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Highway Pesign Manual: Book 1 of Design of Roadways
Highway Pesign Manual: Book 1 of Design of Roadways
Ministry Of Communications
· ,
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Volume 2
Book 1 of 2
Design of Roadways
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This is the second of four volumes
Ministry of Communications
Glossary 1
A. Selection 75
1. Speed 75
2. Running Speed 75
3. Design Speed 75
~'-
R Multilane Rural Highways
80
C. Two-Lane Highways 84
D. Expressways 89
A. General 119
1. Expressways 119
1. General 133
B. Superelevation 138
iii
Page
4. Superelevation Development 139
6. Passing 147
1. General 148
2. Application 148
•
3. Position with Respect to Cross Section 149
1. General 152
1. Function 153
2. Location 153
4. Tenninals 153
1. General 154
154 (
4. Auxiliary Lane Transitions 154
1. General 157
2. Clearances 157
b. Heliports 157
1. Width 161
1. Sidewalks 161
1. General 162 (
iv
Page
2. Types and Uses 162
(
3. Position of Curbs 163
A.
Travel Lane Standards 165
1. Widths 165
B.
Auxiliary Lane Standards 166
1. General 166
2. Widths 167
E. Sideslopes 168
169
~
F. Median Standards
..
1. General 169
A. General 175
't
7. Channelization
8. Superelevation
9. Bus Bays
191
193
193
1. Introduction 207
2. Warrants 207
1. General 207
2. Spacing 207
I. General 207
C 2. Preliminary Design
3. Determination of Preferred Plan
213
213
v
Page
E. Design Standards 213
1. General
2. Design Speed (Ramps)
213
213 (
A. General 223
•
6. Pavement Structure Selection 234
1. Introduction 237
b. Headwater 238
c. Tailwater 238
6. Protection 251
b. Buoyancy 251
7. Sedimentation 252
C. Open Channels
1. Introduction
2. Criteria
252
252
252
(
a. Roadside and Median Ditches 252
1. General 257
1. General 270
2. Design Criteria
3. Irish Crossings
271
271
(
vi
Page
4. Vented Irish Crossings 271
271
1. General 303
c. Runoff 303
303
303
Book 2
A. General 307
B. Warrants 307
:( 1. Lighting
2. Applications
307
307
1. Highways 307
e. Tunnels 309
f. Underpasses 310
g. Bridges 310
1. Lamps 310
2. Luminaires 311
vii
Page
Section 1.12 Traffic Control Plans 313
A. General
B. Development of TCP
313
313 (
C. Contents of the TCP 313
A. General 315
1. General 315
2. Development 316
3. Content 316
b. Detours 316
•
d. Standard Drawings 316
1. General 319
4. Interchanges 319
a. General 320
a. General 324
7. Landscaping 325
325
a. General
b. Plant Selection
8. Landscape Plans and Working Drawings
325
325
(
B. Noise Control 326
1. General 326
2. Definitions 326
9. Adjustment 331
1. General 331
viii
Page
a. Inertial Resistance 332
b. Alignment 334
c. Width 334
d. Gradient 334
8. Signing 336
9. Delineation 336
337
337
338
338
339
a. Roadside 342
b. Median 343
a. Types 345
( e. Placement
2. Median Barrier
353
354
A. General 361
1. Suspension 362
2. Saltation 362
3. Creep 363
C. Location 363
IX
Page
Dune Destruction 367
•
F.
Section 1.17 Tunnel Design 369
A. Introduction 369
b. Geology 370
d. Climate 370
4. Portals 372
a. Size 372
b. Approaches 372
•
c. Drainage/Support 372
a. Utilities 372
6. Objectives 372
1. Investigation 373
2. Stability 374
4. Objectives 374
a. Location 376
b. Geometry 376
c. Engineering 377
a. Geometry 378
b. Engineering 378
3. Portals 378
•
a. Portal Structures 378
b. Support 381
c. Loads 381
5. Drainage 382
6. Finishes 382
8. Ventilation 383
c. Environmental 383
9. Lighting 384
e:
x
Part 2-Right-Of-Way and Utilities 385
A. General 385
B. Policy 385
C. Surveys 385
D. Plans 385
E. Descriptions 386
F. Monumentation 386
A. General 387
t
v
389
389
B. Definitions 389
1. Plans 389
3. Specifications 389
7. Estimate 389
C. Background 389
{ A. General
B. Standard Drawings
391
391
A. General 395
I. Description 395
2. Materials 395
Page
A. Introduction 403
B. Method 403
I. Earthwork 403
A. Introduction 411
415
415
415
415
415
•
E. Packaging 416
(.
XII
List of Figures Page
-.
,/
.
1.03.1 Measurement of Available Passing Opportunity 88
1.03.2 Nomograph for Expressway Levels of Service, Service Volumes, and Capacity
Average Highway Speed-l20 km/h 90
1.03.3 Nomograph for Expressway Levels of Service, Service Volumes and Capacity
Average Highway Speed-II 0 km/h 92
1.03.4 Nomograph for Expressway Levels of Service, Service Volumes, and Capacity
Average Highway Speed-100 km/h 94
1.03.5 Nomograph for Expressway Levels of Service, Service Volumes, and Capacity
Average Highway Speed-90 km/h 96
1.03.6 Nomograph for Expressway Levels of Service, Service Volumes, and Capacity
Average Highway Speed-80 km/h 98
1.03.7 Examples of Typical Weaving Sections 101
1.03.8 Design Chart for Weaving Sections 102
1.03.9 Design Capacity of Signalized Intersections Two-Way Facilities-Average
Conditions 110
1.03.10 Design Capacity of Signalized Intersections of One-Way Street-Average
Conditions III
1.03.11 Design Capacity of Signalized Intersections Rural Two-Way Highway-
No Parking 112
•
1.03.12 Design Capacity of Signalized Intersections-Local Bus Factor for Use in
Conjunction with Figures 103.9 and 103.10 113
1.03.13 Design Capacity of Signalized Intersections-Separate Right- and Left-Turn
Lanes-No Separate Signal Indication for Turning Movement 114
1.03.14 Design Capacity of Signalized Intersections Separate Right- and Left-Turn
Lanes-With Separate Signal Indication for Turning Movements liS
1.03.15 Typical Intersection Capacity Form 116
1.03.16 Intersection with Widened Approaches-Length Requirements 117
1.04.1 Standard Symbols 122
1.04.2 Typical Examples of Access Openings 123
1.04.3 Access Control of Expressway on Location of Existing Road (Existing Highway
Converted to a One-Way Frontage Road and New Frontage Road Added) 124
1.04.4 Access Control of Expressway on Location of Existing Road (Existing Parallel
Highway Converted to a Two-Way Frontage Road) 125
1.04.5 Access Control of Expressway on New Location (Frontage Road Connection
to Land Remainder) 126
1.04.6 Access Control of Expressway on New Location (Frontage Road Connection
to Local Road) 127
1.04.7 Access Control of Expressway on New Location (Intermittent Frontage Roads
to Connect Intercepted Cross Streets) 128
( 1.04.8 Access of Control Expressway Passes (Expressway Severs Property Resulting in
Land Remainders on Each Side of Highway) 129
1.04.9 Typical Example of a Locked Gate in a Remote Area 130
1.04.10 Typical Examples of Access Control at Interchanges 131
1.04.11 Typical Examples of Access Control at Intersections 132
1.05.1 Horizontal Clearance for Stopping Sight Distance 136
1.05.2 Horizontal Clearance for Passing Sight Distance 137
1.05.3 Development of Superelevation 141
1.05.4 Design Superelevation Rates (eMax. = 0.06) 142
1.05.5 Design Superelevation Rates (eMax. = 0.08) 143
1.05.6 Design Superelevation Rates (eMax. = 0.10) 144
1.05.7 Design Superelevation Rates (eMax. = 0.12) 145
1.05.8 Superelevation of Paved Shoulders 146
1.05.9 Circular Curve Elements 147
1.05.10 Transition and Circular Curve Elements 147
1.05.11 Symmetrical Vertical Curves lSI
1.05.12 Truck Operation on Ascending and Descending Grades lSI
1.05.13 Design of Climbing Lanes 152
1.05.14 Typical Two- to Four-Lane Transition ISS
1.05.15 Typical Auxiliary Lane Transitions 156
\ 1.05.16 Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements, Civil Airports 158
Xlll
Page
1.05.17 Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements, Heliports 160
161
1.05.18
1.06.1
Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements, Military Airports
Rural Two-Lane Cross Section; Urban Two-Lane, Noncurbed Cross Section 171 (
1.06.3 Rural Multilane Cross Section; Urban Multilane Noncurbed Cross Section
(Half Section) 172
1.06.4 Urban Multilane Curbed Cross Section; Urban Arterial and Collector
(Half Section) 172
186
187
189
189
190
•
1.07.17 Left-Turn Lane and Turning Lane on Two-Lane Highway 190
1.07.18 Left-Turn Lane and Turn Lane at Two-Lane "T" Intersection 191
208
1.08.6 Directional Interchange with Right Hand Exits and Entrances 212
1.08.7 Directional Interchange with Right Hand Exits and Entrances 212
223
Page
1.09.3 Eight-Ton, Single-Axle Load Equivalency (EAL) Factors 226
1.09.4 Asphalt Concrete Base Course Thickness Requirements for Expressways 229
( 1.09.5 Asphalt Concrete Base Course Thickness Requirements for Roads Other
Than Expressways 230
1.09.6 Crushed Aggregate Base Requirements for Expressways 231
1.09.7 Crushed Aggregate Base Requirements for Roads Other Than Expressways 231
1.09.8 Cover Requirements 232
1.09.9 Design and Pavement Structure Selection 235
1.10.1 Inlet Control 238
1.10.2 Outlet Control 239
1.10.3 Hydraulic Performance Curves (1.0 m x 1.0 m Box Culvert with 35 G
Wingwalls) 239
1.10.4A Headwater Computation Form 240
1.10.4B Headwater Computation Form-Example 241
1.10.5 Headwater Depth for Box Culverts with Inlet Control 243
1.10.6 Headwater Depth for Inlet Control (Rectangular Box Culverts WOG Headwall) 244
1.10.7 Headwater Depth for Concrete Pipe Culverts with Inlet Control 245
1.10.8 Headwater Depth for Circular Pipe Culverts with Beveled Ring Inlet Control 246
1.10.9 Head for Concrete Box Culverts Flowing Full, "n"'= 0.012 247
1.10.10 Head for Concrete Pipe Culverts Flowing Full, "n" = 0.012 248
1.10.11 Critical Depth Rectangular Section 249
~ 1.10.12
1.10.13
Critical Depth Circular Pipe
Specific Energy Diagram
250
254
1.10.14 Hydraulic Subdivision of Flood Plain 255
1.10.15 Stage-Discharge Curve 256
1.10.16 Flow Distribution Diagram 257
1.10.17 Normal Crossings: Spill-Through Abutments 261
1.10.18 Backwater Coefficient Base Curves (Subcritical Flow) 262
1.10.19 Incremental Backwater Coefficient for Piers 263
1.10.20 Incremental Backwater Coefficient for Eccentricity 264
1.10.21 Incremental Backwater Coefficient for Skew 265
1.10.22 Aid for Estimating a: 1 266
1.10.23 Distance to Maximum Backwater 266
1.10.24 Common Pier Shapes 267
1.10.25 Spur Dike Length 268
1.10.26 Plan and Cross Section of Spur Dike 269
1.10.27 Irish Crossing 271
1.10.28 Vented Irish Crossing 271
1.10.29 Maximum Permissible Depth of Flow (d max) for Unlined Channels 273
1.10.30 Flow Velocity for Unlined Channels 274
f' 1.10.31
1.10.32
1.10.33
Maximum Permissible Depth of Flow for Channels Lined with Rock Riprap
Flow Velocity for Channels Lined with Rock Riprap
Drainage Channel Lining Design Form
275
276
277
1.10.34 Capacity of Trapezoidal Channel 279
1.10.35 Dimensionless Scour Hole Geometry for Minimum Tailwater 280
1.10.36 Dimensionless Scour Hole Geometry for Maximum Tailwater 281
1.10.37 Design Values for Roughness Element Dissipators 285
1.10.38 Average Velocity for Abrupt Expansion Below Rectangular Outlet 286
1.10.39 Average Velocity for Abrupt Expansion Below Circular Outlet 287
'1.10.40 Average Depth for Abrupt Expansion Below Rectangular Culvert Outlet 288
1.10.41 Average Depth for Abrupt Expansion Below Circular Culvert Outlet 289
1.10.42 Energy and Momentum Coefficients 290
1.10.43 Rigid Boundary Basin 290
1.10.44 SAF Stilling Basin 293
1.10.45 Definition Sketch Basin Transition 294
1.10.46 F r vs. Yo/r for Transition 294
1.10.47 Example Problem Sketch 295
1.10.48 Baffle Wall Energy Dissipator 297
1.10.49 Design Curve-Baffle Wall Dissipator 298
I 1.10.50 Energy Loss, Impact Basin, Hydraulic Jump 299
'"
Page
1.10.51 Relative Depth of Scour Hole Versus Froude Number at Brink of Culvert
•
.. '5.4 Safe Ditch Cross Section 341
XVI
Page
3.04.1 Engineer's Estimate for Proposed Construction 398
List of Tables
1.02.1 Relation Between Design Speed and Average Running Speed 75
~ 1.03.4 Levels of Service and Maximum Service Volumes for Multilane Highways,
Undivided and/or Without Access Control, Under Uninterrupted Flow
Uninterrupted Flow 83
Uninterrupted Flow 83
1.03.8 Levels of Service and Maximum Service Volumes for Two-Lane Highways,
Operation) 85
Flow 88
1.03.16 Adjustment Factors for Right Turns on Two-Way Streets i , Right Turns 106
1.05.4 Sag Vertical Curve "K" Values for Stopping Sight Distance 135
\ 1.05.8
1.05.9
Superelevation Runoff Slopes
Transition Curve Requirements
139
147
XVII
Page
1.05.10 Traveled Way Widening for Horizontal Curves 148
1.05.11
1.05.12
Maximum Percent of Gradients
Minimum Percent of Gradients for All Design Classes
149
149 ('"
1.06.1 Shoulder Widths (m) 167
1.06.2 Desirable and Maximum Slopes 169
1.07.1 Minimum Stopping Sight Distance for Channelized Right-Turn Roadway 183
1.07.2 Minimum Taper Length 188
1.07.3 Widths of Channelized Right-Turn Roadways 192
1.07.4 Design Values for Rate of Change of Cross Slope for Turning Roadways 193
1.07.5 Maximum Algebraic Difference in Pavement Cross Slope at Turning
Roadway Terminals 193
1.07.6 Required Sight Distance for Rural Unsignalized Railway Crossings 205
1.08.1 Values for Ramp Design Speed as Related to Highway Design Speed 213
1.08.2 Stopping Sight Distance for Turning Roadways 214
1.08.3 Minimum Acceleration Lengths for Entrance Terminals with Flat Grades
of 2 Percent or Less 215
1.08.4 Ratio of Length of Speed-Change Lanes on Grade to Length on Flat
Acceleration or Deceleration Lanes 216
1.08.5 Minimum Deceleration Lengths for Exit Terminals with Flat Grades of
2 Percent or Less 217
?8.6
1.08.7
1.08.8
1.09.1
1.09.2
Design Rate of Change in Pavement-Edge Elevation for Curves at
Intersections
Maximum Algebraic Difference in Pavement Cross Slope
Design Widths for Ramp Pavements
ADT (20) Growth Factors
Percentage of Total Truck Traffic in Design Lane
220
220
221
224
224
•
1.09.3 Typical· Truck Class and Weight Distributions 227
1.09.4 Pavement Material Equivalencies 233
1.10.1 Entrance Loss Coefficients, Outlet Control, Full or Partly Full 251
1.10.2 Reduction in Scour Depths for Equal Projected Widths of Pier 267
1.10.3 Multiplying Factors for Scour Depths with Skewed Flow Direction 267
1.10.4 Minimum DID for Rock Riprap Slope Protection (Side Slope 2: 1) in
Meters 270
1.10.5 Minimum DID for Rock Riprap Slope Protection (Side Slope 3:1) in
Meters 270
1.10.6 Natural Channel Scour Estimate 282
1.10.7 Baffle Wall Dissipator 300
1.11.1 Recommendations for Average Maintained Horizontal Illuminance and
Uniformities of Illuminance 308
14.1 Design Noise LevellActivity Relationships 328
....14.2
1.14.3
Noise Reduction Factors
Decibel Addition Table
328
331
(
1.14.4 Adjustment for Increased Noise Level of Heavy Trucks 331
1.14.5 Rolling Resistance of Roadway Surfacing Materials 333
1.14.6 Gradations 336
1.15.1 Nontraversible Hazards 339
1.15.2 Fixed Object Hazards 339
1.15.3 Roadside Barriers 345
1.15.4 Design Parameters for Roadside Barrier Layout 346
1.15.5 Types of Median Barriers for Median Widths Between 5 m and 9 m 354
1.17.1 Geotechnical 371
1.17.2 Geometry 372
1.17.3 Ventilation 384
2.01.1 Right-of-Way Widths (Meters) 385
List of Exhibits
1.12.1 Typical Plan of Traffic Control Devices for Collector and Local Roads 437
1.12.2 Typical Plan for Traffic Control Devices at an Intersection 438
1.12.3 Sheet 1/3: Typical Plan of Traffic Control Devices for Expressways
and Arterials 439
(
XV111
Page
Sheet 2/3: Summary of Quantities 440
(
Sheet 3/3: Typical Layout of Special Signs
1.12.4 Sheet 1/2: Traffic Signal Plan and Sequence of Operation
441
442
\\
GLOSSARY
l
-A
AADT (Average Annual Daily Traffic) .)-,..r..J 'S~ ~."..:.-J1 .h-.."..:....J I) AADT
- The total yearly traffic volume .)-,~I ' 'oS? f'!"> ~~I - ( .........,.,.....JI
di vided by the number of days in .·~I r'--:,.1 ...I~ ~ La.>--'-o ·o..,..~1
the year.
