Chapter 4

Magnetostatics

4.1 Stationary currents in vacuum

The continuity equation
∂ρ(r , t)
+ ∇ · j (r , t) (4.1)
∂t
The charge density and current for a point like charge are moving along the trajectory x(t) with the velocity v(r , t)

ρ(r , t) = qδ(r − x(t)), j (r , t) = qv(t)δ(r − x(t)) (4.2)

The current in a wire is the charge per unit time passing a given point. By definition, negative charges moving to the left count the
same as positive ones to the right. The current is measured in C /s = A. A line charge λ travelling along wire at speed v constitutes
a current with intensity I = λv . One can define the vector I = λv.
When charge flows over a surface, we describe it by the surface current density, K , defined as follows: Consider a "ribbon" of
infinitesimal width dl⊥ , running parallel to the flow. If the current in this ribbon is dI, the surface current density is
dI
K= = σv (4.3)
dl⊥
where σ is the surface charge density moving at the velocity v. K is the current per unit width.
If the charge density ρ moves through a three-dimensional domain with the velocity v then
dI
j= = ρv (4.4)
da⊥
j is the current per unit area.
In the stationary case, ρ and j are time independent, i.e.

∇ · j (r ) = 0 (4.5)

i.e the current lines are either closed or, if they are open the ends are at infinity. The current lines in a closed thin wire are curves
Γ . We assume that in any point, the current density j(r ) is orthogonal on the cross section of the wire, and constant along the
section. Then for an arbitrary function f (r ) defined on the wire,
Z I Z
dτ f (r )j (r ) = dl da · j(r )f (r ) (4.6)
Γ

because f and j are constant across a section through the wire, we get
Z I I
dτ f (r )j (r ) = dl If (l) = I dl f (l); (4.7)
Γ Γ

we have assumed that I along a thin wire is constant (there is no accumulation of charge).
The time independent j (r ) is named “stationary”, or “steady”.

4-1
4.2 The magnetic field
A moving charge generates a magnetic field B. E.g. the current in a wire generates a field whose lines are closed and direction is
given the rule: if the right hand thumb is in the direction of the current, then the fingers curl around the direction of B. Stationary
(steady) currents produce static magnetic fields The Lorentz force (the force of a magnetic field on the moving charges)

F = qv × B (4.8)

The magnetic force couples the mutually orthogonal components of B and v; the work of the magnetic force is zero. The magnetic
force on a line current Γ
Z Z Z Z
F = dqv × B = dlλv × B = dlI × B = I dl × B (4.9)
Γ Γ Γ Γ

4.3 The Biot-Savart law

The magnetic field of a steady line current Γ is given by the Biot-Savart law:
I(r ′ ) × (r − r ′ ) dl ′ × (r − r ′ )
Z Z
µ0 µ0
B(r ) = dl ′ ′
= I (4.10)
4π |r − r | 3 4π |r − r ′ |3
Γ Γ

µ0 is the permeability of the vacuum

µ0 = 4π × 10−7 N/A2 (4.11)

and the units of B are T (Tesla).

[B] = 1T = 1N/(A.m) = 1W /m2 (4.12)

(here W is Weber) Example: the magnetic field of an infinite straight line current of intensity I in a point at distance d from the
line
|dl × (r − r ′ )|
Z
µ0
B= I (4.13)
4π |r − r ′ |3
Γ

We get

Zπ/2
µ0 µ0 I µ0 I
B= dθ cos θ = , B= eφ (4.14)
4πd 2πd 2πd
−π/2

The force per length unit between two parallel infinite conductors
Z
F 1 µ0 I 1 I 2 µ0 I 1 I 2
= dl = (4.15)
l l 2πd 2πd
Γ

In general, if we have two line currents I1 and I2 , through Γ1 and Γ2 the force on I2 because of the current I1 is
I I I I
µ0 dl2 × (dl1 × r21 ) µ0 (dl2 · dl2 )r21 + dl2 (dl1 · r12 )
F21 = I1 I2 3
= − I1 I2 3
=
4π r21 4π r12
Γ1 Γ2 Γ1 Γ 2
I I I I
µ0 (dl2 · dl2 )r21 µ0
− I1 I2 3
+ I1 I2 dl1 (dl2 · ∇|r21 |−1 ) (4.16)
4π r12 2π
Γ1 Γ 2 Γ 1 Γ2

