University of Caloocan City

Camarin, Caloocan City

Graduate School

Tomol, Benjo C.
MAED 221B
MAED 301- Research Methods Applied to Educational Management
Dr. Salvacion Mopas

Selecting a Research Method

The choice of a research method is a difficult one and should be based on the researcher’s
convictions, beliefs and interests. Other important factors involved in choosing a research
methodology include: the aim of the research, epistemological concerns and norms of practice of
the researcher, and other previous work in this topic area.

Research design involves the plan of action that links the philosophical assumptions to
specific methods, whereas the method refers to systematic modes, procedures or tools used for
the collection and analysis of data.

Three main methods are currently accepted for conducting research: quantitative,
qualitative and mixed methods. A qualitative methodology focuses on process and meanings and
uses techniques such as in-depth interviews, focus groups and participant observation.
Quantitative research, however, involves a systematic scientific investigation of quantitative
phenomena and their relationships by employing mathematical models to test theories and
hypothesis pertaining to the natural world. The use of the mixed method approach allows
researchers to adopt multiple approaches to data collection and analysis in a single study.
Independent and Dependent Variables

A variable is any quality or characteristic in a research investigation that has two or more
possible values. When we investigate cause-and effect relationships, we are looking at the extent
to which one variable (the cause) influences another variable (the effect).

A variable that the researcher studies as a possible cause of something else – in many
cases, this is one that the researcher directly manipulates – is called an independent variable.

A variable that is potentially influenced by the independent variable – is called a

dependent variable, because it is influenced by, and depends on the independent variable.

Internal Validity

Internal validity it is the extent to which you’re able to say that no other variables apart
from the independent variable caused a change in the dependent variable. Factors other than the
independent variable that might influence the outcome of the experiment are called confounding
variables.

The best way to ensure an experiment has good internal validity is to make sure that there
is a control group that gets treated the exact same way as a treatment group, just without getting
the treatment.

Experimental and Ex Post Facto Designs

Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to the different groups in an
experiment. Types of design include repeated measures, independent, groups.

Here are the general categories: (a) true experimental designs, and (b) quasi-
experimental designs.

We will be illustrating the designs using tables that have this format:
Group Time

Group 1

Group 2

Each group in a design will be shown in a separate row, and the things that happen to the group
over time will be shown in separate cells within the row. The cells will have one of four
notations.

Tx: Indicates that a treatment (reflecting the independent variable) is presented.

Obs: Indicates an observation (reflecting the dependent variable) is made.

---: Indicates that nothing occurs during a particular time period.

Exp: Indicates a previous experience (an independent variable) that some participants
have others have not.

True Experimental Designs

In true experimental research, the researcher manipulates the independent variable and
examines its effects on another, dependent variable. These designs share one thing in common:
People are randomly assigned to groups.

Design 1: Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

In a pretest-posttest control group design, an experimental group and a control group are
carefully selected through appropriate randomization procedures. The experimental group is
observed, subjected to the experimental treatment, and observed once again. The control group is
isolated from any influences of the experimental treatment; it is simply observed both at the
beginning and at the end of the experiment.
Group Time

Group 1 Obs Tx
Assignm
Randon

Obs
ent

Group 2 Obs --- Obs

 Design 2. Posttest-Only Control Group Design
Group Time
Some life situations defy pretesting. Like, you cannot pretest the forces in a thunderstorm
or a hurricane, nor can you pretest growing crops. At times you may be unable to locate a
suitable pretest, or, as just noted, the very act of pretesting can influence the results of the
experimental manipulation. In such circumstances, the posttest-only control groups design offers
a possible solution.
Group 1 Tx
Assignm
Randon

Obs
ent

Group 2 --- Obs

Quasi-Experimental Designs

Sometimes, randomness is not possible or practical. When researchers conduct quasi –

experimental studies, they do not control for all confounding variables and so cannot completely
rule out some alternative explanations for the results they obtain. They must take whatever
variables and explanations they have not controlled for into consideration when they interpret
their data.