Abney Level - A hand-held surveying ...I.".JI ~ J-.,..:....:. c-" ·ol...lf - c---JI 'I~
instrument or clinometer, having an j.!,La 'o..,..,j.) b -'~ .)1 ~I ..,...t...".....i..o -,f
adjustable inclined line of sight. •J-.....I...A:...lJ J..,. L.j
Abney Level Line or Flag Line - An t5~ - ...... I...,r-JI Ju. -,I r:L-....J1 .,~ Ju.
inclined line run in the field with ~ '01..>-" 4..,- c-i.".....,..J1 ~ j.!.La b
~
an Abney Level to explore the pos ~..,b c-i,.,.....J L.Jl...ri..".::. J . . ". '>, 0 11 ~ w-yl.::...J I
sible grades available for a high '6...:._(~.o .•.)~ ·o...lU .b.>.J1 ~-' • ru
way location. Usually, the line is ...I L..:. -,9 I ~ cl"...::.-Jl,.J I 0-" .b.!. I .b...,-...>-:' r
marked temporarily by tying plas .)~ L.:..Jt, 0-"-' ~ I ~ I -' .) ~ 9, -'
tic ribbons to stakes, trees, and • "·o..,..1...,r-J' ,b." r 16". 11
bushes, hence, the term "f lag
line."
ties.
Admixture (Additive) - A substance .b.."..J;.. u-J I J w..::, <i ...l L... - (U W;l') .bJ>..J I
added to a mixture to impart a spe I.?~l ..:...."...J-,..:r.--J 1 J,...::..... ~ ~L.;. ~
cific characteristic, such as poz
zolith in concrete, antistripping
J..ol..".......Jl-,
15 w.Jl ~,
~I
~
~;ll
·.".11
u-Jl JL..D..".
<i...l~1 (
agents in bituminous mixes, calcium ~.)~ -'~ r-'.: °'51\.) ..1..,,-.)~ ULD1-,
chloride or sodium chloride to • ..Jj..b.J I u-J , r -,"",...l..,...,.J 1
clay, etc.
ADT (XX) (Average Daily Traffic) .)-'~ I <is? .h-.."..::..-. - ( XX) ADT
The current or projected average -,' ~L>-J' .h-.."..::..-..JI - ( ~.."..,.,.JI
two-way daily traffic for the year JlS ~ ·~.."..,.,.JI .)-,~1 <iS~ ~.."..::..-..JI
14XX used to define the traffic for 'oS? ..1..,,-~ ( 'f XX) ii...:..-..lJ ~L~ ...~:81
that year in the Hegira Calendar. 'I.??~t i"'~L,- rw.J1 I ~~ .)-,~I
0-" ""':'.)~'
..::.-l-....--..
ch-
'" :.T'
c l ...
II)
"S 1\
...T"'!~ -
Y
- L L......r-
."
J,...::.....
cl-....--"
'" :.r'
LL".~I
u.b.Jl c L,-...".-,..,..::...JI-,
I.?~' ...T"'!,.,.....:..J'
•
tographing of the earth's surface ...T"'!~ c;ll rl...l.>...::...-L,- <i...lu ~ ~I
from the air, usually, with special • '~L.;.
cameras.
.:.r'
to do primarily with the highway as ~ L..b.\ \!.U~ ~ l.A..,. ~ I ..y"-'
J5S r w.J I
a whole and the roadsides, includ ." '.: ...... 1\ ~ y:.L......J1
ing screening out unpleasant views.
.s..::...::.-I~
(
sition, used either alone or in
~
~Jl;:.
-' '··U...l.>-' r '..r:U
-j~..::...:.....-l· .< .. 1
. ...l.JL.o .
loT'.
I.;"" .
.)~ c--- U~ ~
combination with a binding medium • ...r'?--' .b)l....-' l5..) u -'
to form bituminous and portland
cement concrete, mortar, plaster,
etc.
.... .)
mm (No.4) sieve. •(f
passing the 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) sieve ~-' ( 4...,,~ riA) -,-'''.: II. ~.)o JL,-~
and almost entirely passing the .) 00 .00 I I. f.)Yo JL,-~ 0-" r.....".",..ri=- y.s
4.75 mm. (No.4) sieve, and predom • .).yo JL,-~ ~ ~-' (f ,...:;.»)
(
2
Air-Dry Material - Materials dried ",)1..>-" - ~1-,y-lL,. .. i i:- • II ",)I..,......JI
by a natural method such as expo ...,o~1 ~ .•~ 'o..:i.".~ .~
sure under ambient atmospheric con 'o..:i.".~ -,1 ~
( ditions or by an artificial method . yJJ ...,0~ 1
·.6 ....... II .......y>---l, "';-,.}UJ
~ G...::. .•~ L...:.b,..,1
mosphere.
• ~ 10 " n
J)l;.
...,.....L..:...:.....II
......."
v-" . ..,r--'I
..>~,
L.lb~L:.
natural processes. 'For dry granu L. ..,r---
·"'I t I'~
y .•...........:..JL..
. . .'.~
.....
lar soils the effect of the height . .~r-J I t u::...> 1 ..."...:.1 ~ 'u L:---J I
of slope is negligible; for cohe ·•.5.-~1 ·.-!r-JI c.1-,..:..~ ~L,.
sive soils, the effect of height of ~ ..>~I tLi.::...>' ..."...:.1 0~
slope is so great that the angle of ~ L....::..JI ....".-' l,j-l 0~ 'li ~ ....". LiJ.J
repose is meaningless. .~ ~t
I Approach Lights - Low beam head ..::-1 ~6...i.:.L..5 "."...1 ,,:,,1,..t-:...i'11 -I."...'
\.
lights. '~c.~
3
Approach Nose - An end of an is <i...ih...:.....)' (,~y. o..".Ly-;- - '";-'1~~1 r..l..i...
land~ or neutral area between road r..l LU1 ...).)..,.,.....JI ~,."..::- "'? ~ ·o-l..,,-L>....
ways~ which faces approaching traf ~ ~4- ~ ~ '?~I
fic that passes either on one or
.), .1>1.)
.~4-..J'
(
both sides.
e::::-...)~
(See Plane Coordinate System.)
,)~ ~ ~I .),
..r
-
J_i.J
A......:.~ 4.."...;...)' .)~ ~.)~
'0...) L..,.s
~l .),
4.>-h-.) ~~ I
JL.~I
~, ~,
0-"
Lh-.AJ I
~
...r
'-..1 •
loose sand or gravel~ in which the ~ ~..r- lbL..,...::....:..) c.I...)L.".........J1 ~
vehicle becomes mired and slowed to • ("O......--~l.>..J,
"'. ,~..IL.L:.
'? ~
~,
.. e::::-...)
') ~
a stop. (See also Gravity Escape
Ramp) •
\.
4
Asphalt Cement - A fluxed or un ~ ..J 1 .J..J-t-"'-" ..::.....L..... \ - ~ 1 e.-:....o..-I
fluxed asphalt especially prepared ('I y-iJ1..J ~I ..:;....o..J ~ .~ .J..J-Y-O-O
as to quality and consistency for ~ L··.
, c...i.:>J-'' 1 _~
0 J·L.......Jl .J l...1>...::..-)lJ
,( direct use in bituminous pavements t
~..J
~ Lo '6..".~
-,
'o..:,..J"') r0 ~ o....,...r.::- •.>.J...)
and having a penetration at 25 0 C ..,......> .• ..l..a.....l ('I"p'- , •• ~ ~ i" ..J 0
of between 5 and 300 under a load '01~
of 100 g applied for 5 s.
Asphalt Material - See Bituminous .• ...) L...o..J, ~l.J .. ft' ft. I i I '0...) Lo
Material. • b.."..J LiJI
Auxiliary Lane - The portion of the ~ ~...,.h-U \.f?jL>...o ' k - o..,....;U>1 ·0.Jl.>
roadway adjoining the traveled way . :;.. L..,.,r '•.s.or .• . .) L.".')..J 0 ' .J..J..w I ,-""I ~ ~
for weaving t truck climbing t speed LS?t ,-"",~9 ..Jf ..:;..u..r--!' ~..J Jl:.J1
change t or for other purposes sup .J..J~ I .s
• ~ .~ L.." 'o..."J L.O I
plementary to through traffic move . ~'..,.hJ1
ment.
Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) .J..J.,,-.JI • .s~ \.f?~1 .h.-~I (AADT)
- The total yearly traffic volume \.f?.."...:.-J \ ~ Lo.> 'J , ~I - ..........,......J I
divided by the number of days in ('~t ...)...).s. ~ Lo~ .J..J~, • .s~
the year. • o...:....Jl
5
Average Initial Horizontal Illum y~1 '4.."...i.J~1 6-W':l1 .h-..,.=...o
inance - The average level of hori 4.."...U ~ 1 6 'WJlJ .h..y..o..J' l5~ 1
zontal illuminance on the pavement ~ ~?.JI
area of a traveled way at the time
the lighting system is installed,
0-'~ w.~-,
0-'"
• 6'W'l1
·uy...,......Jl
r~
6J.b·,. IL"
~r (
L... Li.c .~ C""""" L.:>.,....J \ -' 6 ~ ~ ..:;" L.,......J.J I
when lamps are new and luminaires ..:;,,1 -h-, ").ll J.,)w...:. 6 'WI 6-h-,) ~L"
are clean; expressed in lux (lumens
-,' c-...,......Jl ~\ 0 6'W'l1 <.rL..,,-i
per square meter or horizontal
surface) • '(0~1 ~I
•
6.h..i..:, ',:.P.
ified point.
l\Xle Load - The total load trans <u~1 ~~, - ....Iy--..o-ll Ll,.,.....,..
mi t ted by all wheels on a single ..l..rL ....1.»-".- ~ ..:;"JL.-.,..J \ J.S..,. <u~ \
axle extending across the full
....1-' L.>...c.J 1 ~-' • W...,......JI d>..r'-:' ~
width of the vehicle. Tandem axles ....II ~ ~ 0-" ~ ~I y.,)Ir.JI
1 m or less apart shall be consid
• ..l~ ....I~ J..-O' -,' ~
ered as a single axle.
survey line.
• 0-c.'-"-" r:-" .b.>
-B-
(
Backslope - In cuts, the slope from ."bJ-J I
,":;" U ~ ~1 ....I I ..\:>-:. ':l I
the bottom of the ditch to the top
of the cut.
~, ~\ ';'~1 eU 0-'" ....I~I
.~I
(
6
Ballast - (1) Gravel, broken stone, ';'...> 4->-.) ~ (\) - d-:-,..,h-JI J...,..r! ~
granular materials, etc., llsed to ';'..)L..",j-J ('...b...:.'-::' ';'~ ..)1.>-".) .~
(
provide added stability. (2) A .,..)1 (r) .~,..,h-Jl ~ ...>I~~I
device used with an electric dis (,?!.L..,....>+> ~...>..J.:.:. L~ t-'" ('..)~
charge lamp to obtain the neces ·;,-"...:,t.....,.....>;-S.JI ';'r'~' 'U~ ·u~
sary circuit conditions (voltage, '~jJU' ( •..,.~~,.) ..::...Jyi-Jl.) ...>L...".-:.:....I)
current, and waveform) for starting • L~I ~.) • ...>'..)~
and operating the lamp.
