Media Research Unit IV

MEDIA RESEARCH
UNIT- IV
Chapter- 1
Data Processing- Editing, Coding, Classification & Tabulation
Introduction
After collection, the data has to be analyzed in accordance with the outline laid down for the
purpose at the time of developing the research plan. This is essential for a scientific study and
for ensuring that the data collected is relevant for making contemplated comparisons and
analysis.
Processing refers to editing, coding, classification and tabulation of collected data so that they
are amenable for analysis.
Processing Operations
Editing
It is a process of examining the collected data to detect errors and omissions and to correct
these when possible. As a matter of fact, editing involves a careful scrutiny of the completed
questionnaires / or schedules. Editing is done to assure that the data are accurate, consistent
with other facts gathered, uniformly entered, as much completed as possible and have been
well arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.
Field editing consists of the review of reporting forms by the investigator for completing
(translating/ rewriting what the latter has written in abbreviated and / or illegible) form at the
time of recording the respondents’ responses. This type of editing is necessary in view of the
fact that individual writing styles often can be difficult for others to decipher. This sort of
editing should be done as soon as possible after the interview, preferably on the same day.
Central editing should take place when all forms or schedules have been completed and
returned to the office. This type of editing implies that all forms should get a thorough editing
done by a single editor in case of a small study and by a team of editors in case of a large
enquiry. Editor may correct the obvious errors such as an entry in the wrong place, entry
Compiled by: Dr. Upasana Khurana, Associate Professor and HOD, Department of Journalism &
Mass Communication, KRCHE, GGSIPU, Delhi, E-mail: drupasanakhurana@gmail.com. 1
recorded in months when it should have been recorded in weeks, and the like. In case of
missing replies, the editors can sometimes determine the proper answers by reviewing the
other information in the schedules. At times the respondent can be contacted for clarification.
All the wrong answers, which are quite obvious, must be dropped from the final results,
especially in the content of mail surveys.
Points to be remembered by the Editor

• Should be familiar with instructions give to the interviewers and coders as
well as with the editing instructions supplied to them for the purpose.
• While crossing out an original entry for one reason or another, they should just
draw a single line on it so that the same may remain legible.
• They must make entries (if any) on the form in some distinctive color and that
too in a standardized form.
• They should initial all answers which they change or supply.
• Editor’s initials and the date of editing should be placed on each completed
form.
Coding
Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so that
responses can be put into a limited number of categories or classes. Such classes should be
appropriate to the research problem under consideration. They must also possess the
characteristics of exhaustiveness ( i.e. there must be a class for every data item) and also that
of mutual exclusiveness which means that a specific answer can be placed in one and only
one cell in a given category set.
Another rule to be observed is that of unidimensionality by which is meant that every class is
defined in terms of only one concept.
Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and through it several replies may be reduced to a
small number of classes which contain the critical information required for analysis.
One standard method is to code in the margin with a coloured pencil. Coding errors should
altogether be eliminated or reduced to the minimum level.
Classification
Classification means to arrange data in groups or classes on the basis of common
characteristics. Data having common characteristics are placed in one class and in this way
the entire data gets divided into a number of groups or classes.
Classification can be one of the following two types:
Classification according to Attributes

Data can be classified on the basis of common characteristics which can either be descriptive
(such as literacy, sex, honesty etc) or numerical (such as weight, height, income etc).
Descriptive characteristics refer to qualitative phenomenon which cannot be measured
quantitatively only their presence or absence in an individual item can be noticed. Data
obtained on the basis of certain attributes are known as statistics of attributes.
Classification according to Class – intervals

Unlike descriptive characteristics, the numerical characteristics refer to quantitative
phenomenon which can be measured through some statistical units. Data related to income,
production, age, weight etc come under this category. Such data are known as statistics of
variables and are classified on the basis of class intervals.
Sample of a Coded and Classified Questionnaire

In the questionnaire given below, the questions are coded as A,B,C……R. These codes
represent the questions. Each code has separate information to deliver.
Age (Variable): ____________ Sex: M / F

Profession: __________________ Email Id: _____________________
Carefully read the following questions and mark the answers.

Q1. Have you ever bought or downloaded any pirated content (films/TV shows/books/
video games/music)?(A)
A. Yes No
Q2. Have you noticed an increase in your consumption of content, (Films, TV Shows,
Music, Books and Video Games) since it started freely floating over the internet and
becoming cheaply available in the market?(B)
A. Yes No
Q3. Piracy can be used as an excellent content distribution network. Do you agree?(C)
A. Yes No Can’t Say
If Yes, then how?