In the above equation we have used the notation r12 = r1 − r2 ; the second term vanishes because it is the integral over a closed
curve of a gradient. We are left with
I I
µ0 (dl2 · dl2 )r21
F21 = − I1 I2 3
(4.17)
2π r12
Γ 1 Γ2

4-2
The expression is symmetric in the arguments 1 and 2, i.e.

F21 = −F12 (4.18)

Th generalization of the above expressions for surface and volume distributions

K (r ′ ) × (r − r ′ )
Z
µ0
B(r ) = da′ (4.19)
4π |r − r ′ |3
S

j (r ′ ) × (r − r ′ )
Z
µ0
B(r ) = dτ ′ (4.20)
4π |r − r ′ |3
V

and for the forces we have

Z Z Z
F = dqv × B = dsσv × B = daK × B (4.21)
S S S

Z Z Z
F = dqv × B = dτ ρv × B = dτ j × B (4.22)
V V V

4.4 The divergence and the curl of the magnetic field

Because the magnetic field lines are closed curves circling the current lines I it appears that the curl of the magnetic field is
non-zero. E.g. for a line current of intensity I the magnetic field is given by (4.14) and the integral on any any closed curves around
the current line we have
I
dl · B = µ0 I (4.23)
Γ

µ0 I
because the magnetic field at the distance d is B = 2πd φ
e and in cylindrical coordinates dl = dzez + dρeρ + ρdφeφ . For an
arbitrary current distribution
I Z
dl · B = µ0 I = µ0 da · j (r ) (4.24)
Γ S

where S is the surface bounded by the closed curve Γ . Note that the surface S is arbitrary, i.e., considering two such surfaces, both
bounded by Γ , we have
Z Z Z
da · j − da · j = dτ ∇ · j = 0 (4.25)
S1 S2 V12

where V12 is the volume contained with the two surfaces. On the other hand
I Z
dl · B = da · (∇ × B) (4.26)
Γ S

and we obtain the Ampere’s law

∇ × B = µ0 j (4.27)

Equivalent derivation: starting directly from the Biot-Savart law:

j (r ′ ) × (r − r ′ ) dτ ′ j (r ′ )
Z Z
µ0 µ0
B(r ) = dτ ′ ′
=∇× (4.28)
4π |r − r | 3 4π |r − r ′ |
V V

4-3
Using (1.55)
∇ × (∇ × A) = ∇(∇ · A) − ∆A (4.29)
we have
   
dτ ′ j (r ′ )  dτ ′ j (r ′ ) 
Z Z
µ0  
∇×B = ∇ ∇· −∆ (4.30)
4π |r − r ′ | |r − r ′ |
V V

The derivatives with respect to r commute with the integral over r ′ , i.e.
   
dτ ′ j (r ′ )  ′
Z Z
µ0   j (r )
∇×B = ∇ ∇· − dτ ′ ∆  (4.31)
4π |r − r ′ | |r − r ′ |
V V

The first integral vanishes after the integration by parts (see the derivation of (4.16)) and in the second term we recognize the δ
function which leads to
Z
µ0
∇×B = dτ ′ j (r ′ )δ(r − r ) = µ0 j (4.32)
4π
V