Bareroot Plant transplanted with 0.) ..)..,. C.)...>.:Y' c L..,...;. U~I ...>.)~I
no soil on the roots. ....>.)~l ~ 'i>..,..,r
Base Course The layer, or layers, ...) L.. 0-0 c ~ .) 1 'u..,..b - v--'- ~ 1 'u.,..b
~
of specified or selected material • ..)..\.:lo...o u~ ,;;.,1 ~ ';' Li.::...:...o .)1 .o.-:....."....su>
of designed thickness placed on a "--4b.) •.: ..,...... )I ..,...L.- ~ \ .oJ....,..b ~ ~..,.::
subbase or a subgrade to support a • cb....J\ .~ ('-"..LJ ';'~ Li.J\
surface course.
Basic Capacity - The maximum number cL.~ ~~\ ..)..u.J1 - 6.."..-'-~1 'ULb..J1
of passenger cars that can pass a '.>-b-i..:., 0-0 ~ 01 ~ ~, ,-:,.).$..r!'
given point on a lane or roadway ';'~L.- J~ ~/> .)1 ';'...>~" ~ ';'~
during 1 hour under the most nearly L<l.~..,.::- ~ 0.)..):0 ~1 Jb ~ .• ...l..>,.)
ideal roadway and traffic condi • ...>.)..".......J';,.$~.) ~.."h.LJ
Beacon - A type of traffic control C \ .,.,..:. 1 0-0 C.,.,..:. -.. -6 i - . ~ ~ ';'...> 1..:.1
signal, generally used with an ap .~~ ·;'..)u ('~ ...>.)..".......JI ~ cl...>L:.I
propriate sign, in which the red or .)1 '1 ~I cL.-..u.J1 L~ 'L..D..:;.~)L,
yellow lens or lenses are alter J~ ·o..J..)~ .•...>~ Lib..::..) "~l
nately illuminated and darkened at •.•..."....:.,L:. Js ~~;'y
a rate of about once per second.
• ~~,
..;:.., ~ ';'~
Ly-:,L..S.... ~ ~
- 4_, ,,_, .. 611
..)1 ...L:....ol.)
·o..P--J1
';'~.$
location.
Berm - (1) A raised and elongated 15~ '-""...>~' 0-0 'i>.>.L.-...o (\) - Ul..>...J1
area of earth intended to direct 6L........JI
..
... 0..).;;. 6...J..>.
u-
". I L<l...L~
... :"r-- .. .)
L i
" ..
I,,",
the flow of water, screen headlight ·;'..)u~ .)1 ·.......... L..~I ...>1.,.,..:.~1 ~.) •...>..).)
(r) ·;'.L
~..,.::-
11
~..r--- ~ ~jJ • ~
to provide lateral support for the .~...>h..J..J ';'~4 ·~U..) ~..,.::-..J
roadway.
Binder - Material used to stabilize -,' , " .. I ('~ 6JLo - ~L.. 6JL..
or bind together loose soil or JI~I -,' 6-'y-.".J' o...,,~1 .h..,...J
aggregates. .4.".....oLS.".J1
Binder Course - A plant mix of 0-" ~~ ..b..".....J.; - ~L.. 6JL.. u-- u...,.b
graded aggregate and bituminous ~ e!>Y ..J U-!I 6 J Lo-' '4.>..J.l.:..A c.. Lo.51 y
material placed between the base 0-" c~, ch-JI .u....,.b-' '.i~ U-li ~
course and a bituminous surface '..JU-l1
course.
•
Bituminous Concrete - A combination ..::- Lo.5 \ Y 0-" ..b..".....J.; - .......J U-l I 6...:.. L-..;-i-J I
Bituminous Pavement A pavement ..J~ 0-" ;-,..5..::.....". J..o..J ..J U-l L..,. ..u.".J'
composed of crushed rock or other L5~'
...r6.···.'
' ~I
.. ~
.. J'>-,,-, '.i~
aggregate cemented together with • ..JU-ll r"'
bitumen.
Bituminous Surface Treatment - The '.1 J Lo e!>-' - ..J Li...J L..,. ch-J1 ~ w....
application of liquified bituminous ch- ~ 4.".....oLS..J 6JL.-, Ll~L.. ~..JU
material and aggregate to an ex
ing road surface.
• J Y >-" &:.? (.
Bond (Tack Coat) - The application ..JU ('I~\ ( ~j-LI , u.,.h.J I) .h..,..".Jl
of a liquid bitumen to cause a new ch--JL.,. 6..)..,,-~ ~ u...,.b ~ J-:, L....
surface to adhere to an existing .Jy~1 ...,....J..:,...JI
hard surface.
8
Brake Reaction Distance - The dis 'oj l.......a..J, ~ - ~ 1.ri.U J.,..iJ1 .)-' U L-..o
tance traversed by the vehicle from .• ..)JbL:....., '6.h.:>-J ~ ·W..ro--l' ~ ~ \
( the instant the driver sights an '6.hJ ~ JJ,.,..::.-JI I.:r"'~ '~ J-!.L.-Jl
object necessitating a stop to the .: ~ , .,ri-J 1 .. ~ .h...R.AJ 1
instant the brakes are applied.
Branch Connection - A multilane c,.' -' L.:>-J' .• .)..L<L:....o .....J...:,-' - ~ ..;.i u...-'
connection between two expressways '~..r' ~? L.r.:'-:'
(motorways).
Breakaway (Yielding) Supports - A .•.)~.su 4...0 U.) - J L..:U.;.)I.J LL,. L.i ..:;.. L. ~ .)
support for a roadside device that -' t 1. ...
-'~~..r--
.. . I... II ~ '->
. . ~
1 _ '• .) .... II
Y...:r-
yields or collapses readily when • '6..-5 ... t
,J-"'?
I..
~('
...lb..a.:. Lo ~ I
~
..
struck by a vehicle.
(
terline of the roadway, which car
ries traffic over a watercourse or
~-' '-'""'..r--
•.6."....:..j -,t
0-'"
~Lo cS~ ~
'
-,-,..ro--l'
opening.
L ..
highway intersection at a grade, a -,'...l.>....:-L.,. ~ ~
6....oy-L-JI JyhJ'
long-radius configuration of the 0...::....", l;-:- ~ G-, -' ~ j,pL.i..JI ~
median end to permit flatter turns &:-.AJ I 0-"" 'oi.!'.) L<!> '';-' I ...l.::..- L.,. ( L..o.........LJ
from the crossroad. • ~ L..i.::..AJ \
Bus Bay - An auxiliary lane at ~ .,;. ". . ; L,;' .•-' '-> - v-.t-<''''':'-' ~ I ~y
intersections or midblock with ta c,. w...,...ro--l' .~ ~ -' f c,. w.b ~ I
pered entrance and exit for un (-'..l..::...o (~-' J>,.l..o ..:,.' ~ y -' L.Z..J I
loading and loading passengers. ...,..L.S..,rJl J-,,.;,-:.-, .)~ c. L....::.J"
..:r--
penetrate a soil mass with a cir .......)JU\ '.,.,...w' ~l 'r- 0 4..rW
~Yl..)
cular piston of 5 cm diameter to J' S-.• II ~, 0-" .•...l::.S ~,~~
the force required to penetrate a ~ , ..,r=.> ~ , .•...,.-..:..-' , ...rL,..s..J I ..,.-i-:- ("...l>...:..- L..,.
mm per minute.
•
bui lt into a structure to compen .~\ ~ y .... 611 'L...:..:>...:.~' ~.."......::...
Candela (cd) - The unit of lumi •.• 'L.i> ~ I 'u L.:..$ ...r~ .• ..b--' - )1........l..:. L5
nous intensity.
6..,.y...r-' I
Ulary Moisture - Hoisture that
c~lngs to soil particles by surface
tens ion and reaches the particles
~,
~1
'0...,.yb...,..J I
y~L.,.
-
.~~,
6..,.-...,.....:.-J I
c,~~ ~ (
~, y~L.,. c,L.!...".~1 ~l ~-'
by surface tension either when free '~."
..r---II JJ1>..0 - "4~'
.. ~
. La~ La\
water passes through the soil or by J.:.51 .o....i.,.b 0-" ~~1 ,-:",,~L..,. -' I
capillary attraction from a wetter 44-=-1 1.5\ ~ eJ~ 0' ~-' . '~ybJ
stratum. Within limits, it can .... • '.~ ..)-,..b- J.:>'..)
move in any direction.
.~l l5.J~, (
10
CBR (California Bearing Ratio) (J",o>". I I L..,;....:..J~L5 J..l..A.o) CBR
The ratio of the force required to ..,...~ o-"Y L;I~'J ·........;,JUI.>yUl .• ~
penetrate a soil mass with a cir ·........;,JUI.yUI ~I 'r- b~ ',Syl j0
cular piston of 5 em diameter to .J <;" a II ~I 0-" 'o...l.::..S L;I~~
the force required to penetrate a "I ~
'-' ,,' 'JI'~. ~ ,..,...L...s.JI
. ~ I' , ~L...
v---
mass of high quality crushed stone .~.lJ1 ~ ~ 1.JrV l.;(b ~L>-Jl ~
with the same piston. The rate of
penetration in both cases is 1.27
rom per minute.
Centerline - (1) For a two-lane I' L...s..J I ...,..",?-U .•~ L.. (1) -..6..-.".J I .b.:;.
highway the centerline is the mid .~ y .h-.".J f .h.;. 0 w ~.J L>-J I ~~
dle of the traveled way, and for '~L..~ • ...,..",..).>.J' 0-" I' h." a II '~l
a divided highway the centerline 0~.s.", ..LO .h-.".J I .h.;. 0 w ~ ' """"'.JhJ...J
may be the center of the median. ~~I ~ 'b~LiJ\ t....ih..:....ol .~
For a divided highway with indepen ~.Jh.J.J '.~L...,.~ • ( .•..r:'~') .J~~l
dent roadways, each roadway has its 0 W .• \ .• " a " L;..).>.JI ',S~ r~' rL.U1
own centerline. (2) The eiefined (r ) ,~ U"'L>-J' .h-.".J I .h.;. ...,..",~ Js.J
and surveyed line shown on the U~I ~ 0.-...0 ...s.Y~ j~1 .b..J1
plans from which the highway con ...,..",,..,..hJ I • L.:.-,. ~~ oL....a ~ ',S.iJ I ~
struction is controlled. • rL.U1
11
Classification - The grouping of 'A..o L....J I J..,h-J 1 ~ - ,; _....... -. II
highways, materials, soils, etc., 6..,-L..:....::....l ~ ·6.-,....;.::..JI ely'.) .J'~I.)
according to similar traffic or
physical characteristics.
• ·0., R.. • b.J' Co L.i.:>.J I .) I ...).)~ 1 (
Clay - A fine-textured soil, usu 'JLs. ~ L...:. ~ 'L,-..;::- -
CoI:.l JLA...J.,..JI
ally plastic and sticky when wet, ..::....:. LS ':.ll j." s,' ", I'
'U;- '6.>.j.J 0.).$..::. L.
which usually breaks into hard ..::....:.LS l:.ll .~ cW
~, ~.) UJ...,.....,
lumps when dry. When the moist ~ '0 I I .• 1\ 'L,-...;.::..JI ~ l:.ll • u4
soil is pinched between the thumb ,1 .1.. Lh..-.' .• <". LL.......-I' I . .'1 I
~...:r- .. ,.>- u.;r- .. .) (' '"Y""
and finger, i t will form a long, • L...:...r"
flexible ribbon.
Clay Sized - That portion of the ·6.-,....;.::..J1 0-" '~I ill:.l y" - ~I
soil finer than 0.002 m. .,..... ..)" r .;; JJ)r 1
Climbing Lane - An additional traf ..)')..Y' '• ..) L> ~..)...)..=.jl cu..:...)'11 0..)L>
fic lane provided for slow moving ~ ·.S.r-J' 'P .. 6, 1\ CoL...,.~ WLo'
vehicles on the up-grade side of a ~.,.,hJ1 oJ-" I J..".......,., '6.>.yl_:.~1 Jb~1
highway. • (' L.t.J 1
• L....,...) '1 I
.. ~
L..)~
.u: ~,
.ll~
U
u..).)
c--=-
JS.:. ~ ~ L..i:.
i."...r!-'
15/'.) ..)~I
.J,..lSJI ~L..i...::..JI.)
0-" J.s ~ ~ L.,...:, '1 I
J e~1
•
Coefficient of Utilization (CU) .;..J~I ~ ~I - rl.l.:io...:..-'11 j...w.....
The ratio of the luminous flux ·U. g" nil ·.'Lo'11 ..)JL.o-o oJ-" ~yAJl
merged.
Collector Highway or Street - A (' Ls. ~.."b - c..) L.:. .)1 ~ I" W: d-::-..}:>
highway that provides a combina .• ..).)~' J.,.,hJ' oJ-" Jy.J.JI ~
tion of land access and movement of • ~1y..J1 ..).)~' ..S? ~I uLo'1L...,.
through traffic. A design classi .J.,.,hJI oJ-" ey.Jl ':.l;-J ~ y".)
fication for these type roads.
12
Colloids - That portion of the soil ".l....,.~ I Lr" • .)-?---II \,!,U.:l ~ - 0-='...r"-I1
finer than 0.001 mm. o 1" .;-. 1 0-" jJ~'
( Compaction - The artificial densi 6h... , u..::...S-J ~~I ,;',:AS" II - ~.ul
.J-:'
fication of a mass by rolling, 4...LL.
..,.r- 1.5.1 .J 1 o..,,~:UI.J <!.l-LlI.J ' .. t·- II
tamping, vibrating, or other means. oLS?1
Compressibility - The property of a oJ L.J L.." u~ 6.."..., w.. - i.,...b Lit.;...:. 'J 1
material that enables it to remain o<!.l-Lli ..u..,. A.b~ ~ t.,-Lo,.,...:.
compressed after compaction.
Concrete (Bituminous) - See Bitu '6...:, L-..,,>-J \ t"" I..) - ( ........) L:iJ I) L L-..,,>-J 1
Consolidate - To densify by compac j..:. ' -.J-:' .J' ..b...R.;,,-l L.." ~ .. ~J..".
tion or natural means. .~J.,
~.J
L"'-Ll\
r-'..)
• L.."..j1~~I.J
- .;..\ _ ' .. ',. II
,jJ~ v \ .. ' ... ',. II
C"'..) ~
0-" .~
I .! ..
'i.h>
..ro>-"
A II
",
Contour Line - A line (as on a map) ( lb.."...,,>-J 1 ~) , j L.L5.J I ..h>. - 0...:--- L.:... .h.;.
that connects points of equal ele t u...::...)~ \ vI j ~I ~ J,.:...".I.5.:U1
vation on a land surface. • ~..)I ch... ~ -b-Iyl
I:
\.
