Elements of Mechanism

Introduction

The science of mechanism treats of the designing and construction of machinery. A machine is a
combination of resistant bodies so arranged that by their means the mechanical forces of nature can be
compelled to produce some effect or work accompanied with certain determinate motion. In general, it
may be properly said that a machine is an assemblage of moving parts interposed between the source of
power and the work, for the purpose of adapting to one another. The operation of any machine depends
upon two things: first, the transmission of certain force and second the production of determinate motion.

Therefore the force and the motion may be considered separately, thus dividing the science of
Mechanism into two parts;

(1) Pure Mechanism – which treats of the motions and forms of the parts of a machine, and the
manner of supporting and guiding them, independent of their strength.
(2) Constructive Mechanism – which involves the calculation of the forces acting on different parts
of the machine. The selection of materials as to strength and durability in order to withstand these
forces, taking into account the convenience for repairs and facilities for manufacture.

Mechanism – A term applied to a portion of a machine where two or more pieces are combined, so that
the motion of the first compels the motion of the others, according to a law depending on the nature of
the combination.

Machine – is made up of a series or train of mechanisms.

Motion and Rest – If two bodies, both moving in space, remain in the same relative position in regard to
each other, they are said to be at rest, one relatively to the other, if they do not, either may be said to be
in motion relatively to the other. Motion may be either relative or absolute.

Path – a point moving in space describes a line called its path, which may be rectilinear or curvilinear. The
motion of a body is determined by the paths of three of its points selected at pleasure. If the motion is in
a plane, two points suffice and its if rectilinear, one point suffices to determine the motion.

Direction – In a given path, a point can move in either of two directions only, which may be designated in
various ways; as up, (+), or down (-); to the right, +, or left, (-); with the clock, (+), or the reverse, (-);
direction, as well as motion, being relative.

Continuous Motion – When a point goes on moving indefinitely in a given path in the same direction, its
motion is said to be continuous. In this case the path must return on itself, as a circle or other closed
curve. A wheel turning on its bearings afford an example of this motion.

Reciprocating Motion – When a point a transverse the same path and reverses its motion at the ends of
such path the motion is said to be reciprocating.

Vibration and Oscillation – are terms applied to reciprocating circular motion, as that of a pendulum.

Intermittent Motion – When the motion of a point is interrupted by periods of rest, its motion is said to
be intermittent.

Revolution and Rotation – A point is said to revolve about an axis when it describes a circle of which the
center is in and the plane is perpendicular to, that axis. When all the points of a body thus move the body
is said to revolve about the axis. If the axis passes through the body, as in the case of a wheel, the word
rotation is used synonymously with revolution. If frequently occurs that a body not only rotates about an
axis passing through itself, but also moves in an orbit about another axis. In order to make the distinction
between the two motions more clear, we shall consider the first as a rotation, and the second as a
revolution; just as we say, the earth rotates on its axis and revolves around the sun.

An Axis of Rotation – is a line whose direction is not changed by the rotation; A fixed axis – is one whose
position as well as its direction, remain unchanged.

A plane of Rotation – is a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation.

Right handed Rotation – is the same in direction as the motion of the hands of a watch and is generally
considered to be positive.

Left handed rotation – is in the opposite direction and is consequently considered negative.

Cycle of Motions – When a mechanism is set in motion and its parts go through a series of movements
which are repeated over and over, the relations between and order of the different divisions of the series
being the same for each repetition, we have in one of these series what is called a cycle of motions. For
example, one revolution of the piston-rod, and the series of positions is repeated over and over for each
revolution of the crank.

The Period – of a motion is the interval of time elapsing between two successive passages of a point
through the same position in the same direction.

The Driver and Follower – That piece of a mechanism which is supposed to caused motion is called driver
and one whose motion is effected is called the follower.

Frame – the frame of a machine is a structure that supports the moving parts and regulates the path or
kind of motion, of many of them directly.

Velocity – is the rate of motion of a point in space. When the motion is referred to a point is referred to
a point in the path of the body its velocity is expressed in linear measure. When the point is rotating
continuously, or for the instant, about some axis, its motion may be referred to the axis when its velocity
is expressed in angular measure. In the first case it has linear velocity and in the second case angular
velocity.