Design 3: Nonrandomized Control Group Pretest-Posttest Design

Without random assignment, there is, of course, no guarantee that, prior to the
experimental treatment or intervention, the two groups are similar in every respect-that any
differences between them are due entirely to chance. However, an initial observation (e.g., a
pretest) can confirm that two groups are at least similar in terms of the dependent variable under
investigation. If, after one group has received the experimental treatment, we then find group
differences with respect to the dependent variable, we might reasonably conclude that the post
treatment differences are probably the result of the treatment.
Group Time

Group 1 Obs Obs

Tx
Group 2 Obs --- Obs

Design 4: Simple Time-Series Design

In its simplest form, a time series design consists of making a series of observation (i.e,
measuring the dependent variable on several occasions), introducing an intervention or other new
dynamic into the system, and then making additional observations.
Group Time
Group 1 Obs Obs Obs Tx Obs Obs Obs Obs
Obs

Design 5: Control Group, Time-Series Design

In a variation of the time series design, two groups are observed over a period of time,
but one group (a control) does not receive the experimental treatment.
Group Time
Group 1 Obs Obs Obs Tx Obs Obs Obs Obs
Obs
Group 2 Obs Obs Obs Obs --- Obs Obs Obs Obs

This design has greater internal validity than the simple time-series design.

Ex Post Facto Designs

Ex post facto designs (the term ex post facto literally means “after the fact”) provide an
alternative means by which a researcher can investigate the extent to which specific independent
variables may possible affect the dependent variable(s) interest. This design involves looking at
existing conditions and involve no direct manipulation of the independent variable. Researchers
used this design to study the possible effects of an environment factor that has occurred prior to
the study itself.
 Design 6: Simple Ex Post Facto Design

In this case, the “treatment” in question occurred long before the study began; hence, we
will call it an experience rather than a treatment because the researcher has not been responsible
for imposing it. A simple ex post facto design can be depicted as follows, where Exp refers to a
prior experience that one group has had another has not:
Group Time

Investigatio
Prior
n period
event(s)
Group 1 Exp Obs
Group 2 --- Obs

Testing Hypothesis and Beyond

Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the
world using statistics. It is most often used by scientists to test specific predictions, called
hypotheses that arise from theories. There are 5 main steps in hypothesis testing:

Step 1: State your null and alternate hypothesis

After developing your initial research hypothesis (the prediction that you want to investigate), it
is important to restate it as a null (Ho) and alternate (Ha) hypothesis so that you can test it
mathematically.

The alternate hypothesis is usually your initial hypothesis that predicts a relationship

between variables. The null hypothesis is a prediction of no relationship between the variables
you are interested in.

Step 2: Collect data

For a statistical test to be valid, it is important to perform sampling and collect data in a way that
is designed to test your hypothesis. If your data are not representative, then you cannot make
statistical inferences about the population you are interested in.

Step 3: Perform a statistical test

There are a variety of statistical tests available, but they are all based on the comparison
of within-group variance (how spread out the data is within a category) versus between-group
variance (how different the categories are from one another).

Step 4: Decide whether the null hypothesis is supported or refuted

Based on the outcome of your statistical test, you will have to decide whether your null
hypothesis is supported or refuted (to prove wrong).

Step 5: Present your findings

The results of hypothesis testing will be presented in the results and discussion sections of your
research paper. In the results section you should give a brief summary of the data and a summary
of the results of your statistical test. In the discussion, you can discuss whether your initial
hypothesis was supported or refuted.

References

Bevans, R. (2021, February 15). Hypothesis testing: A step-by-step guide with easy examples.
Retrieved March 25, 2021, from https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/hypothesis-testing/

Buchanan, D. A. (2009). Contextualizing methods choice in organizational research. In

Organizational research methods (pp. 483-501). Los Angeles, CA: Sage.

Goulding, C. (n.d). Grounded theory: A practical guide for management, business and market
researchers. Thousand Oaks, Calif., New Delhi: Sage.

(n.d.). Tennessee State University. https://www.tnstate.edu/eduadmin/Facto%20Designs.pdf

(PDF) choosing an appropriate research methodology and method. (2016). Retrieved March 23,
2021, from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299593898_Choosing_an_appropriate_research_
methodology_and_method