13
COntract Time - The number of --,' ~I rL..".' J..l$ - ~\ • ..l.e
ing or calendar days, the work con
that date.
•
two termini within which traffic, . - ";;.5 .. - oJ Lh..:.. .
COurse - (1) A layer of road ma ..:;..AJ 1 ....;...,..) J 1Y 0-" '.u..,.b (,) - u.,..h
terial separately compacted, used .~ ....;...,..) '.u..,.b.5 r~--' o~ <!JJ..::,
as a wearing surface or as a base (r) .'~....;...,..) ".u..,.b 0~ ..rL..Ls --,1
for a wearing surface. (2) One el C..) L.;...Jl . . .1. ) .~..
A........D ..:.r-' ...,>..D
L.:J...\.:>.T
."
ement of the pavement structure of ....;...,..) '.u..,.b ~ • J...u.... ~ LrI .....,.>"~ \
'lg course.
Creep - The slow movement of a ma .h...Sr.D ~ ;; J L...J ;;'... b .' It 0.5~ I -.»..)
terial under stress usually imper 4.b.JL, 0.:;..\ I. " 'J' L..."......,..... ;;Ju uA 'J
ceptible except to observations of • 4....l.",yJ~
long duration.
(
14
Critical Density - The density of _U..r-o-JI ~.sy U~ - ~~I U~I
traffic when the volume is at capa
~ ~I 4..A......J1 ~I ~ Lo~
( city on a given roadway or lane.
At a density either greater or • ~...r---" 0"'"
· · L . ~
.. ~..) L>. ..J i ·0-::'-"-" ··_L
~..r-
. ~ '~...r--- u"..)
and vertical dimensions.
.O""-'~I..J
15
Cross Slope - Two-lane and urban ,.::.-1 j "~..rJ' J..,b-JI - ~~ ..)~
curbed arterial highways on tan c'~~)" cl j 0...l...>..JI J...rb..., ~..)L;...J1
gents or flat curves having a crown
or high point in the center of the
.b...,.b ~ .~..) J~
.o.....:i Ly-l 0""'~ "-,t~ c I
..,...; ~ ~!...,
~6,," " ..., 1 '~L..::,
(
pavement and sloping downward ..
~..r~
.L II ~
.. :...> 1,~ .
~..
·"-....Ju '6h.i..:, ..., 1
ch-
•
crossing by signs and by lines or • J-,,-..;h-J' j.o IS";> t c L.~ ..., t .b...,.b...,
'ther markings on the surface.
Crushed Stone - The product re Lr" '1 .:.p.- t .y.... .yo ~ L.... - ..r",,~ ....P.->
sulting from the crushing of frag ~ ,"~.5.J' ..)~, ...,1 i""""'..)~l ~
ments of bedrock or large stones eb- \.~ L...:..-.II ., .:.p.-)' 1 ~ 0...,.5..,,
with all fragments having all faces • L..l!>~ '6.>.~ 'o.J...o L.S
resulting from fracture.
16
Curing Material - A material~ such ~I ~ 4.)L..o - ~..r=- '..)La
as saturated burlap~ polyethylene cy) 0·.' I ..",.: I~I CI.".J1 -,1 ~1
Curve Widening - The widening of 0-" • y..-JI dJj eL-:.I - -.;6.' • It ........>=
the highway traveled way on sharp ~
.. ~ .. '-:? j.J\ ' . 1)
~..r~..r--' " . I- "
curves to compensate for the fact 4.) L>.J I .:;., 1 ;,6.' • II .)....:& -::.- I J L"..-.J'
that the rear wheels of a vehicle 0 .. "',:;' b, II 0-.. " I... II
0 ..r- r..).>. ..A-~
do not follow exactly in the track .~La'11 0-::.... k o.J1 JL-... ~ ~
of the front wheels.
~--
-D-
'11
-::.-I..l..A.o.J\
,·6.r.--L:.-.....J1
equipment is broken down~ sometimes • 4..."..5J....J1 ~ I..T"'--::' L..:.~1-,
referred to as an ownership rate.
Date - The day~ month~ and year are .o...:.......J \ -' J;-:..J I -' r~ I - [:;tJ L.::.J I
reckoned according to the Hegira ~J L.::._II -' '-:?.r.--y-l\ ~~
.....J...J Li....b
'
L
,~
calendar and the applicable date ,,-:?.)~I f"'!~\ ~ J..,.u.....J1
corresponding to the Gregorian cal
endar.
elevations are referred. Gener ~iJ ......~) .)L..:......'11 l.5~ 0-'~ o.)u
ally~ the datum plane (elevation .~1 c6- l.5~ .h...."...::....o -h. (~
0.00) is mean sea level.
17
Deceleration Lane - A speed-change ~ .•..)1.> - &s~1 ~ o..)L>
lane that enables a vehicle to '.,$..r ~, • L..b.,. ~, ..:;.. L.,..,;--tWJ ~ &s ~ I
slow to a safe exit speed when • 1:"'..P--iJ J~ L.~ ·.....J!-JI L;-l J,..i5...:.
making an exit turn.
Decibel (dB) - The unit for meas . ..:;..~, .• ..l.:. ..,..L"...:i .• ..u..., - ( dB ) J..-,....)
uring the intensity of sound. When ..) La...:.> I 0..,..s.". • f - 0.).., I"~ L.~
A-weighting is used ~ this unit is . dBA o..l>yl 4.:u.
abbreviated as dBA.
Deciduous - Having leaves that are ~ .h..; L.-::...::. J I ..).., f eLl - ~ ..:- ~
shed at the end of the growing ..::..'·t...,...:...J1 ~ .~I r-y 'o..",Ly..:.
season; opposite of evergreen. • ".~I r-!"-LJ'
Deck - The surface layer of con '4..:, L...,.,..;-J' 0-" .~ "u..,.b - ~I
crete and reinforcing steel on a .~ ch.. ~ ~ ...l.."...l>..,
bridge.
Delay Rate - The difference between ..,f J..l..st.o.J I ~ J~' - ~ l.:...J I J..u..
the observed rate or motion and a 0.5.,.» J..Lt.o ~.., o..>>,,~, o.5.,y-JI
preselected standard rate of mo . L.U- 4..) ~I ~ '-r'L"...:i
tion.
Delineator - A visual device for -S...l.A ~..u..::.J -s.~ .) L.r.-- - .)J..b- ..... ~
defining the alignment of a road . ~.".b...J, I" L.b...:....;, I
way.
Density - (1) The mass per unit 0-" "• ..u..., JS-J ·d..:..s.J I ( ,) - u L:..5...J I
volume of a material ~ usually ex o..>u ~ ~.., • o..>L...Jt ~
pressed in kilograms per cubic JS-J I"'? ..,f ~ ~ JS-J I"'?~
meter or grams per cubic centi J.5..J ..:-'..)L.."......JI ..>.» ('I') '~..)- 0 •• _.
Design Capacity - The practical 6..JLhJl '0.......,....; - ,"= .pO II (0...-) .... u.
capacity or lesser value determined '• ..>..b...A.J' .L~ j..if Jf._. 1 0'l11
for use in designing the highway to ~..)
• ~~ ~ ~ ~~
4-<0 '
accommodate the design volume. • ~t r-:--J' ~~
18
Design Class - A grouping of high 0"" .)..L<tJ ~ - ., • .: .... e, II u~l
ways for geometric design purposes • . , P ". II .......>1 J~ ~ .~ 11 .• L 1\
( according to the level of traffic
\..
'-:-"--> • o-.)..;.-rJ1
v...r-"-'
••
culvert inlet ponding above the ·iI.! Soli·o.........::...i \ IS~ ..,y '0~
L.,...-...J I
culvert invert, for a given storm ~ ~.) J.<, L.iJ ~ L..,.. .'0~ L.,.JJ.J
interval, culvert type, size, and '4:.; L.,...-...J 1 c,.,....:..J ·0..,.......:...J L..,..J ,j.p I ~
discharge. .,j~' '~J ~J
Design Lane - The lane on which the ~ ~l ·o:.;L.:.-JI - .e 0, .... e1\ .:.;L.:...J1
greatest number of equivalent ·U.)~' .::..)'~I 0"" .)~ ..r--5l ~
8-ton, single-axle loads is ex uJs..:.J •u L.b I ·0..,.....:, La..:. '0"':'.) .)~ ~Y-O-J
pected. Normally, this will be IS ~ ~:.; ..,.....):> 0"" ~~ L.:.-J I IS-l> I
either lane of a two-lane highway ~.):> .. 0"" 4 ~ L>-J I '0:.; L.:.-J I J l • ~~ L.:..
or the outside lane of a multilane .vl :.;L.:.-Jl .)~ ~~
highway.
Design Load - The loads that must ~I 'U~l - • .:o"o .. '!l 'U~l
(
be supported by a structure.
v L."..."..::..-.-o - .,.,,0"
·L.:...,..Jl L; 1 ...........:
e 1\ ~l ..:-L..-..".=-..
ul ~
Design Period - The number of years ·6...0.h.JI ..::-l~ .)~ - .,'0, eo"· 1\ .~l
of intended service life of a fa JJl "..)-:"1 J-,..:i ~ .j-J~ ·6.j.)~1
cility before the first major reha .·6~..)..).".~ .~
bilitation.
\,
19
Design Speed - A speed selected ..) L..::...;....:; Os- ..,)-' _ '6 _' e _ " ... - II .....cy-JI
for purposes of design and correla 6..,;.- ~-rJ I ~ L.,.,.;..j I .h...,...).J ~ ,-""I~)r
y.,.:..J L- L"...:i..o ~.J , ~ _' .......... I..-l
travel with safety upon a highway ''; i> ;,.;. . • ..).J.."......J I OJ L.:.5.J .~, .>-"
when weather conditions are favor 0-::'.):>.-U 6..,;.-~-rJ1 '6.: '.: .... -. II ..r-'. '-"-"--' I .J
able, traffic density is low anrl • ~)'I Os-y-JI ~ OeS, -.1\ ....;_." ,hJI ~
the geometric design features of
the highway are the governing con
ditions for safe speerl.
Design Subgrade Value - The sub '.)sLUI ~ ' ... e_,_-, II f..........-i-JI
grade strength value that is equal . ...r----
0-'" . 1.. I I O.3sLiJI ~ 0'1--'
_ ~ ..
to or less than approximately 90 0-'" ~ ~. .r j.:i.::, .J 1 '-5..J L-::. ~, "_~.o.."......JI
percent of all test values in the .tLh.:iJI ~ c-l..)L...,...::.>.)' I !"'_< ~
section.
•
lT e ... _ - ,
'ss of the pavement structure ~ I ..P- 0-" j~.J 0-::'~ 1 ~_' , L:....,.-l
~ctermined from the thickness de '4....-. ..."r--
. - II ·0....:;
.../
.~
-.
,--,-,L.:.......J
..•
~
~
..
sign charts as adequate for a given ..)~ .~ 4..".J 4 I c-)' Y'-' J-...,...::..J
total 8-ton equivalent single-axle • 0 L.b 1 ~ L.....: ~', j ...r-Lo
loads soil strength value.
Design Traffic Number - The average r-9~1 .h-y-:...o - t;?J"- eo- 11 ..),)_~-\ ~..)
daily number of equivalent 80 kN j ..rLo ..)~ c-)'.7""'" J L...R..". ~I ,'" ~ I
j
single-axle loads estimated for the ·0..)w..J1 J>.1 0-" ·o..)~ ,~N ,.," 'Lj
design lane during the design • 0 .. ' ........ II '0~ 1 • L.:..:, 1 ~. _,_.............:.. I
period.
f
0'..),),\
.urning radius of, a Design Vehicle ..l>..J1 ...I....:-~ L-L-I ('~ - ,e~1
used primarily to determine the J.)o ~ ~ rj ';''', • 11 lS..L....l .r- j )' I
miniT'lum radius used in the design • ~ LJ.::....o.J I J.,.,hJ I.J 0 1..),) ..L i : c- L5y
of turning and intersecting roarl
ways.
(
or manmade depressions.
• ';.~ L.:...,
21
Direct Shear Test - A shear test in .,Yb-' - .,.,..:.L..,.........JI 4...,-..,.,..:..J1 ~ ..> L,..::..;..I
which soil under an applied normal J ~\ ~ ~ -s. ~ I ..,.,..9-) 1 ..> L,..::..;..\
load is stressed to failure by
moving one section of the soil con
~1 -s.JU J.-..,.;.. ~
.~-' L:>. 0-" ~ e. ~~
·~'..".JI ·o..,....,.,..::.-JI
J..:..-i-J \ .~..>J
(
tainer relative to the other sec .?"'ll e.Lh..UJ 'o~~ ·i>..,....,.,..::.-JI
tion.
that can be expected to occur '1 .. ':)'\ ·--11 .L..:....:.~ I ·L.-.........:.,1 ....
~~ ~ ~ .. ~~
during the life of a highway. ..rL...~ ~ 1".:0<"" II ~ ..)J-, .~~
Design may be on a 10-, 25-, or -'~ r 'o~ 0~' ~~I ~ ,)
50-year flood. . '0-:.-'~. -' ~.I,j-:!~-' A
~
•
Ditch - A trench dug in the earth 6...r-'> ~ J~ L>-" '0..> ~ .,Yb-' - J~'
•
Divided Highway - A highway with ~~, .,Yb - ~I ~..r'1 ~,..,.h-JI
Dormant Stage - The period in plant ..,..::.-JI .• ...b.~\ ~-' - c-L."...,....JI 'Lb..ro
Drainage - (1) Provision for the ,6~1 0-" ~ \ 'i>...l.".--, (1) - J~I
disposal of water. (2) The mode in .~, jJ...:. L.;-,- ~~, ·~..".JI (r)
which surface water is carried off. .'~\
Dr! ving Lights - High beam head ·~w.~1 ..>'.r:-~l ~ - • .l~1 ..>1,.,-:-1
22
Durability - That property that ~ ~I .~ L.:>..-I I - J-..>.:..JI •.y
enables a material to resist dis 4 R ... b II J-.,'y 'o...o,.,L:i... 0-" '.~L..J'
ruptive forces of nature and those Y ~~ ~I J-.,I~l ,.,1 ·.j"..l..AJ1
applied in service over an extended .~.) .•? .s..l..o ~ ·o...o..l>..J1 ·L.:....:-f
period of time. . '.J."...,b
-E
'~L..i.J1
.. ..
.) . . II
~
J~~I
.. L. II
~....r--
.)..UJ ,.<".