Velocity is uniform when equal spaces are passed over in equal times, however small intervals
into which the time is divided. The velocity in this case is the space passed over in a unit of time, and if s
represent the space passed over in the time t, the velocity v will be, v = s / t

Velocity is variable when unequal spaces are passed over in equal intervals of time, increasing
spaces giving accelerated motion and decreases spaces giving retarded motion. The velocity when variable
is the limit of the space passed over in a small interval of time divided by time, when these intervals of
time become infinitely small. If Δs represent the space passed over in the time Δt, then v = limit of Δs / Δt
or v = ds / dt.

The uniform linear velocity of a point is measured by the number of units of linear distance passed
over in a unit of time. When the velocity is variable it is measured by the distance which would be passed
over in a unit of time, if the point retained throughout that the time the velocity which it had at the instant
considered.
Angular Velocity – The angular velocity of a point is measured by the number of units of angular space
which would be swept over in a unit of time by a line joining the given point with a point outside of its
path, about which the angular velocity is desired. The angular space is here measured by the circular
measure, or the ratio of the arc to the radius. The unit angle, or radian, is one subtended by an arc to the
radius. The angular velocity of a point is therefore expressed in radians per unit time. Angular Velocity =
Linear Velocity x radius. Thus, when Angular Velocity remains the same, the linear velocity is directly
proportional to the radius. For example, given a line of shafting with pulleys of various diameters, the
angular velocities of all the pulleys is the same, while the linear velocities of points in the rims of the
pulleys are directly proportional to the respective radii. If N represents the number of revolutions per
minute (rpm) and R represents the radius of one of the pulleys in feet, we have the Angular velocity to
2𝝅𝑵 radians per minute, while the linear velocity of the rim of the pulley would be 2𝜋𝑁𝑅 feet per minute
(fpm).

Modes of Transmission – If we leave out of account the action of natural forces of attraction and
repulsion, such as magnetism, one piece cannot move another, unless the two are in contact or are
connected to each other by some intervening body that is capable of communicating the motion of the
one to the other. In the latter case, the motion of the connector is usually unimportant, as the action of
the combination as a whole depends upon the relative motion of the connected pieces. Thus motion can
be transmitted from the driver to the follower: (1) By direct contact (2) By intermediate connectors

Links and Bands – An intermediate connector can be rigid or flexible. When rigid it is called a link, it can
either push or pull, such as the connecting-rod of a steam engine. Pivots or other joints are necessary to
connect the link to the driver and follower. If the connector is flexible, it is called a band, which is supposed
to be inextensible, and only capable of transmitting a pull. A fluid confined in a suitable receptacle may
also serve as a connector, as in the hydraulic press.

Modification of Motion – In the action of a mechanism, the motion of the follower may differ from that
of the driver in kind, in velocity, in direction, or in all three. As the paths of motion of the driver and
follower depend upon the connections with the frame of the machine, the change of motion in kind is
fixed and it only remains for us to determine the relations of direction and velocity throughout the motion.
Now the laws governing the changes in direction and velocity can be determined by comparing the
movements of the two pieces at each instant of their action and the mode of action will fix the laws.
Therefore, whatever the nature of the combination, if we can determine throughout the motion of the
driver and follower, the velocity ratio, and directional relation, the analysis will be complete. Either the
velocity or the directional relation may vary or remain the same throughout the action of the two pieces.

Machines and Mechanisms

Machines are devices used to alter, transmit, and direct forces to accomplish a specific objectives. A chain
saw is a familiar machine that directs forces to the chain with the objectives of cutting wood. A mechanism
is the mechanical portion of a machine that has the function of transferring motion and forces from a
power source to an output. It is the heart of a machine. A mechanism can be considered rigid parts that
are arranged and connected so that they produced the desired motion of the machine. The purpose of
the mechanism is to lift the platform and any object that are placed upon it. Synthesis is the process of
developing a mechanism to satisfy a set of performance requirements for the machine. Analysis ensures
that the mechanism will exhibit motion that will accomplish the set of requirements.

Kinematics
Kinematics – deals with the way things move. It is the study the geometry of motion. Kinematic analysis
involves determination of position, displacement, rotation, speed, velocity and acceleration of
mechanism. The figure below illustrates an adjustable height platform that is driven by hydraulic cylinders.
Although the entire device could be called a machine, the parts that take the power from the cylinders
and drive the raising and lowering of the platform comprises the mechanism.