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Q4. Do you agree that piracy does little to hurt the industry, and it may even help the
producers in gaining returns for their products/services?(D)
Q5. Do you agree that the losses claimed by the bosses in the entertainment industry due
to piracy is much inflated and wrongly calculated?(E)
Q6. Producers tend to ignore the profits made by them via online streaming, surfing,
downloading, purchase of merchandise, purchase of concert tickets and positive
word of mouth, while calculating the loss incurred due to piracy. Do you agree?(F)
A. Yes No
Q7. Do you agree that in a world where piracy is nonexistent, content would still be
consumed at the same rate as it is being consumed now?(G)
A. Yes No
Q8. In a world where piracy is nonexistent, would you be willing to buy original copies of
all the pirated content that you have bought, downloaded or borrowed till now?(H)
A. Yes No
If no, then why?___________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Q9. Have you ever discovered/sampled any content through piracy that you liked to the
extent that you went on to purchase its original copy?(I)
A. Yes No
Q.10. Have you ever discovered any artist or content producer through piracy and later
recommended them to your friends to sample/follow their work?(J)
A. Yes No
Q11. Have you ever discovered any artist or content producer or any content through
piracy and liked it to the extent that you spent money on its future works and/or on
purchasing related complimentary products like concert tickets or merchandise?(K)
A. Yes No
Q12. Have you as a content producer, ever used piracy to your advantage?(L)
A. Yes No B
If yes, then how?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Q13. Which type of content do you think are the biggest losers to piracy?(M)
A. Commercial, Mainstream Smaller, Lesser Known,
Content (Books, Movies, Independent Content
Music, Video Games) (Books, Movies, Music, Video Games)
Q14. Do you agree that smaller content producers usually benefit from piracy?(N)
A. Yes No
Q.15. The entertainment industry as a whole (Music, Movies, Books and Video Games)
loses nothing to piracy, as the losses made by big commercial projects due to piracy
are evened out by the profits made by the small projects. Do you agree?(O)
A. Yes No
If yes, then
Q.16. Do you agree that the entertainment industry should legalize piracy, keeping in mind
the profits made by the industry as a whole, while ignoring an individual producer’s
losses?(P)
A. Yes v v No
Q.17. Would content producers gain back the money that they claim to be losing to piracy,
if the practice of piracy is completely eliminated?(Q)
A. Yes v No
v
Q.18. In the content industry money lost to piracy is technically money not lost and is equal
to the operational/running costs or spillage costs of other industries. As even if piracy
was non-existent in our world, consumers would have found some alternate means
to consume and share content for free. Do you agree?(R)
A. Yes v v No
v v
The following list comprises of classifications of various coded questions. The sub
classifications are represented as A1, A2 etc.
A1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25), who have bought or downloaded pirated
content.
A2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50), who have bought or downloaded pirated
content.
B1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25), who have noticed an increase in their
consumption of content.
B2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50), who have noticed an increase in their
consumption of content.
C1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25), who think piracy can be used as an
excellent content distribution network.
C2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50), who think piracy can be used as an
excellent content distribution network.
D1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25),who agree that piracy does little to hurt the
industry, and may even help the producers in gaining returns for their products/services.
D2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50),who agree that piracy does little to hurt the
industry, and may even help the producers in gaining returns for their products/services.
E1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25),who agree that the losses claimed by the
bosses in the entertainment industry due to piracy are much inflated and wrongly calculated.
E2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50),who agree that the losses claimed by the
bosses in the entertainment industry due to piracy are much inflated and wrongly calculated.
F1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25),who agree that producers tend to ignore the
profits made by them via online streaming, surfing, downloading, purchase of merchandise,
purchase of concert tickets and positive word of mouth, while calculating the loss incurred
due to piracy.
F2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50),who agree that producers tend to ignore the
profits made by them via online streaming, surfing, downloading, purchase of merchandise,
purchase of concert tickets and positive word of mouth, while calculating the loss incurred
due to piracy.
G1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25),who agree that in a world where piracy is
non-existent, content would still be consumed at the same rate as it is being consumed now.
G2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50),who agree that in a world where piracy is
non-existent, content would still be consumed at the same rate as it is being consumed now.
H1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25),who would be willing to buy original copies
of all the pirated content that they have bought, downloaded or borrowed till now.
H2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50),who would be willing to buy original copies
of all the pirated content that they have bought, downloaded or borrowed till now.
I1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25),who have discovered/sampled content
through piracy that they liked to the extent to purchase its original copy.
I2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50),who have discovered/sampled content
through piracy that they liked to the extent to purchase its original copy.
J1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25), who have discovered artists/content
producers through piracy whom they later recommended to their friends to sample or follow.
J2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50), who have discovered artists/content
producers through piracy whom they later recommended to their friends to sample or follow.
K1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25),who have discovered artists/content
producers or content through piracy and liked it to the extent to spend money on their future
works and/or on purchasing related complimentary products like concert tickets or
merchandise.
K2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50),who have discovered artists/content
producers or content through piracy and liked it to the extent to spend money on their future
works and/or on purchasing related complimentary products like concert tickets or
merchandise.
L1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25), who as content producers, have used piracy
to their advantage.
L2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50), who as content producers, have used piracy
to their advantage.
M1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25),who think that Commercial, Mainstream
content is the biggest loser to piracy.
M2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50),who think that Commercial, Mainstream
M3= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25),who think that Smaller, Independent
M4= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50),who think that Smaller, Independent
N1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25),who agree that smaller content producers
usually benefit from piracy.
N2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50), who agree that smaller content producers
usually benefit from piracy.
O1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25), who agree that the entertainment industry
as a whole loses nothing to piracy.
O2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50), who agree that the entertainment industry
as a whole loses nothing to piracy.
P1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25),who agree that the entertainment industry
should legalize piracy, keeping in mind the profits made by the industry as a whole, while
ignoring an individual producer’s losses.
P2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50),who agree that the entertainment industry
should legalize piracy, keeping in mind the profits made by the industry as a whole, while
ignoring an individual producer’s losses.
Q1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25),who agree that content producers would
gain back the money that they claim to be losing to piracy, if the practice of piracy is
completely eliminated.
Q2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50),who agree that content producers would
gain back the money that they claim to be losing to piracy, if the practice of piracy is
completely eliminated.
R1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25),who agree that in the content industry
money lost to piracy is technically money not lost and is equal to the operational/running
costs or spillage costs of other industries. As even if piracy was non-existent in our world,
consumers would have found some alternate means to consume and share content for free.
R2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50),who agree that in the content industry
money lost to piracy is technically money not lost and is equal to the operational/running
costs or spillage costs of other industries. As even if piracy was non-existent in our world,
consumers would have found some alternate means to consume and share content for free.
Tabulation
When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the researcher to arrange
the same in some kind of concise and logical order. This process is called tabulation.
Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the same in compact form
for further analysis. Tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows.
• Tabulation is essential because of the following reasons:

• It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a
minimum. It facilitates the process of comparison.
• It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of error and omissions.
• It provides a basis for various statistical comparisons.
• Tabulation can be done manually or mechanically. The choice depends on the
size and type of study, cost considerations, time pressures and the availability
of tabulating machines or computers. In large inquiries, we may use
mechanical or computer tabulation if other factors are favourable and
necessary facilities are available. Hand tabulation is usually preferred in case
of small inquiries where the number of questionnaires is small and they are of
relatively short length. Hand tabulation may be done using the direct tally, the
list or tally or the card sort and count methods.
• Tabulation may also be classified as simple and complex tabulation. Simple
tabulation gives information about one or more groups of independent
questions, whereas the complex tabulation shows the divisions of data in 2 or
more sets of inter – related questions.
Principles of Tabulation
• Every table should have a clear, concise and adequate title and the title must
be placed just above the table.
• Every table must be given a distinct number to facilitate easy reference.
• The column headings and the row headings must always be clear and brief.
• The units of measurement under each heading or sub – heading must always
be indicated.
• Exploratory footnotes, if any, concerning the table should be placed directly
beneath the table.
• Sources from where the data in the table have been obtained must be indicated
just below the table.
• Columns should be separated by lines.
• Columns must be numbered to facilitate reference.
• Abbreviations should be avoided and ditto marks should not be used.
• Miscellaneous items, if any, should be usually placed in the last row of the
table.
• Table should be made as logical, clear, accurate and simple as possible.
• The arrangement of the categories in a table may be chronological,
geographical, alphabetical or according to magnitude to facilitate comparison.
Sample of Tabulation
The sample explains how tabulation is done for every coded & classified question. The
variable used is age. The researcher has to first represent the number of respondents who
agree to have bought or downloaded pirated content. In the statistical representation the
researcher must denote each ‘yes’ in a line and count five in one set. All the sets are then
counted to generate the total number. In case of even number, like 14, the stand alone
number must also be counted. After the statistical representation, the researcher then gives
the numerical value. This data is then represented through graphs and charts.
Code A: Table 1: No. of respondents who have bought or downloaded pirated content
S. No Age Statistical Numerical