L ..,., L...o u..:r
I~
lr'"'" ..),.,
L.>....o..JI
~ J.,
Economic Analysis - A justification ~..) L.<>...,.,.j\ .j":!~ - ,-?.)l.A:...i~ I I... • II
of the expenditure required versus ...i."..J L5..:;..j I .~ '6...:...) u..... -....",.,~ I
the comparative worth cost projec .
~,.,
.. f - L... '.,..1? . .
.j":!y-o--
' j . ;, . . . I 'u.J..:r--
- ... "
tion of a proposed improvement and ~ y I ..,.-.i-.:. ~ '6...:...) LL.,., cy.i-o
as compared to other alternate • 'oJ."..i.,. .hh;.. 121 ~ ~.) t......:u..J L..,.
plans.
nonli ving factors of the environ . '•.).;>.',., '•.).;>.,.,.5 ·•..!..."...,.Jl <.!.l...1.;, ~ '~1
ment as a uni t.
Elastic Limit - The greatest stress .h...R.A..Ll ~ ~ , ..l>.J, .Y"", - 6...:. I ..1> ,.,.r--I
that a material is capable of sus ,) 0,.,.) Lo ·.~Lo "1,, ......... 01 ~ ,-?.iJl
taining without any permanent de d.J~ ~.) ...LR..,o r-!-l ~ .,.,.::..::- L'i'""'" ~
formation remaining upon complete • Lo L.....:. L-y-:.> ~,
release of the stress.
23
Embankment - A raised earth struc ~~
. ~r
'.. 1"
l?"" . r
'L..-, .... L II
. -~..r- ~
ture on which the roadway pavement • ..;."yh-ll '.~..;' 'L...,- u~
structure is placed.
(
Embankment Foundation - The mater ·• ..)ryo-ll ..)Iy-o-ll --: ~?-JI ~ V"'L-t
ial below the original ground sur y:..,,:::- ~l.).~)ll ...,o..;~' eb-
c.~
face. the physical characteristics .~yh-ll ~ ('-"..) ~ ·~..)w...J1 ~L.".;;.
of which affect the support of the
embankment.
•
emergency calls for assistance. • ·.~L....o...JI ('""'J...i.::. ~~ ~I
Emulsified Asphalt - A mixture of c.J.-L. )I I Lr" .h.".....b. - ,.' J> -. • 1\ ..::.J...i- 'J I
asphalt cement and water mixed with •..".,JL,....::....,JU '• ..) La.) • w...J I.) ~)I\.)
an emulsifying agent.
..,.-L-l
~..r---
~
~
·ub.;....,.j, ~l
~
.~ LJ I
or region based on aesthetic. eco 'o~'", W~I ..r>~1
logical. cultural. sociological. '6..". j L..o...::J'i 1." ' y ~ 'i I ." ·o.."...s U...::....J, ."
economic. historical. conservation. .~~ I ~ 0-" dJ,j,5." .~.,; L.::..J I ."
and other factors. • 15.,.». 91 J.,..l ..:r---
- -11 ." '~I
.. . ~I.
Excavation (1) The act of taking c' ~I .6..".....W (,) - (,."_" - 1\) .,.,...;..:...JI
out material. (2) The materials (i) ,·o.>-~I j\ yo-JI (1) . j! ~I
taken out. (3) The cavity re ~o" ).;,'''0 1\ o.,.,...;..:...JI ."T ~.,,~I
maining after materials have been • jl yo-JI C' ~I
removed.
f~"· cluded.
25
Fixed or Permanent Counters - Em
~,., - ,.,' -...:....,,~I vl..3I...u.J1
t......!.1.lJ1
ployed for continuous counts, re
..3..AJ1 '0.:'
. . ; . . . ., n 1\ L"....i..LI :; 0 ".;. • 1\
n " r
/
( cording the distribution of traffic
~..J~'" J"'.."....J' ';,05Y J.:.-.::. l" ..::.....ll,.,
by hours of the day, days of the c"""'- ~ I ~ J l..l..o r , ..,.J.c AJ: L.......,. "'u L...
week, months of the year, and from lSyi-' ~ '6..:..-,., ,·il-:..-.JI J"'~ lS..l..o ~,.,
year to year.
.~
bases and asphalt treated bases. ;,.>..J L<t.....J I ~ I ,.,_i-JI ,., 'il.>-y.l.J I '0 g ,. ,. < II
•..::.J..i- ~ L..,.
Flood Plain - The area adjacent to ';'J"'~\ ';' -6' n " y.Jb 0~1 J-t-
,
-I'
" "a:.
a natural wadi that is inundated
during floods of all frequencies.
Normally, in highway drainage de
o~I
,.,' u...u.a
~w..J1
Wb~
J~l
uL.5 L...".\ "u~I"
~
~I ,~
~,.,
('-'..Y'
•
lS..31.."..J
~~T
...".,,-..:--c
sign, the area inundated by a 100 'il. .. 6 .• 1\ 0 ~ uu .~ ..r-JI J.,.,.hJ L.,.
year flood. uL..A."....iJl oL.."... Wb~ ~I I.;(" ';'..)W:
• ';'~ ';''!' L., lS.L ~
Flow Line - The bottom of a wadi, ,., , ':?..) I .."..J' cu y.Jb ~...I..:o-II .hi.
culvert, ditch, or other water ~ L., lS...r."-" ,:?I ,., \ ..),.,..h.~1 ,., , ';'..) L.,...LJ 1
course. .yi-1
Footing - Portion of the foundation ':? I ..,..L..., 0-" '? y.Jb - ~I l.1"'L-~1
of a structure that transmits loads •• ....,,~, ~I .;,yL.,....o Jw,;~, ~ 'L..:....."
directly to the soil.
Foreslope - The slope from the edge ·..... 1 J...,. I.;(" - ~L.~I JI ..\:>....:.~I 'UL>.
of the surfaced shoulder to the top ..
~~
L. II (...i.::..5) ~w..
.' ·uw..·0-" ..) \ ~I
of the subgrade, or the bottom of ';'~LUI 'o...i..,..b ~I ~ 'uy~1
the ditch in cuts. ~ ..3,.,..h. ~, Cu ,." .Jy..ro-l 1 J.,,-AJ-l
•..::" W: ."b-i-J 1
27
Expressway - A multilane, rlivided ~I ~I ,j.."-..,,h.J' - t-o'.,.,......J1 ~.,.,h-JI
highway designen to move large 6.5y ":"~~ ~I..J • .l~ ..::..I..;L.,..
volumes of traffic at high speens ~..J '4Ju "::,,u...r'""! ~ 6~ ..;..J...r
under free-flow conditions. Ex ~ 'd..",y..J ~ , u;Jb... L;-J J.,.,h-J I 6 ~ (
pressways have full control of ~ L..,..:...o ..::.. L..b L:i.::. .l.»..J ~ ..;..J...r-ll
access with grade-separated inter • ~..;-..ll ..;t.........JI .y 'ci..J~
changes.
-F-
Fabricating Plant - A plant where IS~ ~I ~..;y~ - ~o 0,,,,_,.,, i..bJ
component parts are formed, welded, ..J1 .• ;. ,-.;.. II '1.)-:'-'11 ~..J ~ L...y.."...J
or bolted together to form assem 'O-l> I..J 0~
6-l>..J ~ ..J1 4-c L.:>-J
bled units, such as heams, trusses, 1,51 ..J1 "::"L.:-Y~I ..J1 ..J>..;'~I ~
or other parts of metal structures. . IS? 1 ~...\...Jt.o J.5L."...<b
•
-.11 •y,- .J.,.,.....li.::
. ll--i.....1.. .. < .
Feeder Road - A type of road serv \..r" cy -= ( ,,?Y ~ ~~) "?~ ~~
ing two distinct functions. It 'ci.... ,h. 1,5...1~ ..J~ ~...I.A> ('~J.."h.J I
".1..1\ '~.I\ .. 1..1\ . •.5 ... 11
provides a traffic service hetween '-'...r-..J ......r' '-'...r ~ ~
other local roads, a town, village, ~-L.:....:......J I..J 1S.,ri.J I..J 0~ I..J ,IS? ~ I
industrial or commercial develop ,j-bL.:....a...J1 ·d..",..;~1
..JI ..JI Y L.:.-.JI
II J.Y'..:r--'
.. , 1 Li....,. t.. .
.. ..r Y ~
Lc.5"
~~ ...r--
..... II
ment, or a recreational area. It \,r'
I ~-rJ ~L,...J • ~L>...J\ ~I S I··, •• II
also provides direct vehicular
access to privately-owned proper- ~ 0..J.s..::. • '.6 ',. II .O""',h. 0 L.j U...:..J I
•.5....P--' ~I 0' ~ J..J~I ('Li......J1
q. Land service is the first
'-~llsineration, but traffic service
may have more than incidental
• 'd..",y~ \..r" ~, ";..J...r-l l (
significance.
Fill Slope - In fills, the slope If'' - ~L..".......I..;..Jt UL:- ~ - .......... .l..;..J1 ...k-e
26
Foundation - Lower part of a struc Y".) •~ I$.Y. J-i- )11 •.,j>---ll - "",I- )II
ture that transmits loads directly , '"-'''~ I u-J \ '"r L.,...e J L...".;.. )II J-i-.:,..". I$. ~ ,
to the soil.
(
Four-Leg Intersection - A roadway .) j 0Jb ~ Li.:. Y" - ~ L,...rJ I ~ Li:..J,
intersection with four intersection L...o~ 0~' ~L5 I jl.) .~ t::-"..J'
legs. If two of the intersection ~JlJ ~.,.,....J.-.:- Wy 1,,)1~1
legs are approximate prolongations Ar l.!" ~ L..i..::..J, 'A..".) ,,) ~ L5.) ~"'p-)l,
of the other two legs, and the IIV ~ ~y':l .)1 'b..J") ~ ..J~l
angle of intersection of these pro 4..:.\ ~ ~ I ~ 0w 'b..J") ~L..i..::..Jl
longations is 83 G or more, but less ~ L5 1 j 1.) , 'A..".) I j-J 1 ~ Wi l,!" L,...J ~ Li.::.
than 117 G, it is classed as a four L,.Jy , ,,)1 ~I ~l .:ro 0~I
way, ri~ht-angled intersection. If ~"'p-)l\ ~':Il Jy.,,) cu,w...::.':1 L..,....".~
two of the intersection legs are ~
, ,,)\ ~)I,
~~
, " I
Lo!-'Li.::...J\ 'L
...) I ..J' ~L5.)
approximate prolongations of the ·b..J") IIV 0-" ~I .), 'o-:-..J,,) AT' 0-" JJI
r.sy.::.-..o ~
-b- ~
, '. L..:...i.J,
•
Free Water - Water that can move j..b..::..;:. ~, .L.."...o-JI - "~I
• L.."...o...JI
through the soil by force of grav ,"~ j w.....J,o .)-.L,. 'L~'
ity.
(
28
-G-
• cl:.).Jl LJ-" '6..i...,.h ~..) ~ - 4',; 1:-- 1\
( Galvanizing -
coating of zinc.
Application of a
of the visible elements of a road, c 4-.,) ~ 1..) .,) L-o..J I ~ • ...h-.}:>.J 'Y..r-!I
such as alignment, grades, sight .cl.,)~t..) ~.rWl..) 4.,,-':'~1 cL..iL-o..)
-.,
6..• design.
Glare - The sensation produced by lS.i......J I ~ L-> 'J I - ~.."..:.J I ..) , 6....l..JS j-I ,
luminance within the visual field J w.-...'
. lr'.,)~ "Y:.7?",,)
',,) ~ ~ '
that is sufficiently greater than .:r 6~ 0..).5..."...) 4.,,-..)~1
b.,)..l..,- '..l!.I,)
the luminance to which the eyes are ~..) ~I ~ Co,,)..)-'G l5.:LJ\ "."..<WI
adapted thereby causing discomfort, ~ ..)1 CL."..::..,)'J I f~ ,.,)~..) L..i"...o
or loss of visibility. ~ ..)1 .,)L.o....,-'JI ~ L..,)-u 0~'J1
• 4.,,-':'~1
Grad - An angular measurement equal 0-" I"? J,,) ~ L.". '..),).JJ ~ L."...i..o - ,,) I ..P.'
to 1/100th of a rieht angle. There l5.~..) ~LiJ' 4.,....)I..:>.JI ~ '6...:.Lo
',,)\..P.' i" ~ 6Y I.J.J1
(
; - ~--
are 400 grads (400 ) in a circle.
"
29
Grade Compensation - The practice, vI ., .....,,, 11 ~ - ~..rl.J1 ~ ~-,..JO.:._J1
on sharp curves, of reducing the ~ ,-:"yL.1 •• ~L>..JI (vL ib R', 0 II)
percentage of gradient to compen
sate for loss of vehicle momentum
"0..<:
...r IT • ~ L..iJ I
•..".."....u
'. • 1 1 1\
~..r---""""""""
R ".
';'..-...-:,
(
~
cross at the same level. • -l>I.) lS"""'::'-'-
Grade Line, Grade Profile See -'~ I-I:?.) L-..:.:...J I .b..i....... - I:?.) L-..::..J I .b..-;.
Gradient - The rate of rise or fall J..LR..o ~ - -,I ..\.>....:.~I .), ·L...:.>-:.~I '6..:--'~
~ith 'o...,...-.:...J L...,. .b.."...,.;-l1 .) 1 t L.i.::.-' 'i I
respect to the horizontal dis
_ance.
';'j L.....o...1J
• ';'~'il (
Grading - (1) Construction of the '~.) ~I ~ I (,) - (.1..,,-.~. -. II) o..".."..-:.JI
earthwork portion of the Highway. .. L II
~...r---' 0-" , t.;r>-'
'i'). (.
i.?"" I ...,r----
," I' • " - 'I
~
(2) Planing or smoothing the sur _1-...... ..
c- ~..".......,.)f ~
. .. ( ..1 ) .~...;--
• . 11
face of various parts of the road I" I ~ L...,. J-"oJhJ.J ';' ;, I..,.;." 1\ '1 ...J-:>- 'i I
by means of a motor-driven adjust ';'..1.,- L.j.) ~~ ~ .......J..c.J I 0-";' ~
able steel blade. .J-..,~
(
30
Ground Control - An accurate ground ~..l ~..JI c--- - O""""';'..J~I 'W1..r--J1
survey of targets, or other fea ~ ..J-yh.:. ~I 15/~I ~L..A.....JI -' ul.ilbjLI
tures visible in aerial photo ..l.5L:....1J ~ I 0-'" 0 ~y L.J, ..J~ I
( graphs, to insure the accuracy of
0-'"
.h!. I ..p--! I ..l I ..li I ~ t""'~ I """L"..i..o·U..l
photogrammetric mapping. '..J~I 6.:.I.A. 0-'"
~
upon an average annual percent in ••"""'y.-JI .• ..l'-."...:rJ-.I '~~I .•....,......:... I
crease.