To illustrate the importance of mechanism analysis; We can use (1) Kinematic Analysis and (2) Dynamic
force Analysis.

A majority of mechanisms exhibit motion such that the parts move in parallel planes. For the given
device above, two identical mechanisms are used on opposite sides of the platform for stability. However
the motion of these mechanisms is strictly in the vertical plane. Therefore, these mechanisms are called
planar mechanism because their motion is limited to two-dimensional space.

Mechanism Terminology

As stated, mechanisms consist of connected parts with the objective of transferring motion and
force from a power source to an output. A linkage is mechanism where rigid parts are connected together
to form a chain. One part is designated the frame of reference for the motion of all other parts. The frame
is typically a part that exhibits no motion. Links are the individual parts of the mechanism. They are
considered rigid bodies that are connected with other links to transmit motion and forces. Theoretically,
a true rigid bodies does not change shape during motion. Although a true rigid body exist, mechanism
links are designed to minimally deform and are considered rigid. Elastic parts, such as springs, are not
considered links. They have no effect on the kinematics of a mechanism and are usually ignored during
kinematic analysis. They do supply forces and must be included during the dynamic force portion of
analysis.

A joint is a movable connection between links and allows relative motion between the links. The
primary joints, also called full joints, are the revolute and sliding joints. The revolute joint is also called a
pin or hinge. It allows pure rotation between the two links that is connects. The sliding joint is also called
a piston or prismatic joint. It allows linear sliding between the links that it connects. A cam joint allows for
both rotation and sliding between the two links that it connects. Because of the complex motion
permitted, the cam connection is called higher order joint also called half joint. A gear connection also
allows rotation and sliding between two gears as their teeth mesh. The gear connection is also a higher
order joint. A simple link is a rigid body that contains only two joints, which connect it to the other links.
A crank is a simple link that is able to complete a full of rotation about a fixed center. A rocker is a simple
link that oscillates through an angle, reversing its direction at certain intervals.
 A complex link is a rigid body that contains more than two joints. A rocker arm is a complex link,
containing three joints, that is pivoted near its center. A bellcrank is similar to a rocker arm, but is bent in
the center. A point of interest is a point on a link where the motion is of special interest. One kinematic
analysis is performed, the displacement, velocity and acceleration of that point are determined. The last
general component of mechanism is the actuator. An actuator is the common that drives the mechanism.
Linkages can be either open or closed chains. Each link in a closed loop kinematic chain is connected to
two or more other links.
Vector Operation in Analytical and Graphical Method
Composition and Resolution of Velocities – Motion of Rigidly Connected Points – Instantaneous Axis –
Centroids

Graphic Representation of Motion – We can represent the motion of a point in any given piece of
mechanism graphically, by a right line whose length in unit s indicates the velocity, and whose direction
indicates the direction of motion of the point at the instant considered; an arrow- head is used to indicate
the direction in which the point is moving. If the path of the moving point be a curve of any kind, the
direction of the curve at any point is that of its tangent at that point , which indicates the direction of
motion as well.

Resultant – If a material point receives a single impulsive in any direction, it will move in that direction
with a certain velocity. If it receives at the same instant two impulses in different direction, it will obey
both and move in an intermediate direction with a velocity differ from that of either impulse alone. The
position of the point at the end of the instants is the same as it would have been had the motions, due to
the impulses, occurred in successive instants. The motion which occurs as a consequence of two or more
impulses is called the Resultant, and the separate motions, which impulses acting singly would have
caused, are called the Components.

Parallelogram of Motion – Suppose the point a to have simultaneously the two component motions
represented in magnitude and direction by ab and ac. Then the resultant is ad may be resolved into
components, one along ab and the other along ac by drawing the parallelogram abcd of which it will be
the diagonal.

