thus, in the measurement of the acceleration due to gravity by simple pendulum, the length of which is measured by means of a scale in which the interval marked centimeters are all 0.99 cm, the result obtained from a series of measurements would differ by a constant amount from the true value. Such errors are difficult to detect. Constant errors can be eliminated by making measure- ments by as many different methods as possible. In this way it may be discovered that an error is peculiar to one method and its source may then be traced.BSc. Practical Physics 2 2, Systematic Errors ‘ ‘Systematic errors are those which occur according to some definite rule, sycy | Systematic rrr dings on a circular scale ifthe pointer Were not pivoied as would be the ¢ ror in this ease is corrected by taking the average of the pai ‘aa oo file as in deflection magnetometers and spectro = corrected for when the cause of the errors ond : the centre, The by the two ends of the nee “systematic errors are ¢ governing them is known. 3. Random Errors ing or correcting for the above mentioned errors it is found that _ Inspite of avoidi - e t even @ careful observer gets observations deviated from the correct value in a rane dom fashion. These errors occur from small fluctuations in the experimental con. ditions and the personal judgement of the observer and are called random Suppose that the value of the quantity to be measured depends on experimental conditions like temperature, humidity etc. If, during the experiment, the temperature fluctuates slightly about the desired value, the measured value of the quantity will in error due to changed experimental conditions. Next consider a case where a ing is taken by the coincidence of a pointer ona scale. Here an error is generally m: by the observer in judging the coincidence between the pointer and a mark on the scale. The error in this case arises from the personal judgement of the exp and is also a random error. ‘An error is positive or negative according as the measured value is h lower than the true value. As random errors occur from chances, they are e¢ likely to be positive and negative. Also, large random errors are less probable tt small ones. Random errors can be eliminated by taking the arithmatic mean of number of observations. 2 1.3 GAUSSIAN LAW OF ERRORS. ie _ Hagen in 1837 derived a law which governs the deviations due to random pecan This law is known as the Gaussian or Normal Law of errors. cording to the Normal Law of errors, the probabili a ety PI ity (or the frequency) of the | h , P(x) = as (x) RK where h is a constant called the precision constant. The graph of this error function is shown in Fi 1.1. The Gaussian law states that the random err ve in the determination of a given quantity are dis tbs uted normally about the mean of ail! 3 observations provided the number of observ: fe is very large. Gauss proved this law on the iat the postulate that the most probable value of Ra * number of equally good observations ji pre Arithmatic mean, The results of the aah yaa errors may be stated as follows: aacIntroductory Concepts 3 (i) The probability of ‘no error’ is maximum. Gi) The positive and negative crrors in a certain quantity are equally probable. iii) The probability of errors of large magnitude is very small and finite. (iv) Small errors are more probable as compared to large errors. 14 PRACTICAL DETERMINATION OF ERROR We have discussed as to what different kinds of errors can creep in while performing an experiment. It is very important to have a quantitative idea of the error in the result of the experiment. This can be done by calculating the following: (i) Average Error It is defined as the arithmetic mean of the errors ignoring their sign. Note that the arithmetic mean of the errors, considering their sign, will be zero for a normal distribution. Thus if x is value of deviation, and 7 is the number of observations, then the average error is given by A= Ziel n Suppose the focal length of a mirror has been determined eight times and the following results have been obtained. S.No. Focal Length Arithmetic Deviation x Mean x ¢ | (om) (em) (cm) (cm) i 10.81 +0.01 0.0001 2. 10.74 0.06 0.0036 3. 10.85 + 0.05 0.0025 4. 10.79 10.80 -0.01 0.0001 5. 10.80 0 0 6. 10.83 + 0.03 0.0009 7. 