The integral form of the Ampere law

I Z
dl · B = µ0 Ienc = µ0 da · j (4.33)
Γ S

By direct calculation we obtain also the divergence of the magnetic field

 
Z ′ ′
µ 0 dτ j (r )
∇ · B = ∇ · ∇ × =0 (4.34)
4π |r − r ′ |
V

4.5 The vector potential

Because the divergence of B is zero it must be the curl of a vector (see Sect. 1.6)
B(r ) = ∇ × A(r ) (4.35)
The equation obeyed by A is derived from the Ampere law
∇ × (∇ × A) = ∇(∇ · A) − ∆A = µ0 j (4.36)
A is not unique. If we add to it the gradient of a scalar field
A → A + ∇φ (4.37)
then the magnetic field is left unchanged. One can choose A such that its divergence is zero, and then the equation obeyed by it
would be
∆A(r ) = −µ0 j (r ) (4.38)
A change of a A is a gauge transformation. The gauge defined by the condition ∇ · A = 0 is the velocity gauge (transversal). If we
start from a vector potential A0 whose divergence is not zero, the required gauge transformation, leading to a divergenceless A is
∇′ · A0 (r ′ )
Z
1
A0 → A = A0 + ∇φ, ∆φ = −∇ · A0 , φ(r ) = dτ ′ (4.39)
4π |r − r ′ |
V

The solution of the Poisson-type equations for the components of A, if we know the (localized) charge currents in the entire space
are (for a line, surface and respectively a volume current densities)
dl ′ da′ K (r ′ ) dτ j (r ′ )
Z Z Z
µ0 µ0 µ0
A1D (r ) = I , A 2D (r ) = , A 3D (r ) = (4.40)
4π |r − r ′ | 4π |r − r ′ | 4π |r − r ′ |
Γ S V

The previous expressions are valid if the current at infinity vanishes.

4-4
4.6 Boundary conditions
Consider a surface current density K ; we study the discontinuity of the magnetic field near the surface. We take a closed small
surface S crossing the surface, with two faces very close and parallel to the surface. Then
I  
above below
da · B = 0, B⊥ = B⊥ , n · B above − B below = 0 (4.41)
S

As for the tangential components, an Amperian loop running perpendicular to the current yields
I  
dl · B = l Bkabove − Bkbelow = µ0 Ienc = µ0 K l (4.42)
Γ

i.e.
 
n × B above − B below = µ0 K , B above − B below = µ0 K × n. (4.43)

4.7 The energy of magnetostatic fields

See the next chapter first
It takes a certain amount of energy to start a current flowing in a circuit. If the magnetic flux trough a loop current changes,
there is a emf (electromotive force)
I
dΦ
E = dl · E = − (4.44)
dt
Γ

The magnetic flux through a loop current due to the current itself is Φm = LI, where L is the inductance of the loop. Then
I
dI
E = dl · E = −L (4.45)
dt
Γ

The work against the emf per unit of time

dW dI d LI 2
= −IE = LI = (4.46)
dt dt dt 2
If we start with zero current and build it up to a final value I, the work done (integrating the last equation over time) is
LI2
W = (4.47)
2
On the other hand,
Z Z I
LI = Φm = B · da = ∇ × A · da = A · dl (4.48)
S S Γ

Then the total energy is

I Z
1 1
W = I A · dl = dτ j · A (4.49)
2 2
Γ V

Using

∇ × B = µ0 j (4.50)

we get
Z
1
W = dτ ∇ × B · A (4.51)
2µ0
V

4-5
Using the identity

∇ · (A × B) = B · ∇ × A − A · ∇ × B (4.52)

we get
Z Z
1 1
W = dτ B · ∇ × A − dτ ∇ · (A × B) (4.53)
2µ0 2µ0
V V

If we extend the volume to the entire space and transform the last integral into a surface integral is vanishes and we are left with

B2
Z Z
1 1
W = dτ B · ∇ × A = dτ B 2 , w = (4.54)
2µ0 2µ0 2µ0
V V

We defined the magnetostatic field energy density

B2
w= (4.55)
2µ0
Notice that it takes energy to build up a magnetic field, even if the magnetic field does no work. This is because the energy is
needed to work against the emf which appears when the magnetic field increases.

List of topics
1. The energy of magnetostatic fields
2. Steady currents distributions; the magnetic field
3. The divergence and curl of the magnetic field
4. The vector potential
5. Boundary conditions
6. The energy of the magnetostatic field

4.8 Bibliography
[1] D.J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics, 4-th ed., Pearson, 2013 Cap. 5

4-6