Any two component motions can have but one resultant, but a given resultant motion may have infinite
number of pairs of components. In the latter case we have a definite solutions provided we know the
direction of one. If we know the magnitude of both components, there are two possible solutions. Thus,
where ad is the given resultant, if the two components have the magnitudes represented by ac and ab,
would solve the problem or the direction ac1 and ab1 would equally well fulfil the conditions. It very often
happens that we wish to resolve a motion into two components, one of which is perpendicular and the
other parallel to a given line (as ef). Here ad represents the motion; ab = ad cos dab, the component
parallel to ef; and ac = ad sin dab, the component perpendicular to ef;
Parallelopiped of Motions – If the three component motions ab, ac, and ad are combined, their resultant
af will be the diagonal of the parellelopiped of which they are edges. The motions ab and ac, being in the
same plane can be combined to form the resultant ae and ad can be combined, giving the resultant af.
Conversely the motion af may be resolved into the components ab, ac, and ad. If the parallelepiped is
rectangular, the case is simpler and often used; then we have: ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅2 + ̅̅̅̅
𝒂𝒇2 = 𝒂𝒆 𝒂𝒅2 = ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅2 + ̅̅̅̅
𝒂𝒃2 + ̅𝒂𝒄 𝒂𝒅2. To find
the resultant of any number of motions: First, combine any two of them and find their resultant; then,
combined this resultant with the third, thus obtaining a new resultant, which can be combined with the
fourth; and so on.

Velocities of Rigidity-connected Points – If two points are so connected that their distance apart is
invariable and if their velocities are resolved into components at right angles to and along the straight line
connecting them, the components along this line of connection must be equal, otherwise the distance
between the points would change. In the given figure, let a and b be two rigidly connected points having
the linear velocity of a represented in magnitude and direction by aa, and the linear velocity of b in
direction by bb1. The components of aa1 perpendicular to and along ab are ac and ad respectively. The
components ad will represent the entire tendency of translation of the line ab in the direction ab due to
the linear velocity aa1 at the point a. Since the points a and b are rigidly connected, the linear velocity of
any point in the line ab must be such that when resolved into components perpendicular to and along ab
the components along ab shall be equal to ad. Therefore the linear velocity of b must be bb1 since be must
be equal to ad. In the figure, the motions are shown in one plane, but the proposition is also true for
motions not in one plane.

For example, in the series of links shown, c and d are fixed axes and f slides on the line, ff1. If aa1 represents
the linear velocity of a, the component of translation along ab will be am, to which the component bn
must be equal. Therefore bb1 will represent the linear velocity of b, where bb1 is tangent to the path of b
in the given position. The linear velocity of e will be ee1, where ee1 is tangent to the path of e in the given
and where ee1: bb1 = de: db, since in any rotating body the linear velocities of any points are proportional
to their respective distance from the axis. To find the linear velocity of f we have the linear of the point e
in ef represented by ee1; therefore the component of translation along ef will be eo. The component fp
must be equal to eo, which gives ff1 as the resulting linear velocity of f.

Mechanisms

Definition:
A mechanism is that part of a machine which contains two or more pieces so arranged that the
motion of one compels the motion of the others, all in a fashion prescribed by the nature of the
combination.

Linkages
Links may be of any form so long as they do not interfere with the desired motion. The simplest
form is four bars A, B, C, and D, fastened together at their ends by cylindrical pins, and which are all
movable in parallel planes. If the links are of different lengths and each is fixed in turn, there will be four
possible combinations; but as two of these are similar there will be produced three mechanisms having
distinctly different motions.

Fig. 1 Beam-and-crank mechanism

 Fig. 2 Drag-link mechanism Fig. 3 Rocker mechanism

Thus, in Fig. 1, if D is fixed A can rotate and C oscillate, giving the beam-and-crank mechanism, as
used on side-wheel steamers. If B is fixed, the same motion will result; if A is fixed (Fig. 2), links B and D
can rotate, giving the drag-link mechanism used to feather the floats on paddle wheels. Fixing link C (Fig.
3), D and B can only oscillate, and a rocker mechanism sometimes used in straight-line motions is
produced. It is customary to call a rotating link a crank; an oscillating link a lever, or beam; and the
connecting link a connecting rod, or coupler. Discrete points on the coupler, crank, or lever can be pressed
into service to provide a desired motion. The fixed link is often enlarged and used as the supporting frame.
If in the linkage (Fig. 1) the pin joint F is replaced by a slotted piece E (Fig. 4), no change will be
produced in the resulting motion, and if the length of links C and D is made infinite, the slotted piece E
will become straight and the motion of the slide will be that of pure translation, thus obtaining the engine,
or sliding-block, linkage (Fig. 5).

Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 Sliding-block linkage

If in the sliding-block linkage (Fig. 5) the long link B is fixed (Fig. 6), A will rotate and E will oscillate
and the infinite links C and D may be indicated as shown. This gives the swinging-block linkage. When used
as a quick-return motion the slotted piece and slide are usually interchanged (Fig. 7) which in no way
changes the resulting motion. If the short link A is fixed (Fig. 8), B and E can both rotate, and the
mechanism known as the turning-block linkage is obtained. This is better known under the name of the
Whitworth quick-return motion, and is generally constructed as in Fig. 9.
 Fig. 6 Swinging-block linkage Fig. 7 Slow-advance, quick return linkage

Fig. 8 Turning-block linkage Fig. 9 Whitworth-quick return motion

The ratio of time of advance to time of return H/K of the two quick-return motions (Figs. 8.1.7 and
8.1.9) may be found by locating, in the case of the swinging block (Fig. 8.1.7), the two tangent points (t)
and measuring the angles H and K made by the two positions of the crank A. If H and K are known, the
axis of E may be located by laying off the angles H and K on the crank circle and drawing the tangents E,
their intersection giving the desired point. For the turning-block linkage (Fig. 8.1.9), determine the angles
H and K made by the crank B when E is in the horizontal position; or, if the angles are known, the axis of
E may be determined by drawing a horizontal line through the two crankpin positions (S) for the given
angle, and the point where a line through the axis of B cuts E perpendicularly will be the axis of E.

Velocity
Velocities of any two or more points on a link must fulfill the following conditions. (1)
Components along the link must be equal and in the same direction (Fig. 10): Va 5= Vb = Vc . (2)
Perpendiculars to VA , VB , VC from the points A, B, C must intersect at a common point d, the instant center
(or instantaneous axis). (3) The velocities of points A, B, and C are directly proportional to their distances
from this center (Fig. 11): VA /a = VB /b = VC/c. For a straight link the tips of the vectors representing the
velocities of any number of points on the link will be on a straight line (Fig. 12); abc = a straight line. To
find the velocity of any point when the velocity and direction of any two other points are known, condition
2 may be used, or a combination of conditions 1 and 3.
 Fig. 10 Fig. 11

Fig. 12

The linear velocity ratio of any two points on a linkage may be found by determining the distances
e and f to the instant center (Fig. 13); then Vc /Vb = e/f. This may often be simplified by noting that a line
drawn parallel to e and cutting B forms two similar triangles efB and sAy, which gives Vc /Vb = e/f = s/A.

Fig. 13

The angular velocity ratio for any position of two oscillating or rotating links A and C (Fig. 1),
connected by a movable link B, may be determined by scaling the length of the perpendiculars M and N
from the axes of rotation to the centerline of the movable link. The angular velocity ratio is inversely
proportional to these perpendiculars, or OC/OA = M/N. This method may be applied directly to a linkage
having a sliding pair if the two infinite links are redrawn perpendicular to the sliding pair, as indicated in
Fig. 14. M and N are shown also in Figs. 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8. In Fig. 5 one of the axes is at infinity; therefore, N
is infinite, or the slide has pure translation.

Fig. 14
Forces
 A mechanism must deliver as much work as it receives, neglecting friction; therefore, the force at
any point F multiplied by the velocity VF in the direction of the force at that point must equal the force at
some other point P multiplied by the velocity VP at that point; or the forces are inversely as their velocities
and F/P = VP/VF . It is at times more convenient to equate the moments of the forces acting around each
axis of rotation (sometimes using the instant center) to determine the force acting at some other point.
In Fig. 15, F x a x c/ (b x d) = P

Fig. 15

Instantaneous Axis
If a line ao is drawn through a perpendicular to the direction of motion aa1 of the point a, then
the motion of a may be the result of a rotation about an axis through any point in the line ao or in ao
produced. Similarly, the mot ion bb1 may be the result of a rotation about an axis through any point in bo.
If a and b are rigidly connected, the piece on which they are situated must have a rotation about an axis
and the average velocity of all points about the axis must be the same.