10.72 0.08 0.0064 8 10.86 + 0.06 0.0036 |x| = 0.30 cm. z| The average error = = (ii) Standard Deviation It is the square root of the mean of the squares of errors, and is also referred to as the root mean square error. Thus if x is the deviation from the arithmetic mean and nr is the number of observations taken, then the standard deviation ois given as o n4.0 B.Sc. Practical Physics Thus in the example given above, the standard deviation is = 0.0464 cm. Note: ifthe number of observations is not large. n is replaced by Jn(a=l) in calculating the errors. (iii) Probable Error A probable error is one in which half the number of errors have values higher ' than this and half the number is below this value. Thus any error will have an equal probability of lying above or below the probable error. If m observations have been taken, the probable error (p) in the result is given by iF p= 06745 0 | (iv) Percentage Error i This gives the number of parts of error in the value of the nesult for each hundred parts of the actual value. This can be calculated in an experiment where we are finding out experimentally, the value of a known constant. Hor example in measurement of acceleration due to gravity, the idea of the accuracy pf the result can be obtained by finding the percentage error. t Error__ 190% Standard value i _ {Standard value - experimental value| ‘i Z Standard value - 2! Suppose in the determination of ‘g’, the result is 9.65 m/sec”, The percentage error is | Thus, percentage error = 9.80 - 9.65 9.80 (v) Maximum Log Error x 100 = 1.5%. i Suppose we are determining a quantity P which is related to some other quantities a, b, c, d and e by the relation ab°c* ae ‘ By logarithmic differentiation, P= AP _ Aa | 2Ab, 3Ac _4Ad _ SAe (i - Pe yd oO) C d e where Aa, Ab, Ac, Ad, and Ae are the errors in the measurement of the quantities 4 & c,dand e and AP is the error in the determination of P.Introductory Concepts 5 We assume the worst case when all the errors tend in the same direction and hence add all the error terms on the right hand side of (ii) and get AP _ Aa, 2Ab Se == + Poa ob e Here AP gives the maximum log error. We can see here, that the error in 6, c, d and e get two, three, four and five fold respectively. So the error in ¢ will have the strongest influence on the error in the final result. The smaller the absolute magnitude of a quantity and greater its power, the larger is its influence on the accuracy of the result. ii) Experiment 1.1: To study the random errors in determining the time period of a simple pendulum. Apparatus: A simple pendulum, a stand and a stop-watch. Theory: The random errors in a large number of observations are distributed about the means of all the observations according to the Gaussian law of errors, i.e., fee A e**, where 4 and B are constants, x is the error or the deviation of an observation from the mean of all the observations and f is the frequency (or the probability) of that deviation. Thus if a graph is made between the deviations x and the frequencies f, it will have the shape of the curve in Fig. 1.1. Procedure Hang the pendulum from a stand and give it oscillations of small amplitude. | Find the time ¢ for 20 oscillations. Take 100 such readings. Find the time period T= #/20 for each observation and calculate the mean time period T = 7/100. 4, Find the deviation in each reading from the mean as x= T— T . x willeither be zero or will have small positive or negative values. Also calculate the value of x? for each observation. 5. Tabulate all the values of deviations, x, and their respective frequencies, f. The frequency of a deviation is the number of times it occurs in 100 obser- vations taken. 6. Plot a graph between ‘x’ along x-axis and ‘/” along y-axis. It will have a shape similar to the graph in Fig. 1.1. eye Observations: Least count of the stop-watch = ... sec. Time for 20 oscillations t (sec) Time period T (sec)6 B.Sc. Practical Physics Here F = 22 =... sec flere T = —— = --. sec. 100 Frequency vs. deviation S.No Deviation, x (sec) Frequency, f 1 2 3 Calculations Standard deviation, Probable error, Result: Random errors in the determination of the time-period of a simple pendulum are studied and it is found that (i) the probability of ‘no error’ is maximum; (ii) the positive and negative errors are equally probable; (iii) the probability of large errors is very small; (iv) small errors are more probable than large errors; (v) Standard deviation, o= --- sec; and (vi) Probable error, p = --- sec. 1.5 DETERMINATION OF THE MAXIMUM LOG ERROR A few illustrative examples for calculating the maximum log error are given below: (a) Kater’s pendulum The acceleration due to gravity, g, is given by the formula Seer hte aa As the second term in the denominator is very small, we neglect it for the calculation of error. Thus Ath =8r? + g + By logarithmic differentiation Ag _ AG+h g 