Representation Yes No
1. 18-25 |||| |||| |||| |||| 20 0
2. 26-50 |||| |||| |||| 14 2
Problems in Processing
Two problems in processing the data for analytical purposes may occur:
The problem concerning DK Response “don’t know” responses: while processing the data,
the researcher often comes across some responses that are difficult to handle. One category of
such responses may be “don’t know response” or simply DK Response. When the DK
Response group is small, it is of little significance. But when it is relatively big, it becomes a
matter of major concern in which case the question arises: is the question which elicited DK
Response useless? The answer depends upon two points i.e. the respondent actually may not
know the answer or the researcher may fail in obtaining the appropriate information. In the 1st
case, the concerned question is said to be alright and DK Response is taken as legitimate DK
Response. But in the second case, DK Response is more likely to be a failure of the
questioning process.
The researcher must design better type of questions to deal with DK Responses. Good rapport
of the interviewer with the respondents will result in minimizing DK responses. To tackle DK
Responses which have already taken place is to estimate the allocation of DK answers from
other data in the questionnaire. The other way is to keep DK Responses as a separate
category in tabulation where we can consider it as a separate reply category if DK Responses
happen to be legitimate, otherwise we should let the reader make his own decision. Another
way is to assume that DK Responses occur more or less randomly and as such we may
distribute them among the other answers in the ratio in which the latter have occurred.
Similar results will be achieved if all DK Replies are excluded from tabulation and that too
without inflating the actual number of other responses.
Chapter-2
Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, Median and Mode
Introduction
Measurement is the means of providing quantitative description where numbers are assigned
to objects or events according to some rules. These objects or events may sometimes relate to
the individuals or groups of individuals depending upon the purpose of measuring an
attribute. The rules adopted become the criteria and help in providing systematic and
objective mode for deriving accurate judgements about individuals or groups of individuals
leading to solutions ' to various educational problems. The nature of rules may vary from
simple to complex and we come across the lowest to highest forms of measurements. From
lower to higher levels we
have nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio measurement scales. The higher level scales require
more restrictive rules and the obtained measurement may require one to undertake more
operations.
A measure of central tendency is a measure that tells us where the middle of a bunch of data
lies. The three most common measures of central tendency are the mean, the median, and the
mode. Different measures of central tendency are defined below.
Role of Statistics in Research

The role of statistics in research is to function as a tool in designing research, analyzing its
data and drawing conclusions. Most research studies result in large volume of raw data which
must be suitably reduced so that the same can be read easily and can be used for further
analysis. Clearly the science of statistics cannot be ignored by any research worker; even
though he may not have had occasion to use statistical methods in all their details and
ramifications.
There are two major areas of statistics viz., descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive
statistics is concerned with the development of certain indices from the raw data, whereas
inferential statistics is concerned with the process of generalizations. Inferential statistics is
also known as sampling statistics and are mainly concerned with two major problems:
1. The estimation of population parameters
2. The testing of statistical hypothesis
Among the measures of central tendency, the three most important ones are the arithmetic
average or mean, median and mode.
Mode
Mode is the value that occurs most frequently in a set of data. Data obtained on the nominal
scale is of classificatory type and mostly qualitative. We can count the number of cases in
each category and obtain the frequencies. We may then be interested in noting down the class
which is most populous or popular. We frequently deal with 'scores' in measurement. The
score obtained by the largest number of
individuals is the mode of that group of scores. For example, if in a section of 40 students of
class IX the number of students obtaining the score of 55 is the highest, 55 would be called
the mode of the scores for that section. Generally such values are seen to be centrally located,
with other values in either direction having relatively lower frequencies. Thus the mode
presents a rough estimate of the most typical or the average score in a group of values. It is
not essential to have precise scores of all the individuals of the group for finding out mode.
Example
Find the Mode of the following data set.
Solution
Mode = 3 and 15
Limitations of Mode
Mode has the limitations associated with the scale of measurement for which it stands. Mode
can obviously not be subjected to further statistical analysis. It remains as only a rough
estimate. Sometimes we may come across bimodal distributions (having two modes) and we
do not easily find one composite measure. You may examine the following two situations and
appreciate the limitations of mode:
Situation I : The scores of students in History for Class VII A are as follows :
22,37,45,66,32,64,65,67,66,67,65,67,38,66,66,65,32,66,67,65,64,67,52,47,67,68,67
Situation II: The scores of students in Maths for Class IX A are as follows :
18,20,23,24,24,25,24,24,30,35,40,46,48,50,56,62,62,62,62,60,47,38,62,62,28,62,80
An inspection of situation I gives the mode of 67 while the adjacent score of 64, 65 and 66
seem to be equally potent to become mode. In situation II you notice a bimodal distribution
having- two modes at 24 and 62 as both seem to be equally- frequent in their own places. We
may thus conclude that mode is only a crude measure which can be of value when a quick
and rough estimate of central tendency is required.
Median
Median is the number present in the middle when the numbers in a set of data are arranged in
ascending or descending order. If the number of numbers in a data set is even, then the
median is the mean of the two middle numbers.
To find the median, we arrange the observations in order from smallest to largest value. If
there is an odd number of an observation, the median is the middle value. If there is an even
number of observations, the median is the average of the two middle values. Thus, in the
sample of five women, the median value would be 130 pounds; since 130 pounds is the
middle weight.
The median is defined as the number in the middle of a given set of numbers arranged in
order of increasing magnitude. When given a set of numbers, the median is the number
positioned in the exact middle of the list when you arrange the numbers from the lowest to
the highest. The median is also a measure of average. In higher level statistics, median is used
as a measure of dispersion. The median is important because it describes the behavior of the
entire set of numbers.
Example
Find the median in the set of numbers given below
Solution
From the definition of median, we should be able to tell that the first step is to rearrange the
given set of numbers in order of increasing magnitude, i.e. from the lowest to the highest
Then we inspect the set to find that number which lies in the exact middle.
Mean
Mean is the most common measure of central tendency. It is simply the sum of the numbers
divided by the number of numbers in a set of data. This is also known as average.
The mean of a sample or a population is computed by adding all of the observations and
dividing by the number of observations. Returning to the example of the five women, the
mean weight would equal (100 + 100 + 130 + 140 + 150)/5 = 620/5 = 124 pounds.
Mean is what most people commonly refer to as an average. Mean refers to the number you
obtain when you sum up a given set of numbers and then divide this sum by the total number
in the set. Mean is also referred to more correctly as arithmetic mean.
Given a set of n elements from a1 to an
The mean is found by adding up all the a's and then dividing by the total number, n
This can be generalized by the formula below:
Chapter-3
Analysis and Interpretation of Data
Introduction
Analysis, particularly in case of survey or experimental data, involves estimating the values
of unknown parameters of the population and testing of hypothesis for drawing inferences.
Data Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an
analytical or experimental study.
Elements/Types of Analysis
Analysis means the computation of certain indices or measures along with searching for
patterns of relationship that exist among the data groups. Analysis, particularly in case of
survey or experimental data, involves estimating the values of unknown parameters of the
population and testing of hypothesis for drawing inferences.
Analysis may therefore, be categorized as descriptive and inferential analysis.
Descriptive analysis is largely a study of distribution of one variable. This study provides us
with profiles of companies, workgroups, persons and other subjects on any of a multiple of
characteristics such as size.
This sort of analysis may be in respect of one variable (uni-dimensional analysis), or in