The only point satisfying this condition is o, at the intersection of ao and bo, and the piece ab has
a motion at that instant such that as it would have if it were rotating about an axis through o. The axis
through o, perpendicular to the plane of the motions, is called the instantaneous axis, it being the axis
about which the body is rotating for the instant in question.
The average velocity about the instantaneous axis being the same for the instant, for the points a
and b, the linear velocity of a and b will be proportional to their distances from the instantaneous axis.
aa1 : bb1 = oa : ob
If the motions of the points a and b are not in the same plane, the instantaneous axis would be
found as follows: Pass a plane through the point a perpendicular to aa1, might then be the result of a
revolution a about any axis in that plane. In the same manner, the motion of bb1 might be the result of a
revolution of b about any axis in the perpendicular plane through b. The points a and b, being rigidly
connected, must rotate about any axis, which in this case will be the intersection of the two perpendicular
planes.
Suppose the motions of the two points a and b to be in the same plane and parallel as in the given
figures. Here the perpendiculars through a and b coincide and the above method fails. Let aa1 and bb1 be
the linear velocity of the points a and b respectively. To find the instantaneous axis draw a right line
through the points a1 and b1 in each case and note the point o where it intersects ab or ab produced. This
must be the instantaneous axis, for from the similar triangles aa1o and bb1o we have: aa1 : bb1 = oa : ob
the same question as was obtained before.

Motions of Translation
If in the given figure above, the two parallel motions aa1 and bb1 become equal to each other,
then ob will be infinite and the consecutive positions of ab will be parallel to each other. This is also true
if the motions are at any angle with ab, so long as they are equal and parallel. The motion of a line, or of
a body containing that line, at any instant when it is thus revolving about an axis at an infinite distance, is
called translation. All points in such a body move in the same direction with the same velocity. The paths
of the points may be rectilinear or curvilinear. Straight or rectilinear translation is commonly called sliding.
As an example of straight translation, we have the cross-head of a steam engine, of curvilinear translation,
the parallel-rod of a locomotive.

Periodic Center of Motion

It is very often happens that we know two positions of a line, as ab and a1b1, moving in the plane
of the paper and we wish to find an axis about which this line could revolve to occupy the two given
positions. Draw aa1 and bb1 and find intersection 0 of the perpendicular drawn at their middle points.
Thus ab can be brought to the position a1b1 by revolving it about an axis through perpendicular to the
plane of the paper, the paths a and b being arcs of circles drawn from o as a center, and with radii equal
to oa and ob respectively.
When the two positions of ab are taken infinitely near each other, o becomes the instantaneous
center.
Centroid
The curve passing through the successive positions of the instantaneous center of a body having
a combined motion of rotation and translation is called a centroid. The surface formed by the successive
positions of the instantaneous axis is called an axoid. Suppose we know the relative motions of two links
as ab and cd in the mechanism given where the motion of ab relative to cd, cd being considered as fixed
is such that a moves in the path b3bb2, a3b3, a2b2 being position of ab. If in any of these positions, as ab,
we draw from a and b normal to their respective paths, their intersection o will be the instantaneous
center of ab for that position. A smooth curve passed through the successive positions of the
instantaneous center o, o1, o2 will be the centroid of ab. We saw that the instantaneous axis of one body
rolling on another was at their point of contact. From this it would follow that, considering one body as
fixed relative to the other, its surface would be the axoid of the moving body. Therefore in the given figure
below, the axoid of ab, which is represented by the centroid o1oo2, may be taken as the surface of a fixed
body, containing dc, on which the surface of a moving body, containing ab, shall be able to roll, giving the
same motion to ab as the original links would give.
To find the trace of the surface of the body containing ab, we have in each of the positions which
it may occupy, distances from a and b to its instantaneous center for that position, which distances are
therefore distances from a and b to a point in the trace of the surface of the body containing ab. Thus am1
and bm1 are equal respectively to a1o1 and b1o1, similarly am2 and bm2 are equal respectively to a2o2 and
b2o2. A smooth curve through these points om1m2 would give the trace of the surface of the body
containing ab. It will also be found that this curve om1m2 is the centroid of cd relative to ab when ab is
assume fixed.
References:

Norton, Robert L, “Design of Machinery, An Introduction to the Synthesis and Analysis of Mechanisms
and Machineries”,5th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2011

Waldron, Kenneth J., “Kinematics, Dynamics, and Design of Machinery’, 3rd ed., Wiley, 2016

Myszka, David H., “Machines and Mechanisms: Applied Kinematics Analysis”, 4th ed., Pearson Prentice
Hall, 2012

Mata, Antonio Simon, et al., “Fundamentals of Machine Theory and Mechanisms”, Springer
International Publishing, 2016