4thIntroductory Concepts 7 ‘The maximum log error in g is Ag=g Al, + Al, + 2T,AT, +25AT Ath Te+t Here g is the value of the acceleration due to gravity obtained experimentally. Al, and Al, are equal to the least reading on the metre scale used to measure /, and /, and AT, and AT, are equal to the least count of the stop-watch divided by the number of vibrations. For example if the least reading on the metre scale is 1 mm, Al, = Aly = 0.1 em. If T; and 7 are calculated after noting the time for 100 vibrations and if the least count of the stop-watch is 0.1 second, the error in the periodic times AT, = AT, = 0.1/100 = 0.001 second. /,, 4), 7, and T; are the quantities that have been measured while performing the experiment. (6) Maxwell’s needle The rigidity modulus z is given as By logarithmic differentiation An _ Al, 28a , Arig +Am , 4dr , 2%,AT, +27 AT, nol a@) m-m or T-T The maximum log error in the determination of n is, An =n x[RHS. of above Eqn.] (c) Poiseuille’s method for viscosity of liquids * 4, The coefficient of viscosity n = 2PE# BV mpghr't _ mpg(h—hy)r't” iV 8iV By logarithmic differentiation, An Ah +A 4dr At Al A n hy - hy r te ae Here Ah, = Aft are equal to the least reading on the scale for the measurement of the heights /, and /, and Ar is the least count of the microscope used to measure the radius r of the capillary. A¢ is the least count of the stop watch used to measure t, AVis the least count of the measuring cylinder used to measure the volume V and Al is the least count of the scale used to measure the length /. (d) Refractive index of prism using spectrometer At+D sin pe— sin4 a8 B.Sc. Practical Physies By logarithmic differentiation, A+D AA+AD A AA = Ft cot. 2 2 2 Here 4 and D are the angle of the prism and the angle of minimum deviation respectively. AA and AD are the errors in the measurement of A and D respectively and are both equal to the vernier constant of the spectrometer. (e) Wave-length by grating (a+ b) sin 8 = nd a, = at b)sind n By logarithmic differentiation, or = —— = —— =cot6- Ad x cot Here A@ is the vernier constant of the spectrometer. 1.6 REJECTION OF OBSERVATIONS While doing an experiment, when a number of observations are recorded, it may happen that one or two of them differ appreciably from the rest which lie close together. If'a changed condition of the experiment is the cause for a large deviation of a particular value from the others, this particular value may be rejected. But if all the observations are made in the same experimental conditions and with equal care, there should not be any reason to reject an observation just because it does not fit in the group of the majority of observations. If the curve of frequency (Fig. 1.1) be examined, it will be seen that there is a finite probability of obtaining a result widely different from the mean value. So, on account of the existence of random errors a widely divergent result can occur, though the probability of its occurrence is very low as compared to the those which lie close to the arithmetic mean. Thus, the need to discard any observation except those whose inaccuracy can be traced to a definite cause, would not arise if it were possible to obtain a very large number of observations. They would all be evenly spaced around the mean value and give the frequency curve. The difficulty is that in practice only a finite number of observations can be taken and a widely divergent value may not be neutralised by similar value occurring on the other side of the mean value. The inclusion of this widely divergent value would therefore lead to an incorrect result. Hence, there is a reason for discarding such an observation while doing calculations.Introductory Concepts ae simple rule that Would tell the students which observations to reject is as @ facies fe arithmetic mean and the probable error considering all the obser lues (ii) Reject the values which differ from the arithmetic ae es ore a three times the probable error (iii) Recalculate the arith- ‘ean and the probable error to obtain the final result. 