Guardrail - A protective cable or -'t J-" L.5 .r .•..J y -..". L:i..".J I ? L>
rail device placed along the road '.jL> J..".b ~ ..l...:...o..o ~I -' .:r.:-..;,-,-I..J..l
way edge for the purpose of redi ,.::.-L...,.5~I ~y ·• ..lLd dJ~-, ~..J.b.J'
recting vehicles that have left the . .;h> 'o.ki.:. ..l..:& ..,.".~I .r 0.::.-.::../ ~1
roadway at a point of hazard.
-H-
.......
soil. • ';,..".GJ..J
(,
31
Headwater Depth - Culverts con 0 t ....;-'~I - ~Lo.JI lS~1 ~
• L...o..lJ (,;r"-:Hb 11
(
at the culvert entrance. Headwater lS.)-?-O ..;-os-' • j>...L..J1 ~ ~ t Li.::-..I 1
0'
depth is the total flow depth from
0-" &J~1 t~ ..;-os ..Y' • L.o.J 1
of a large area by means of a group .~ 1-, '6..ik...o '0 • L.i> I 'u L>. ~ ill j-,
•
pressure of the vapor during opera- ..I w......,..JJ ~.j>--J 1 ~ 1 0-'.s.".-,
ion is of the order of 10 kPa (0.1 0...".1 l.,T" ~ , . '0.>-'~ 0-" J.! RO••• II .~ L....
atmosphere). • ('-5.~ 1 .h..i..a.J I .• -l>-' 0-" • ..I , )
..r--- r-- 0.
,....,.~..r--
••
('y
for aesthetic and functional pur •...,.",Y,..J I ~ J ~, 0-" 0>--0 • Li...<> 1-'
poses.
Highway, Street, or Road - These o~ - ..;.,..? -,I tjL:. -,I ~-' ..;.,..?
are general terms denoting a public ..,01 ~~ '-..oLe Li"./ ~ ....... Le vI .... 16 00
~..r--
within the right-of-way.
Horizon (Soils) - One of the layers vLi.,.b ...1.>1 - (·L,.~I tl""':'~) J-i'11
principally by its texture, color, J~I -' 0..,...u' -' 0-::'-,.5...::..J1 ~/ .:.r
.~..;hJ.J
.. ...r
right or left. .. "-,L......". -,1 ~
32
Housing - That part of a signal ..)~ ..,..t-, .r 'j-?--Jl - ,-,_,_, - II d-,~
head to which the optical unit and ' yyAJ' .. -l>Y I 6.."Js: ~ '•...I L.:. ~ 1
( door are
tection,
attached for support, pro
and attachment to other
'. • L...>' C"""" l...>..A LU.;.. ~ ~~ 1 '-:' L..,.J I -'
L~""":'-, ,l.y..oJ:..)-, L~L.c...J .::"L-~I
parts of the signal assembly. • ~yAJ' "-,L..:.~' '6.s.~ ,,?L,.
Humidity (Relative) - The amount of • L.....JI ...I w....." .~ - (7o _', " II) ......".b~I
moisture in the air compared with L~...IL.i..o ~ ., -,-r-l ~ ·•..)..Y'~1
the amount that the air could hold ~, ..~-'..) ~ ~ '
Lo ....!~' 'A..".-o.s.JL...,.
if saturated at that temperature. • .6...l..:.L....o "-,, y .~-'..) ~
Humus - A brown or black material -,t .~, ..)\~, - ........."...uwl ..:,.\ ; I;... II
formed by the partial decomposition ~j-?--J I J-b..-:;..J I 0-" .•~ ~ I ., ..)."..-..J 1
of vegetable or animal matter; the ~t , .•~,~, ..)1 ~1 -,t .::"L.,..:..J.J
organic portion of soil. • '6...,...r=--J I ~...r=- ~ ~~, •j-?--J'
Hyd. - Abbreviation for Hydraulic. •d".-.J-'...I ~ .6....o.J..S ...I ~ I - Hyd
Hydrostatic Pressure - The pressure ~-' - ..:,. ~I 'U L> ~ J,!. L-..J I J:....a.p
in a liquid under static condi ,'::" ~ 'u G ~ 0-'~ J,!. L.. ~t ~.h.S.AJ'
tions; the product of the unit ~ J,..,....u'-, J,!. L....J I ~ .• -l>-' ~ L. ~-'
weight of the liquid and the dif CLi.::....I I 0-:!-:'-' ~ '6.b...:i...:- 0-:!-:' CLi.::....I ~ I
ference in elevation between the .~l ~I ·L.....JI
given point and the free water ele
vation.
-1
-t. luminous flux incident on a sur ~yAJl J.-3..l.::..J 1 '6...o-.:i J-o G ~-' L. r!-'
face; it is the quotient of the ch--I ' •L...:..". L. ~ ch--I' "> L......o ~
luminous flux divided by the area .~~-, Jt.........:.L...,.
of the surface when the latter is
uniformly illuminated.
Illuminance (Lux) Meter - An in '. • L...> ~ I ..,..L.."....:.U.) Lp ~ - ... L...> ~ I V"L."...i.e
strument for measuring the illumi (: .' '," I I .) Lp .r 0."s...::...".-, I.S~ r!-'- ~
nance on a plane. The instrument r!'...r" 0-'..l..,o -,t ~~ -,~l ~~ -,f
is comprised of some form of photo y>.1 ..,..L.."....i..a ~t -,t L."....cJ-, 'yy I!.l~
detector, with or without a filter, '''Y'..)~I!.l~
driving a digital or analog readout
through appropriate circuitry.
..;~ (
rate.
•
Indigenous - Produced t growing t or o , ... ,,,.:).JI o. L.S.JI olb _ ,L ~
~ -' ~ '? lJ-' ..T- '-?~
'iving naturally in a particular -'
, ~
~
...
6 .. " ..,.'
b" O'L.·
~~ ~
f
-'
34
*Note: These definitions are from db 0' il:...:>-~ ~L.>.J: 'eU>~ *
JI 0-" ;'jy..L ..:.-1..)- .. " ,,", II
the AASHTO "An Informa
u La..,..L-o J."..J.) Y".J AASHTO
( tional Guide for Roadway
~ 0 I .J • ...;.."b.J I 6 ~ L.,; I
Lighting" and some terms
..lJ 6...o,i;... ... 4 II ..:.-1 ... 16"'4 II
used may need to be changed
~ ~I 6~L.... ~ 0.J~
to conform with the ter ul 9" II ";Lj I _.... 1
minology used in the HDM. ...)-7, , CO"'-- ..r---'
~ 6...o..b. .., 4 fI ul ... 16"'0 II.J
.··.L..I' ~ 1 I.)
'-'...r-- <.r.:'-'
signs.
•
Intersection - The area common to
two or more highways that come
.'~ 6.."..JI..,:,...,. pi .JI oL.i"..."..b
together at an angle.
Intersection Leg - That part of any 0-" ~I ~ ~~I ~.Jj.Y' - ~u..:...J1 t...ri
~'-.e.JLo .J...L.i;:, ......... " . . . . II ,•. L.. II
( change.
tity and location of the Work t the ~ 0 L.5......J .u. .J-".J I".D..::..- ~1
•..:.-\ ~Lb...aJ1
character and quantity of materials
35
Isolux Line - A line plotted on any ~ L."...,..J I .b..J \ -Y' - .. - L..D ~ I IS-, L-.:. ..b>
appropriate coordinates to show all ch--JI ~ .h.L.Jl ~ 0' c<'~ ~.i...JI
the points on a surface where the
illuminance is the same. For a
j..., LSJI e.Jl,.h..::.....JU-' • ~-' L...::..JL"
IS'-, .~ ~ ~ ~ .b..J1 0~
~L..D.......J I
(
complete exploration, the line is a .• ~ Lo I e L>..) ~ .b..".b--J 1 dl:. v-o 'o..J...J....
closed curve. A series of such IS-, L-.::.-J ~ L"....,. r-..) ~ .~ ~
lines for various illuminance va •.• ~Lo'1'
-K-
•
~L.:,...r,._JI \J"L..I ~ ~I ~J'1\
minimum. rated output based on the • L"'""" l...D..o..J I ~ l?-' r..l.> Oo Oo ~.i...J \
36
Left-Turn Lane - A traffic lane .•J L.:>..J I - J L-."...J.J u I J-J.l.J I ..J ~
within the normal surfaced width of ~ J>y JLbI ~ ~..AJI 0-'" ',,-,,~I
( a roadway or an auxiliary lane ·~L.b~1 ·.JL.:>..JI .)1 ',5...lw...J1 ~I
adjacent to or within a median,
reserved for left-turning vehicles
·•.J.>.I..Ll1 .)y .• ..,.H:'~, jib' I I '.J')~' '. 0
Liquid Asphalt - Cutbacks or emul •.."..;,.J..L ~ I ...ll y.J 1 - J-!- L-J I o..:...l.i- ~ I
sified asphalts. ": I.",". • II ..::J.i...'il .)y~,
37
Load Factor - A ratio of the total ..)~ c~ ~ - L1,.,.....-J1 J,...l-..o
number of green signal intervals 4-0~ ~I ~'JI ....>~I ..::-,~
..)~ c~ .~, J,...L5.J~ ....>-,..,ro-JI
that are fully utilized by traffic
to the total number of green inter 6....>~'J1 ~ ~ ~'J, ~yi>-Jl ..::-,~
'4.$...)-""
(
vals for that approach during the LS~...JI ~I • 6-,....>.:w1 U L- ~~I
value is one.
lr'"'"
•
sification for these types of ..::-' e.: no",
Locked Gate Access - On access con ~ '~j - 6...i..Wu 6..,.1 .>-:' .r Jy.-.1...J 1
trolled highwayst an opening in the Jy.-.1...J1 ~ ~I ~ ~I ~...,h-Jl
access control line to enable a LS~..l> '.h;.. -,1 &"...r'" ~ l,~U~-' ~I
railroad or utility to service its .. , • • • . L.. II I, oL.-t..:....:..." 'A...a..l> .
~-' ~..r--- lr""'" 0-"
openings.
6
conditions
, -Uling test holes.
discovered by
A drilling
documents the thickness and
..:r.:-~-, ~ ~ ~ .;-i>...JI ~-'
_b, .. ~ ·L..>,.I
•<J"'.....> 'JI c- . • " ..::-J] .. S··· ... "
... ..r'~
(0
composition of underground geologi
cal formations.
38
Luminaire Dirt Depreciation Factor - tL-..:.'i1 VS' c=-L..:...JI .. -W'il ~ j...u
//
(LLD) - The multiplier to be used .::.- L.,.. L....>. '?"' ('~ ~.:.u 1 ~ W>.....J, .Y'
( in illuminance calculations to ac '."..,o-J' '~.$ ~ ...).! •... I .• 'W'il
count for the reduction in light LS.)...o ~ "'W'il ~ 0-" .•...)..)L..:>.J\
output of the lurninaire over a '''-!r'i\ r.5 l y ~ .~ .•~,) .•~
given time span due to accumulation '~I '~l '6..-...u Cb.- ~
of dirt on optical luminaire com
ponents.
that emitted by the lamp(s) used -,I C""'""""La......J1 0-" .••. R • . II CoI..>.>...,.Jl 0
-M-
Major Street - The roadway approach ,":-,I.,.,..::.-t)' I J? -' i .j.,,~ - ~...) c...)L..:.
or approaches to an intersection '• .$? ~i .• ...l L.<: J-..>.-,., J? ~ L..i.:;. ~\
that normally carry the greatest . c.' ...) L".... ...)-'..T"
volume of vehicular traffic.
\
'.
39
Materials - Any substance specified ~ L,...,I ~ '1 '.~..\>-.o '. ~ La ':?1 - oJ l.ro--l l
for use in the construction of the • 6..::. 1 • I p", O.J t.J~ '~I
(
face protector in conjunction with .:L..JI
•.J.J. ~.J
. ii
.. I a p,
. ~
,,' -" L.c..-....9
.. _\., ...-I I
C
seeding that protects the surface .J.J~ J..,G I,) ~1 r:h-JI ~ ~'.J
lished.
Median The portion of a divided ~.J ~y" 0-" ' ? - '6..".h-y l ..j-::'~ I
highway separating the traveled ~ ..::..I.J~I .J.J..r" ..::..1.Jl.> J...:.-,i.". • r~
ways for traffic in opposite direc-
Jns.
<
.:r-
'•.J~
•. L..
~.J l!r.1~
rLh.:,
.J~
• 0-0'~L..A.a ~~\
~
•
0.J~
L..b.... .. II
,,~j-::'~
'• ......b-.."
.. ~
.. ',- II
'U.J I,.'> II
'...Td~
',. 1 I ' .~ l.>.
r~
. L>
-R' •
a divided highway. 'r~
Median Lane - A speed -change lane ~ '•.J l.> - '6..".h-y I ..j-::'~I ".J L>
within the median to accommodate ~
".. 'o..-b....
.. ~
.. II .• . ',. II
..Td~
I,
u->
I ~ ·Os-.JI
.J
left-turning vehicles. .I.JL.....". ,jl~'11 ..::..1.J~
Merging - The converging of separ '.~ .J.J..r" ..::..l.J~ .L.i.:..J\ - t:: La .l..:.'11
ate streams of traffic into a sin • ...l> I.J .J.J..r" .J L."...::. ~
gle stream.
40
Metal Halide Lamp - An electric
~~ c:~ - ~~ ~L.a. c:L.,..........
discharge lamp in which the light
~~ ,y ~ .• ·L...o~1 ~ ~L,...)yS
( is produced by the radiation from a ..) ~. 0-" .h."..b. 0-" ' '. ... . 0 11 Cw...:. ~ 1
mixture of metallic vapor (i.e., ~ c.~-, (~j I.?f) ~~
mercury) and the products of the -,t rJ-::'.L L.5.-.J I c.' ~ LJl, ) c.1 ~ LJl,
disassociation of halides (i.e., • ( r.)-::'-l~ I
halides of scandium or sodium).
Mineral Filler - A fine inert min .• ...Lo L;.. '~-l.Ju> .• -l L... - ~~ ..~
Minimum Turning Path - The path of 6.h..i..:. ..)L.....o IT-.)91 ul..)-,..ul ..)L-..o
a designated point on a vehicle .~ ..l.:.L,. I"~ .•..) L..".- 0 .~
making its sharpest turn. ·0 ..)-,-l
'
Minimum Turning Radius - The radius ..)L.....o ~ u I..)-' .uJ IT-.)91 .."h:i-JI
of the path of the outer front r~ .•..)L".....J ..~..)L;..j, ...."....L...91 'u~l
wheel of a vehicle making its shar •0 , ..)-' -l •.."J....<: ..l.:.L,.
pest turn.