respect of two variables (bi-variate analysis) or in respect of more than two variables (multi-
variate analysis). In this context we work out various measures that show the size and shape
of a distribution along with the study of measuring relationship between two or more
variables.
Co-relation Analysis studies the joint variation of two or more variables for determining the
amount of correlation between two or more variables.
Causal Analysis is concerned with the study of how one or more variables affect change in
another variable. It is thus a study of functional relationships existing between two or more
variables. This analysis can be termed as regression analysis. Causal analysis is considered
more important in experimental researches, whereas in most social and business researches
our interest lies in understanding and controlling relationship between variables than with
determining causes.
The following analysis is involved when we make a reference of multi variate analysis.
Multiple Regression Analysis: This analysis is adopted when the researcher has one
dependent variable which is presumed to be a function of two or more independent variables.
The objective of this analysis is to make a prediction about the dependent variable based on
its co variants with all the concerned independent variables.
Multiple Discriminate Analysis: This analysis is when a researcher has a single dependent
variable that cannot be measured, but can be classified into two or more groups on the basis
of some attributes. The objective of this analysis happens to be to predict an entity’s
possibility of belonging to a particular group on several predictor variables.
Multi Variate Analysis of Variants: In this analysis the ratio of among group variants to
within group variants is worked out on a set of variables.
Canonical Analysis: This analysis can be used in case of both measureable and non-
measureable analysis, for the purpose of simultaneously predicting a set of dependent
variables from their joint co-variants with a set of independent variables.
Data Interpretation
Data Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an
analytical or experimental study. It is a search for broader meaning of research findings. The
task of interpretation has two major aspects:
• The effort to establish continuity in research through linking the results of a
given study with those of another.
• The establishment of some explanatory concepts.
Interpretation is concerned with relationships within the collected data, partially overlapping
analysis. Interpretation is the device through which the factors that seem to explain what has
been observed by researcher in the course of the study can be better understood and it also
provides a theoretical conception which can serve as a guide for further researches.
Interpretation is essential because of the following reasons:
• It is through interpretation that the researcher can well understand the abstract
principle that works beneath the findings.
• Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts that can serve
as a guide for future research studies. It opens new avenues of intellectual
adventure and stimulates the quest for more knowledge.
• Researcher can better appreciate only through interpretation why his findings
are what they are and can make others to understand the real significance of
his research findings.
• The interpretation of the findings of explanatory research studies often results
into hypothesis for experimental research and as such interpretation is
involved in the transition from exploratory to experimental research.
Technique of Interpretation involves the following Steps

• Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has
found and he must interpret the lines of relationships in terms of the
underlying processes and must try to find out the thread of uniformity that lies
under the surface layer of his diversified research findings.
• Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered
while interpreting the final results of research study, for it may prove to be a
key factor in understanding the problem under consideration.
• It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult someone
having insight into the study and who is frank and honest and will not hesitate
to point out omissions and errors in logical argumentation. Such a consultation
will result in correct interpretation and thus, will enhance the utility of
research results.
• Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering
all relevant factors affecting the problems to avoid false generalizations.
Precautions to be taken for correct Interpretation
• At the outset, researcher must invariably satisfy himself that (a) the data are
appropriate, trustworthy and adequate for drawing inferences; (b) the data
reflect good homogeneity; (c) proper analysis has been done through statistical
methods.
• The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in
the process of interpreting results. Errors can arise due to false generalization
and /or due to wrong interpretation of statistical measures such as the
application of findings beyond the range of observations, identification of
correlation with causation and the like.
• He must always keep in view that the task of interpretation is very much
intertwined with analysis and cannot be distinctly separated.
• He must never lose sight of the fact that his task is not only to make sensitive
observation of relevant occurrences, but also to identify and disengage the
factors that are initially hidden to the eye.
• The researcher must remember that “ideally in the course of a research study,
there should be constant interaction between initial hypothesis, empirical
observation and theoretical conceptions.
Chapter- 4
Report Writing/ Abstract/ Proposal/ Synopsis
Report Writing
Introduction
Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the research task
remains incomplete till the report has been presented and/or written.
The purpose of research is not well served unless the findings are made known to others.
Research results must invariably enter the general store of knowledge.
Even the most brilliant hypothesis, highly well designed and conducted research study and
the most striking generalizations and findings are of little value unless they are effectively
communicated to others.
Steps in Writing a Report

There are various steps in writing a research report. The researcher must follow the steps
listed below.
Logical analysis of the subject matter

It is the first step which is primarily concerned with the development of a subject. There are
two ways in which to develop a subject (a) logically and (b) chronologically. The logical
development is made on the basis of mental connections and associations between the one
thing and another by means of analysis. Logical treatment often consists in developing the
material from the simple possible to the most complex structures.
Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or occurrence. The

direction for doing or making something usually follows the chronological order.
Preparation of the Final Outline
It is the next step in writing the research report. “outlines are the framework upon which long
written works are constructed. They are an aid to the logical organization of the material and
a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report.
Preparation of the Rough Draft

This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the preparation of the final outline. Such a
step is of utmost importance for the researcher now sits to write down what he has done in the
context of his research study. He will write down the procedure adopted by him in collecting
the material for his study along with various limitations faced by him, the technique of
analysis adopted by him, the broad findings and generalizations and the various suggestions
he wants to offer regarding the problem concerned.
Rewriting and polishing of the Rough Draft

This step happens to be the most difficult part of all formal writing. The careful revision
makes the difference between a mediocre and a good piece of writing. While writing and
polishing one should check the report for weaknesses in logical development or presentation.
The researcher should also see whether or not the material, as it is presented, has unity and
cohesion and does the report stand upright and firm and exhibit a definite pattern. He should
check the mechanics of writing – grammar, spelling and usage.
Preparation of the Final Bibliography

The bibliography, which is generally appended to the research report, is a list of books in
some way pertinent to the research which has been done. It should contain all those works
which the researcher has consulted. The bibliography should be arranged alphabetically and
may be divided into two parts: the first part contains the names of the books and pamphlets
and the second part may contain the names of magazines and newspaper articles.
For Books
Name of the author, last name first
Title, underlined to indicate italics
Place, publisher and date of publishing
Number of volumes
For Magazines
Name of the author, last name first
Title of article, in quotation marks
Name of the periodical, underlined to indicate italics
The volume or volume and number
The date of the issue
The pagination
Writing the Final Draft

The final draft should be written in a concise and objective style and in simple language,
avoiding vague expressions such as “it seems”, “there may be” etc. While writing the final
draft, the researcher must avoid abstract terminology and technical jargon. A research must
not be dull, but must enthuse people and, maintain interest and must show originality. It must
be remembered that every report should be an attempt to solve some intellectual problem and
must contribute to the solution of a problem and must add to the knowledge of both
researcher and the reader.
Mechanics of Writing a Research Report
A report can be defined as a testimonial or account of some happening. It is purely based on

observation and analysis. A report gives an explanation of any circumstance. In today’s
corporate world, reports play a crucial role. They are a strong base for planning and control in
an organization, i.e., reports give information which can be utilized by the management team
in an organization for making plans and for solving complex issues in the organization.
A report is an official document that is written to serve the range of purpose in the
engineering and business disciplines; sciences and social sciences. Therefore, it needs to be
clear-cut and accurate. Good report writing calls for--- professionalism, profound knowledge
of the subject, attentiveness, and outstanding writing proficiency.
A report discusses a particular problem in detail. It brings significant and reliable information to the
limelight of top management in an organization. Hence, on the basis of such information, the
management can make strong decisions. Reports are required for judging the performances of various
departments in an organization.
Types of Report Writing
There are various types of Report Writing used by the researchers to present their findings.
Research Report Writing