1.7 ACCURACY AND PRECISION 9 ‘The term “accuracy” stands for the degree of closeness of the observed value to the true value and generally depends on how one can control or compensate the systematic errors. Therefore, it is a measure of correctness of the result of a careful measurement in terms of accurately known standards. For example, consider two standard resistances, marked as 1 + 0.0001 ohm and 1 + 0.0005 ohm. The former is more accurate as it is closer to standard value. The precision of a measurement is reflected in the self-consistency of a set of readings and is also related to the sensitivity of the instruments. An instrument with a scale having fine divisions is more precise than the one having course scale divisions. Consequently, the number of significant figures quoted for a measurement should reflect the precision of the instrument. For example 1.000 indicates a higher precision than 1.0. It is obvious that for achieving a good result from an experiment, one must consider accuracy and precision simultaneously. The determination of result with a high precision is meaningless if the result is highly inaccurate. Conversely, a result cannot be considered to be extremely accurate if the precision is low. For example, if two exactly similar ammeters (out of the two, one is not adjusted for zero exactly) are used for measuring the same steady current, both of them will read the current with the same precision but the reading shown by the non-zero-adjusted ammeter will be inaccurate. 1.8 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES The accuracy of an instrument depends on its least count, which becomes clear by the manner in which the resillt is written. If the length of an iron cylinder measured by a metre rod is 2.2 cm, it may be 2.17 cm when measured by a vernier callipers and further 2.174 when measured by a screw gauge. The three results have 2, 3, and 4 figures respectively. It clearly shows that the measuring instruments have least count 0.1 em, 0.01 em and 0.001 em respectively. The figures (2, 3 and 4) in above example are called significant figures. In these figures, the right-most figure (digit) is reasonably correct while others are absolutely correct. The significant figures in a measured quantity indicate the number of digits in which we have confidence. 19 PLOTTING A GRAPH i is i is often required to visualize the While deducing the result of an experiment, it is 0! f elation, etveseae interdependent physical quantities. Sometimes the result of. such a graph is used in calculations as well. In plotting a graph the following hints should be carefully studied. - + and draw two lines at right angles to each other (0 Take a good graph ape ge a the paper o naa the aseBSc. Practical Physics reference, the horizontal line as the x-axis and the vertical as the y-axis Plot the values of the independent variable as abscissae, i.¢., along the x-axis and the values of the dependent variable along the y-axis. (ii) Make a suitable choice of the scale for each variable so that the graph may cover as large a portion of the graph-sheet as possible. Write the values corresponding to chief divisions along the lines. (ii) Itis not necessary that the origin of the scale should begin with zero. It should bea whole number less than the smallest value to be plotted along each axis, (iv) Next, mark with an arrow-head along the corresponding co-ordinate axes, the designation of the variable and the unit in which it is expressed. Indicate the points of observation, of which the minimum number should be six, by a dot and a circle (©) or a cross (x). (vi) Draw a free-hand smooth curve with the help of a fine sharpened pencil so that it may pass through as many plotted points as possible. On account of the errors of observations some points may not fall on the curve. Such points may be distributed fairly evenly on both sides of the curve. If the graph is a straight line, it should be drawn with a good transparent ruler so that there is equal distribution of the deviated points, if any, on both the sides of the line. (vii) Give a title to the graph and find the gradient by taking two widely separated points. These points should not be the experimental points indicated by the (©) or (x). 1.10 USES OF GRAPHS (A graph not only gives the relation between two variables in a pictorial form, it also enables one to verify certain laws. (ii) The mean value of the ratio of two dependent quantities can be accurately obtained with much less labour than the arithmetical calculations would involve. (di) It enables one to find the maximum and minimum value of a dependent variable. (vi) It enables one to ascertain the probable value of the quantity which is not directly observed experimentally by intrapolation or extrapolation by extending the graph on either side. 1.11 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE STUDENTS BEFORE STARTING AN EXPERIMENT 1, Come prepared from home with the experiment to be performed. Read directions very carefully. In no case should an experiment be started without having a clear idea of what is to be done