Ministry - The MOC of the Kingdom •.5...1.o..o.J 1 ~ c. J!.." I .."....,.J I ....) I j -' - .. I ..)j."..JI
of Saudi Arabia, Riyadh. ..• J>L..,.,.."JI • ·6..".-l~1 ·•..."....,,~I
Minor Street (Cross Street) - The -' t ~~ - (~ u.:..... C..) L.:. ) I.?"":" L.:. C..) L.:.
roadway approach or approaches to '.-lw ~ . j ? ~Li::. ~I ,-;-,I?' .j~
an intersection that normally carry • ~.."J 1 c..) L.::....J I 0-" Jj t c.1..) L".... •.s?
'f
less vehicular traffic than the
major street.
Modulus of Rupture - A measure of '6...:. L- ...P-l' .•..,....u ...,...,L.."....:i..o - c.1A.:J I J.,o Lot.o
the strength of concrete when it is • ~ L,. ~ L....LJ:
broken by bending.
i\
41
Monument or Reference Point - A J L..:.- , • .h.:i..:.
..) L..:.-I ~ -' ,- r-l-
permanent or semipermanent refer c-" °L...:..:.l rLi.:;,
~'!'I J ~ -,1 ·4..o.!,1 J
ence point set during the surveyor ~ ~ '~.J ..;..".? 0L..:...,,-,t
construction of a highway so that
·.Jul
. ~ L,.,.J ~I OJ...,.
(
Mortar - A mixture of cement, sand, J.-.,.,rll -' ..::.....:....,.....::/, .r ..b.."....b. - ("i.:.~ ) b)l..
lime, and water. • OLo..JI-, ~l-,
Muck - An organic soil of very soft r' Y ,.;:..\ j .•...,,~ '.-,.y .L...:.....J. ......y
consistency. - •-, ~ u-"..J
.J-,-rb
~
~yJ
• J L.
~-' L.i.A..J
.~ 0JL,
-
r~
..) 4-
'6...0~ I
,......:st
• '.-,.-,.i..Y"
•
-N
Noise Level - The sound level ".~ ... ol' ..::..y--JI ~I 15""":'--' 1S~ -
obtained through the use of A '?""."..DI .J~ ~ J~l ~':II...." r'
weighting according to ANSI Stan • ...1>." . , w, /
i-I rJ.J ~L...u.Jj ~....r")1 I
dard 1.4-1971. The unit of measure .J L.:..". ~ \ ( dB) J-,..-..". ~ I '-f" <.r~ I
is the decibel (dB), commonly re ~ L.~ dBA ....r"..r-
r.. . . II--. .Ju L-t-::'-"II
ferred to as dBA when A-weighting • A <.r~
is used. (
"
42
Noise Standards - The highway traf . , 1~·· ..:..1 -, ,_ - ._.A II L.a..o
(
fic noise abatement procedures, co
ordination requirements, and design
".f .". "
~
..........::.5
~
.~
..:..1
'4 .,,,
..
or' ", II
~
16" O..J "'>..J...)-"'-JI
-
~
~~.;,
'~o5...»
11 ..:..L.....::..-a
j-.!-:!
." ~
a
~ .."", . ..J
noise levels in the Highway Design .~.ll .. ·r..I' ~..
.. ....r' ~,..r---
Manual.
-0
..
an area within the influence of a
..J' ~IA O,,)~ U~ 0~..J .o.......u.,.
~
One-Way Highway or Roadway - A
- .,h.\..J 64-=-' ..J~ ~...> ~f ..J1 ~f
highway or roadway having one or
..J1 o.,h.I..J o...>~ 4..,- ·~f..Ji ~...> ~f
more lanes on which all vehicular
traffic must go in the same direc
...>..JY' 005...» l...r:t-k ~ 0' ~ ~f
• ol.,;,...::,~1 '. ';.::-1 L...-JI
. ~lT"'>"
tion.
Open Space - An undeveloped area of .::-1 j ,O...>."h-c ~ '0.> L...-o - ...; y:..s... , l.,bj
generally consistent quality, char '-lL . .... ~ J.$..:...... ...... .4>-..J--".
acterized by a minimum of distract
lr' . ~ • r ~
..J1 ·o...c.~1 '::-1~l.::..J1 0-'" .h
ing or conflicting influences.
..·iL,.....>~1
Optimum - The best quantity, num -,' ..)~ -,' ~ J.<u' - ~)l1 .u..J1
ber, or condition. , UL:,..
A....J;.,;.t
accuracy for various types of sur ..)"h...,j ·o..)u ,~, ..::-~ 0-" 'cit \".;.. A 1\
•
,.. ·i.gin - The
LP begins.
location of
o~ 1
0-" ~I
oL..S......JI
~.,)G-J'
..::-1.,) L...".-.II
~,
,
L:....:......J,
o--b.~1
~yl
A...o~
0 1.,)-,..)
•
roadways separated by a structure ,~~ ~I,.,b ~.}> ~I .~ J~
to the second through roadway.
Outlet Velocity - Is the speed of ''\- L....i... ..;-J~ \ ~.r ~ - ~-,...P--J' is. r
flow measured at the downstream end • (t-"J-'" ) 0.,) ~ , L:r' ~-,...P--J 1 J.}> ...L:.s
of a culvert and is usually higher ..;-J~' ~ .r Lr" ~i 0..) U o-,~-'
than the maximum natural stream 'lS~1 0 6 11
velocity.
< . 1\
and its fringe area, in which the
principal land use is for business
activity.
Overall Travel Time - The time of Lo..,.. ~\ 0-".,) - c.-I4)II ...r---.l' 0-".,)
(.
44
(
overlies a source of rock, gravel,
or other road material. This ma
';1
o~ Jl r
~I
.)
.)1
'lS"p-~1
~ ...)~
J..,b-JI
J"""
.J...".~ jl..".....
..Dr
terial is removed before the mate 0-" lS..p- ~ I j 1,.,......J I j..i..:, J..,...i '0 j L.....J I
rials are quarried to avoid contam
.6~1 ,-?j~ ~\
ination.
~ -P
Parking - The condition of a ve ~ '-? ~ UJ..,..:.-0 4...) L.".- U L,. - ...) l..J;.:..;. ~ I
hicle stationary for any reason
t"" J,>\ J..::...JI ~ ~I 4-?"L>.-l1 ~
other than the need to avoid inter 1 ... L.II
ference with another road user, t"" I"
1..1..6...,)'\
.)~.r--- Y
.\
r~
.)t •...).)~I ..lll.."..:u J~)'I .)1 .~L,
collision with an obstruction, to I"~ L.o...,.. 4 j yh..... 0-".)-I , 0-" rD
;;
comply with traffic regulations, or .cl-Jl .)1 ,-",G-..:.~I J.)y.)1 j~
for a period of time limited to
that needed to pick up or let off
persons or goods.
45
Partial Noise Abatement - Measures c.l • I ...p.")' I - r:: ",,,,,,, I I u!-j-:oo-JI J ,,' Ii". "
not to a level below the design • I' ,: .~", 1\ l5~ Lr" l5~ ~l
.r-...)'
level. (
Passenger Car Equivalent - The num c.1.,)t....".... ...)...)s - ,-;-LS..rI1 ..:..I.,)L..,.- J...)L...u
ber of passenger cars displaced in 'il.5..» ~...l..::. ~ Ly-6..... J;.....::. ~I ,-;-L.5..r11
the traffic stream by a truck or 4:u. c...u...::.,., .~""..:.,." ,.,' ~L:. .,),.,~I
bus. This displacement is caused c..~..>- ~ d~' ~ 4>.1,))'1
by the difference between truck or c.I.,)L...- c.~...>-,., ~""..:.,.,)'I ,.,' 4..:.>.~1
bus speeds, and passenger car I 'il...)s L.o-li c. I y b....:• ....J 1 ~ '-;- L.5..rI I
, . ,.,
•
two-lane highway where the clear
~assing sight distance allows a •u Lo L,. ,),., 4-::- 'il.,),., L:....o r L.o..::. L..,.. 'il->-i> I Y 1
safe passing maneuver to be per
formed.
'il.,)L.."..... ~L....
vehicle to pass another safely and ~...>- ~ J..;....l..::..J1 u,.,...) L~.,)I,., uLoL"
with the speed of an oncoming ve 'il.,),., L:....o • .l.,- ~ ~':'..rI I J G-o cJ.;....) I ~,
on the roadway to mark pavement for ,.__ I....5 ... ", I I ,L...L...JI
..,,- '"" .. :..r-'
~.,)
"
~
,.
I st';.j .L...L.. 11
'-' .. ...r--
vehicular and pedestrian traffic • 'ilL:....a.J',., c.1.,)~' 'il.5..»
control.
Peak-hour Factor (phf) - A ratio of '~ - (phf) .,.,.,)~I 'L.& '-- J,...~
the volume occurring during the ~I 'il,.,.,)~, ~ '-- J)l;. c.~ l?~1 ~I
peak hour to the maximum rate of '~,) 6~ J)l;. ~...l..::..J.J ~~\ J..l...sl.a...J1
flow during a given time period
within the peak hour.
• 'il,.,.,)~1 ~ L. .~, ~ (
46
Peat - A fibrous mass of organic ~ '~~ '6,j L..a 0-" '~ u.::.5 - ~I
matter in various stages of decom • '6 i 1",,;,, c J-b-:;, J>- I .r"
/' position.
I,
Pedestrian - A person on foot. • 6..,,-o..D ~ ~ ~ - ~G
t,
utilize the facility, justifies the
structure. Pedestrian undercross
ing or subways should be so placed
6.."..)..) ~~ ~ J~'il
. . . 1\
...r-:-
..
~.r-
.1-..
0-"
1. -~L..Z...o
~
~
.JI ~1
'6
~
• r,jL.iJl
.•
Perception Time - The time required .;.!-L.....J rj)lJl uJ.J-'1 - ~ I..),j'i I u--)
by a driver to perceive that he must ~ ~ ~i <!J..)~ 6..)L..".
~
change speed or stop. .,jj~1 .Ji ·4..>o,..,.-J1
Permissible Maximum Weight - The 0j.".JI ...... r..J--.. ._JI ~'i , W.".J I
maximum weight of a laden vehicle ~JJG ~ ,,~ "..)~ ~'il
('
declared by the authorities regis
tering the vehicle.
• "6..)L....".......JI ~ ~, ..::-Lb-l-JI
Pervious - A layer of material, <!J~ , ",j L.. 0-" 'u...,..b - • .:u...:....... '4....4b
through which water will move under .h..R.A.J I Jb ~ ·L.....-Jl u~
ordinary hydrostatic pressure. • l?,j L..".j 1 -T' L..::.....J..)..l.".-t-' I
47
pH - A scale of numbers from 0 - 14 ..)1-ll)'1 .r -r~ - ~-,..)~I r-i.."J1
that indicate the acidity or alka i."...,....u -,' ~ r:!>~ If ~I ~ .r
linity of a solution. Numbers be
low seven indicate acidity and num
V .r 1.7.:s~ I
~I V .r ~dl
rU..)~ I ~-' • G J."....t:......
rU..))'I-, "iI •• ;, .... II ~I
(
bers above seven alkalinity. · ~.rLU1
Phase - A part of a signal cycle J.=.,.::. ..)-,jA 6..) ~ 1 ".I..)-,..).r '.R- - A...J..,. jA
during which a specific traffic c. L5 ..r---J I -' ) ~ ..)-,jA d.$Y L;-J)l>
movement (and concurrent noncon ,j> ~ ( "6..,-..)w...:.........J1 ~ ....ijl..r......ll
flicting movements) receives the ..) ...: ;..... II c.l ~ J,....:..::.-' • ..)-,..r......ll
right-of-way. It includes the 6~ 6 10"'.11 ii .. ·..: .• 11 c.L>-...LII.)
change and clearance intervals as •c. L5 ..r---J I
sociated with those movements.
~I
~
II
....
~
r-.."J
c.L...o~I
d..L.
..h.".b..:....::..J I
I- 'I
.. ..,r-- 6j
~~ - l§~~ .h.!.1,?-
, (L.-....
......) t...D..::.)
"i""""
I . . ,-
~
·0.)'1"?' I
~I'
:.r-----'
..
~
rI ~ L."
_I
y.)-:"~
.~\
r-..)
.b.!.1 /
•
Pickup - A two-axle freight vehicle ,(r.t..)~ ~ • ..)L."... - o~ ~L.:.
with a total of four tires. In '4.!....iJI 6~~.) .c.I..)LbI L..."..)t.)
general, this classification in ~ L$ '1.)- 6~\ c. L...:.>. L.::..J I ~ j5..:...,. r
cludes pickups, panels, and other • ' .. '';' II c.l ..) L...,..-J I.) ·u...L..... .), ~~
light two-axle vehicles with single ·o..),.ri-o c.l.J Lbl ~ (r.t..)~' c.l j <.5/)' I
tires on the rear axle designed for JJ..:..J ~.) ,~I .J~I ~
Pipe, Clay - Pipe made of shale and ,'U~ ~ 6..).)-G - ~..)w.J o..).)-L.
fire clay, unglazed, or glazed and .), J;.I ~ 6..J..,y ,~j-o.) u."..:;..a... .)t
Pipe., Concrete - Modified bell and LL.:.Y U..lJt..o •.J.)- G - ~ L..,?- • ..).>- L.
spigot pipe made of concrete, i."...)LstJI LL..~' .r ...J,..",j.) -rt ..) J;.I ~
Pipe, Perforated - Pipe with holes '-;-'~ Ly.,- '6J'>- L.o - L,.~ • '6J'>- L.o
on one-half of the periphery, used r~ IT."JL.>...JI L~.b_, ... o ~ ~
to drain off water trapped in the 6...J..:;..S ...,. l J . -,. 0 1\ ~L......J' J.".~
soil mass. • 6...,...r:.-J'
Pit - A natural deposit of gravel -,' ~I 0-" ~ eJ..,..::..--o - ~
or other type of soil that has 4-:--'~1 r.?~ -S?~\ 6...,-..r-JI elyT
been, or may be, excavated. • 4-:--1~1 ~-,I
Plane Coordinate System or Grid r u..:. -' I i.."...,...:..-J 1 ..:- L..,? I .b. ':i I r u..:.