To presents the tangible proof of the conducted research is the major intention of the
academic assignment. When writing on research report, you must ponder over clarity,
organization, and content. Research reports are all the more same to technical reports, lab
reports, formal reports and scientific papers which comprise a consistent format that will
facilitate you to put your information noticeably, making it crystal clear.
Business Report Writing

In business milieu, Business report writing happens to be an indispensable part of the
communication process. Executive summary is written in a non-technical manner. By and
large, audience for business reports will consist of upper level manager, for that reason you
should take the audience needs in consideration. Go on with the introduction to articulate the
problem and determine the scope of the research. To attain the desired results, don’t fail to
state about the precise quantitative tools.
Science Report Writing

Parallel to a business report, science report writing also corresponds with the line of
investigation. To report upon an empirical investigation, these reports make use of standard
scientific report format, portraying technique, fallout and conclusions. As an assignment in
undergraduate papers within the scientific disciplines, it is required frequently.
The main objective of the Science report is to highlight an aim, the technique which
enlightens how the project has been analyzed, the outcomes which present the findings and
the conclusion. This embraces advance research suggestions and your own biased opinion on
the topic which has been talked about.
When writing a science report, do not fail to remember to use heading and subheadings in
order to direct a reader through your work. In the form of tables and graphs, Statistical
evidence should be incorporated in appendices. Than refer to it in the body of your scientific
report.
Reports are a common form of writing because of the inclusion of recommendations which
are helpful in implementing the decision.
Steps in writing a report

• Determine the objective of the report, i.e., identify the problem.
• Collect the required material (facts) for the report.
• Study and examine the facts gathered.
• Plan the facts for the report.
• Prepare an outline for the report, i.e., draft the report.
• Edit the drafted report.
• Distribute the draft report to the advisory team and ask for feedback and
recommendations.
The Essentials of Good/Effective Report Writing