and how/why is to be done. Doubts, if any, should be cleared from the teacher before starting the experiment. - Collect the necessary apparatus and to avoid unnecessary waste of time, check up each item of the apparatus. The principle, construction and the use of the measuring instruments should be known to the students. - Handle the apparatus very carefully specially the ballistic galvanometer, Spectrometer, prisms and other glass items. In the event of a loss or breakage, report the matter immediately to the laboratory incharge. x »Introductory Concepts aa + Do all the necessar error if any. - Clean the ends of wires with with a clean cloth, 7 haa puted things from the table and assemble the necessary appara- ws nH * tat ve in such a manner that any part requiring frequent adjustment should be placed within easy reach and that all observations may be obtained comfortably * 1. Keep a note book for a record of the experiment. Write the aim, apparatus and formula used. Make tables for recording the observations. 8. Foran electrical experiment, draw a circuit diagram and make connections accordings. 9. Do the work cleanly and methodically, step by step. Do not show haste. TY adjustments of the apparatus and check for the zero a sand paper. Remove dust from the prism ete. 2 1.12. WHILE PERFORMING THE EXPERIMENT 1. Record all the data in the note book in a tabular form as far as possible. Provide each table with a suitable heading. Write at the top of the table, the least count of the apparatus used. Write at the top of each column of the table, the quantity which is recorded in that column. Mention the units of the quantities. 2. Read the same quantity several times to reduce the random error. Correct for systematic errors, where known. 3. Ifa mistake is made in recording a value, cut it and write the new value by its side. Do not overwrite and do not erase. Eraser indicates manipulations and arises the suspicion of the examiner. — |. Draw graphs neatly, where necessary. . Calculate the results using log tables. Put units in the final result. . Compute the percentage error, and judge the number of significant figures to be kept in the result. 1.13. BEFORE LEAVING THE LABORATORY 1. The students must show the observations aid graphs to the teacher and get the note book signed. ; 2. All the apparatus should be retuned to the laboratory assistant. The apparatus which are not to be retumed should be properly restored to their respective places. 3. The student should get an experiment allotted for the next turn. ane 1.14 PRESENTATION OF THE EXPERIMENT ‘The scheme adopted in describing an experiment is usually as follows: (i) Aim: This is a statement of the objects ofithe experiment or of the determi- nation to be made. (ii) Apparatus: The student shoul required for the performance o} used, for example galvanometer and keys, Id give a complete list of the apparatus f the experiment. The type of apparatus should also be specified.B.Sc. Practical Physics (iii) Theory: A brief theory of the experiment should be given. The derivation of the formula should also be given briefly. (iv) Procedure: The student should draw the figure/circuit diagram on the left » page of the note book and write the procedure stepwise on the right side aften aim, apparatus and theory. (v) Record of observations: The student should record the least count/vernier constant of the instruments used and then record the observations in a tabular form along with the units. (vi) Calculation and result: The formula is set out and the result calculated giving the value in proper units followed by the percentage error or log- error. The calculations are generally done on the left page while the result is giyen on the right page. (vii) Precautions and sources of error: In this section, the Precautions needed while performing the experiment should be summed up followed by possible sources of error and a brief discussion of the results if necessary. QUESTIONS FOR VIVA Q. What are random and systematic errors? Q. What is the Gaussian law of distribution of random errors? Q. How can random errors be removed? ‘Ans, Random errors can be removed by taking the arithmatic mean of a large number of observations. Q. An electric current is measured with an ammeter whose pointer is initially displaced from zero. What type of error is introduced here? Ans, Systematic error. Q. Define the terms: average error, probable error, and standard deviation. How would you calculate them in practice? Q. What is meant by ‘significant figures’? Q. Differentiate between accuracy and precision. $y