• Know your objective, i.e., be focused.
• Analyze the niche audience, i.e., make an analysis of the target audience, the purpose
for which audience requires the report, kind of data audience is looking for in the
report, the implications of report reading, etc.
• Decide the length of report.
• Disclose correct and true information in a report.
• Discuss all sides of the problem reasonably and impartially. Include all relevant facts
in a report.
• Concentrate on the report structure and matter. Pre-decide the report writing style.
Use vivid structure of sentences.
• The report should be neatly presented and should be carefully documented.
• Highlight and recap the main message in a report.
• Encourage feedback on the report from the critics. The feedback, if negative, might be
useful if properly supported with reasons by the critics. The report can be modified
based on such feedback.
• Use graphs, pie-charts, etc to show the numerical data records over years.
• Decide on the margins of a report. Ideally, the top and the side margins should be the
same (minimum 1 inch broad), but the lower/bottom margins can be one and a half
times as broad as others.
• Attempt to generate reader’s interest by making appropriate paragraphs, giving bold
headings for each paragraph, using bullets wherever required, etc.
SYNOPSIS
Introduction
It is important for the researcher to convince others that the research work is worth
undertaking. For this an interesting proposal is required. A researcher must write a synopsis
explaining the title of the research. The research proposal must include sufficient information
regarding the topic. The purpose of the research paper must be explained in the synopsis.
Research Proposal
A research proposal is a document written by the researcher that provides a detailed
description of the proposed program. It is basically the outline of the research which gives the
summary of the research work. A research proposal is written in future tense and has different
points of emphasis. A research proposal may include preliminary results. After reading the
research proposal, any governmental or non – profit organizations may express the desire to
fund the project. Therefore, the more authentic, simple and accurate the research proposal is,
the more chances of getting funds are there.
Synopsis
A synopsis is a brief summary of the major points of a written work, either as prose or as a
table; an abridgment or condensation of a work.
A research proposal is intended to convince others that the research project is worth
deliberation and that the researcher has the competence and the work-plan to complete it.
Generally, a research proposal should contain all the key elements involved in the research
process and include sufficient information for the readers to evaluate the proposed study.
Regardless of the research area and the methodology selected, all research proposals must
address the following questions: what does the researcher plan to accomplish, why there is
the need for research and how will it be carried out.
The proposal should have sufficient information to convince the readers that the research idea
is important, that the researcher possesses a good grasp of the relevant literature and the
major issues and that the research methodology adapted is sound.
The quality of the research proposal depends not only on the quality of the proposed project,
but also on the quality of proposal writing. A good research project may run the risk of
rejection simply because the proposal is poorly written. Therefore, it pays if the writing is
coherent, clear and compelling.
This lesson focuses on proposal writing rather than on the development of research ideas.
Title:
It should be concise and descriptive. For example, the phrase, "An investigation of . . ." could
be omitted. Often titles are stated in terms of a functional relationship, because such titles
clearly indicate the independent and dependent variables. However, if possible, think of an
informative but catchy title. An effective title not only pricks the reader's interest, but also
predisposes him/her favorably towards the proposal.
Abstract
It is a brief summary of approximately 300 words. It should include the research question, the
rationale for the study, the hypothesis (if any), the method and the main findings.
Descriptions of the method may include the design, procedures, the sample and any
instruments that will be used.
Introduction to Research
The main purpose of the introduction is to provide the necessary background or context for
the research problem. How to frame the research problem is perhaps the biggest problem in
proposal writing.
If the research problem is framed in the context of a general, rambling literature review, then
the research question may appear trivial and uninteresting. However, if the same question is
placed in the context of a very focused and current research area, its significance will become
evident.
Unfortunately, there are no hard and fast rules on how to frame the research question just as
there is no prescription on how to write an interesting and informative opening paragraph. A
lot depends on the creativity, ability to think clearly and the depth of understanding of
problem areas.
However, it is important to place the research question in the context of either a current "hot"
area, or an older area that remains viable. Secondly, the researcher needs to provide a brief
but appropriate historical backdrop. Thirdly, the researcher must provide the contemporary
context in which the proposed research question occupies the central stage. Finally, the
researcher must identify "key players" and refer to the most relevant and representative
publications. In short, the researcher must try to paint the research question in broad brushes
and at the same time bring out its significance.
The introduction typically begins with a general statement of the problem area, with a focus
on a specific research problem, to be followed by the rational or justification for the proposed
study. The introduction generally covers the following elements:
1. State the research problem, which is often referred to as the purpose of the
study.
2. Provide the context and set the stage for the research question in such a way as
to show its necessity and importance.
3. Present the rationale of the proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth
doing.
4. Briefly describe the major issues and sub-problems to be addressed by the
research.
5. Identify the key independent and dependent variables of the experiment.
Alternatively, specify the phenomenon you want to study.
6. State the hypothesis or theory, if any. For exploratory or phenomenological
research, there may not be any hypotheses. (Please do not confuse the
hypothesis with the statistical null hypothesis.)
7. Set the delimitation or boundaries of the proposed research in order to provide
a clear focus.
8. Provide definitions of key concepts. (This is optional.)
Literature Review
Sometimes the literature review is incorporated into the introduction section. However, most
academicians prefer a separate section, which allows a more thorough review of the
literature.
The literature review serves several important functions:
1. Ensures that you are not "reinventing the wheel".
2. Gives credits to those who have laid the groundwork for your research.
3. Demonstrates your knowledge of the research problem.
4. Demonstrates your understanding of the theoretical and research issues related
to your research question.
5. Shows your ability to critically evaluate relevant literature information.
6. Indicates your ability to integrate and synthesize the existing literature.
7. Provides new theoretical insights or develops a new model as the conceptual
framework for your research.
8. Convinces your reader that your proposed research will make a significant and
substantial contribution to the literature (i.e., resolving an important theoretical
issue or filling a major gap in the literature).

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MEDIA RESEARCH

Points to be remembered by the Editor

Classification can be one of the following two types:

Classification according to Attributes

Classification according to Class – intervals

Sample of a Coded and Classified Questionnaire

Age (Variable): ____________ Sex: M / F

Carefully read the following questions and mark the answers.

If Yes, then how?

• Tabulation is essential because of the following reasons:

S. No Age Statistical Numerical

2. 26-50 |||| |||| |||| 14 2

Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, Median and Mode

Role of Statistics in Research

Given a set of n elements from a1 to an

This can be generalized by the formula below:

Analysis and Interpretation of Data

This sort of analysis may be in respect of one variable (uni-dimensional analysis), or in

Technique of Interpretation involves the following Steps

Report Writing/ Abstract/ Proposal/ Synopsis

Steps in Writing a Report

Logical analysis of the subject matter

Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or occurrence. The

Preparation of the Rough Draft

Rewriting and polishing of the Rough Draft

Preparation of the Final Bibliography

Writing the Final Draft

Mechanics of Writing a Research Report

A report can be defined as a testimonial or account of some happening. It is purely based on

Research Report Writing

Business Report Writing

Science Report Writing

Steps in writing a report

The Essentials of Good/Effective Report Writing

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