System - A cartographic projection J~ - ~ ~? h.i.-.o - ~l
that, by accepting small varia J..,-, - r--rJI orL.,.;.--i...o ."..... ~ ~1~
tions of scale, permits describing r I ..h..:.- L..,. ~J ~ 1 ch-
~ .b L.i.:- ~Y
the position of points on the sur ch- ~ A..".~I 4-=-~1 J..:>.I
face of the earth by their plane . ~, if'-,...P-o -,' tT' I ,.,.b- I
coordinates on a cylindrical or
conical surface •
•
Portable Traffic Control Signal - A
~~ 1 ~1 • ..l>-,.$ Ly..ll.:..J .~ •...1 L:.l
'gnal that is designed to be moved J..I L::..::.) .'O .:I .~. 'O...;, I ~ 1 ;'. ".
dS a unit to the site and be oper
-' .i:>--o .....I...r--- .. -'
-,I
:ring 1 hour under the prevailing
roadway and traffic conditions
regardless of their effect in de
~
•
..
.L
...1-'
L......J\
~
. L.Jb
.
~
.L:,
..
~ r-t-'-::'?
....cl:.. II
v-...r----
~.
.... -' ~
....;
"'L-...JI
..r='-:' (
laying drivers and restricting
their freedom to maneuver.
·•...IL.Z.l IJ"'...I - ..\~ uJ.s ~...r" 6...1 L:. \
Post-Mounted Signal - A signal head
-,I o~ ~~I .:I.,.,..........Jl 'O...a...:O~ CY.Y'
that is set on the top of its sup
'lS...ILD -,t .:I~ ~4- ~1 ~
porting post or is attached to the
side of the post or pole.
0-" j.:9 , ~ 1..\ .:,,-,.$.::, - A.. I •• II 4....a-..J ,
Practical Capacity - Always less
u-i ~L..O.JI c..JYI ~ ........ l....::..A.J1 4....-.J1
Precision - The variance of re •..::- L... L"..:iJ I 0 ~ ..::- Lh....~ .r LA 6.."..0 L.>..J
peated measurements of a charac
teristic from their average. ~.
50
Prestressed COncrete (Pretensioned) - (..b...a..U I u..,. L.. ) J ~ ~ll u...,. L.. i.:. L..?
Reinforced concrete in which ~ I ..,J.J' L.y."J cl-o...::, b-.J.-. i.:. L....P
(-~ base, wires, or cables are held in 'L.:.:.1 J~ UG ~ 0JL,.LS.J1-, ~)L~,-,
a stretched condition during plac ~ , "
'-' '-T-'II L~JLJ'
..". i.:.L...':'''
..r--- '
t'"-'
ing of the plastic concrete until .y ~t UI.)I 'L.:.:.' ~ • LL..AJI
the concrete has hardened. Then as • LL....,>_JI ~ .r .. I ", II ~..h
the tension on the reinforcing
steel is released, it compresses
the concrete.
are predetermined and do not vary. ~-' .0' .)I-;~ 1-, o.."....:....oj-JI J..:.1.rU'-'
They are repeated until changed ~~ 01 ~t .)~ Jh-::.-, .~
manually or by a control mechanism ',.. r--
v---..o
. <~ ". .)' I~
. _.
-' , ~..L
. 'J.. WI.~ ' ..
such as a clock or master control .~j5r r~ jLp -,' '~ L..
ler.
:
( .... Prime COat - The application of a 4.",.) U ii J L. 0-" ii..i.,..b ~-' - ..,..L..1 6...i.,.b
low viscosity liquid bituminous • (,T" L...... ch- ~ ~-,jJJ I ;; " • ;,..:..... U!. L..
material to an absorbent surface, -,t ~ ..,o~ 'U:>1 ~~ ~~ 1 ~~
preparatory to any subsequent ~ .. , d-Lo-::..JI 'oJ~' . .)-' J,~
c:- It .. ..7 . -
'L....i.::.
treatment, for the purpose of hard . u~ ~-'""" ~:.Lli '~I ~-'
ening or toughening the surface
and promoting adhesion between it
and the superimposed construction.
51
Profile Grade - The trace of a ver lS~ e.b... ...>~1 - ~4 eLh.:i C...>.l..:.
tical plane intersecting the top eb---lJ ~~I ch--J' L' tlo u:..... ~~~
surface of the proposed wearing .h>. '41 j L.>......,. '4 ~ G ";"..J.s......J ,u...::....> c:~ 1
Profile grade means either eleva ...:;~, '-:"'-> r~' I ~ J.:..... ...>'~'
tion or gradient of such trace
according to the context.
l;r-'
traffic along a street gives "GO" J..J~ L.i.,.b .~ ~I~ cl...>~1 LA
indications in accordance with a ~ J.)~l 1~..J • LU- .LJ>..a ~.)
prearranged time schedule. This ~ ...> I ~ ~ ( .,;" LS.....)' I ...>.u....,. ) c: L.>......J.j
schedule is des igned to allow (as C"'> ~I J.."b ~ cl.,)L.."..-.I1 0-" cG ~
nearly as possible) the continuous •.hh.;....., 'Os...r J~
•
n~"Iject - An undertaking to con 0-" ~ ~? ~ L....,...,. ~~ - e..Jr
~'uct a particular portion of a .~...>..:;..".~
highway.
-Q-
-R-
~. ~, -.1. LA.:. ".1.
Radial Highway - An arterial high lS ..J-:1 ...> '-'""'..r- - «Y' ~...> ~~
Railroad Grade Crossing - The area ~l '4;6' 0 " ..."...h- .l."o.b • .5.,., .,;"Li.J..)-o
';"'.b- '6.5.,., ;.. I. l..lb~ • l-. L...i..:.-..
where a highway and a railroad .. t-" ~...> '-'""'..r- L" (
I cross at the same level. .<.S~l ..,-.L ~
I 52
Ramp - A short roadway, usually one I~ 0-"5.". oj u ~ ~~ - ~
way, to accomplish transfer move J>,I j J ~ I ,.5? J .. ;;"" -..J • -l>-I -' d ~ I
( ments within an interchange from .:;.."..,.,h-J I -' , j j I ..,.,..J I .:;.."..,.,h-J I 0-" ~ Li.::..J I
'\"
the arterial highway or expressway • ~ Li..:...o.J I .:;.."..,.,h-J I ~ I t-':'...-J I
to the crossroad.
Ramp Terminal - The general area ~, ·..... w.Jl '• • 6'.• II - ~I dJ.b
where a ramp connects with a road 'j.,. I • L...c - L. . . _.. II Wb~ ~.. 1
~ ~ ~ ~
way. Ramps have both entrance and J~ .b..,..::.~-, ·O?-' Jyj ~~ ~
exit terminals. The entrance ter ~ ....'-'~ I <;: L...c~ I ct_o-' L.,. J>,...l..<>.J I
minal relates to a merging condi ..........:...: e.. w -' L,- <;:-,.,.,.>-J' J ~ .h.,...;....>-:'
tion; the exit terminal relates to • ..)-,~I
a diverging condition.
Rate of Flow - The hourly represen j..u.J • ·il..<: L....JL.,. '~ - ~.1..:..J1 J.1..JL.o
tation of the number of vehicles 0-" ~ e..Lbj ..;~ ~ ~I ..::..1..)L.".......J1
passing over a given section of a .:Y
I~ . . .~ .
~ .. ..)
'. ... ~ 1
...r----
".L.
~~ -'
1 .d..) w..
lane or roadway for some period ~-' .~Uj r -,' ~ ~ . '~L...
less than 1 hour, such as 5 or 10 J~ ..::..I..)L."......J\ j~ '-;-'~ ~ J~I
minutes. I t is obtained by multi , • . •...,.......:.. ~ o·'.:S<oI1 '~j-ll '.,.r=J-J1
.'
plying the number of vehicles dur L..r-l~ ~~ ~\ ~U..LII j~ ~I
ing the specified time period by .";"';...l..:..J1
the ratio of 60 to the number of
minutes during which the flow oc
curred.
t·..'"
I. .
Recurrence Interval - Floods vary
greatly in magnitude. Small floods
can occur each year. The larger
L.::.-' u.::. J~ 1 ..::..-' ~ - ..) I p..J I ".,.,..:J
~..l>-.:'.. j-i-' . ~ ~ I ~
..::.. L..:. L..A.",...U'
"..,..,...s91 J~l _.>~-' . ('U J.S" '....h~-.R.c._lI
floods have recurrence intervals of -,' '~ •.!.....-' •..::..I~ r ~ ~
10 to 100 or more years. .~1
values assigned for precipitation, j..., w.J I I.:u. r ~-' . J y,...JI -' e.. Li.::...) '11 -'
tural number.
~.
53
Reinforced Concrete - Concrete ~'..l..,. ~~ LL.,J-';' - t..:....l.-.... LL...,>.
where steel reinforcement is em ..l."...l.>-....I' ~ c..."........." ~ ..l."...u.
•
bedded so that the steel and con o ,j~~1 i..o-,Li..a ~ L....o Ll-?-JI-,
crete act together in resisting
stress.
Representative - Typical of a larg 0-" .r:--5 i ,j..l...stJ 'eLi..,. Lh.... ~ l> I .. ' .
er number of items or quantity. o..r.-S' ~-,' '~~I
Residential Area - That portion of -', 4..,....LL,. 0-" • ~ 1 ..: .U.) - ~ 7L.i..b..:....
a municipality, or an area within oJ-,-s.". • 4..,....l...1.,..J I 6.k...l- J-;.. I ,j lUi.h...:....,
the influence of a municipality in • L:.....J
. . .0
...,~
(" ~~...r-
I... < .
r 1 ~ ~1 I,
which the dominant land use is res ..
'-' GI..-c L..o......'
.. ~ . . .... .jJ I.' < I
~-"\.T"'
, <L.....o
•
r ~ short periods. .',i~..::-I~
Resurfacing - The placing of one or -,' ',i..l.".~ u..,.b ~-' - C-b -It o,jul
more new courses on an existing o ~-.Ll L.,. , jyo~ eb-
~ ~f
surface.
Right-of-Way (ROW) - (1) Land gen oJ-,.s..:. uO-,' (I) - (ROW) ~..,h-JI r?
erally publicly owned, acquired .~~, ~-' ·U-,..LlJ .".5~ il,ju
for and devoted to transportation J-i-:..-ll uO' ..ri ~ 1,..." 0';" "'-' ~
purposes. (2) The privilege of the LS-'~' r I ~ ~ 1 cY- ( r) o..::-.JL." 1yo-! '-'
immediate use of the highway. The ..J""" u -' , ',i-' ~ cY- • ~.r'1 ..j..,,-,b-.J-.J
right of one vehicle or pedestrian u.".~ 0 ~ ('''~' ;hi ) ..j..,,~
•
proceed in a lawful manner in -' , lS..;->.1 ',i..) ~ ~ ."-.".y-' L.,. .~.>-'-' u
rL~ference to another vehicle or 0..;->.1 ..j..,,~ ..J"""u
pedestrian.
•
vehicular travel including the en J Lb..:. ~ U>. 1 ..L! 1 i.J.h..:......J I J.5 ill.) ~
tire area within the right-of-way. o~~-.JI r.?
54
Road Approaches - Rural and subur .~..) 'y~ -::.-~.>-=- - ,-:,,1,.r::J~1 ~.}:>
ban minor connections to a highway ~.}:> -,1 ~..) ~.}:> ~I t.r'..,..o.Jl 0-"
/" or frontage road from adjoining -::.-1 < I" • nil" 0-" .• ~" • ~L.o1
I
properties. These can be private, ·.5.rLo-o ~.}:> 0~ 0 1 ~-' .6..)-,4-o.-J 1
public, or commercial. • '6.."...)4-=- -,1 6...oW- -,1 ....,L..:;.. .~
course, shoulders, and median are · "-".b-Y 1 .. ~~, -' 0 ~ w..J 1-' ....,p-b...J I
constructed. The top of the sub '~.b.J' ·Y..)~1 0-" ~~I '~I
grade. . (6~L.iJl)
Road Mix - A method of combining ..)1..>-" (..J-o 'o...i."..}:> - dJh.J1 e,;,-Is .J:...l>.
surfacing materials, such as min .~ ..) La (:-" ~~I r L$...".J I J-:.-., ~...".J I
eral aggregate combined with li ~ ..) I ~, L~.b...b...:; • 'u~ L.. '6.."...) L j
quid bituminous material, in which -::.-UL>.· 1 1.:i1 r 1 ~L...."""".,r--
" . 1 . 1\
&
or other approved means.
Roadside - That portion of the '0.> l-.o 0-" • j.?---ll dJ ~ - ~."J:>-J 1 ~ '-'?
right-of-way outside the roadway. .-::.-'..)L."........JI ..)-'...r" &"..}:> (..)L..:;.. &".~l r..r
Roadside Barrier - A longitudinal ~y rLh..:- - ~?-JI ~'-'?- e,;,-Is R'->
system used to shield vehicles from .}:> l.:>...AJ I 0-" -::.-1..) L"..-J I .•..." La..,....j r~
hazards on the roadside. .~~I ~4- ~
(
tenance of highways.
has two or more roadways. (2) Dur -,1 ..).>'-, -::.-I..)L"..- ~.}:> ....,. r~ ~..)
ing construction, the portion of a 0-" • j.?---l1 dJ ~ . ' L...,....J I • L..:-:. f • ? f
highway within the limits of con J~f ..)-'~ ~ C-:O'yl ~...".JI ~~,
struction. • ·L...,....JI
\"
55
Roadway Connection - Provision for ..b w..:..J J.;.~ ~.,.,.::- - .::..1..; L..".- ~..;..b u....."
entrance to view points, safety ....}-"Wr.... • ·~~I ·G.>l..,r=.-":Jl ~L...:.....o.." ·o..".j..rll
•
rest areas; ramps constructed to ~
Gt..o...J, t:"" ~• - - ~ L..R.. c.;--> ~ .
standards commensurate with the .c-I..;L"......Jl ~..;..b .~ ·~y~1
standards established for the road
way.
Root - Part of the plant that de ~.." .h..,.,..... c-L,...:..JI 0-" ' ? - J~I
• ..,0..".,...JI
•
Rounding - The removal of the angle L.\"L.:i.::..::. l.r-'
- 1\ ......... '.J I ~
·Ul·' . II
..; - J-:!.J ~I
where cut and fill slopes intersect rh--JI i:-a (' J..rl I .J ~ I J..,,-.... LA...i..:&
the natural ground, and the substi .J~ ~..;..).:;, JLi::....:,\ JJl>.l.J ..,o..;5U u " ... b II
tution of a gradual transition, or .. • L.y.-b.... ..;'; ~ e:b
rounded surface.
•
~"rface, constructed for the pur uy •..;L.o..JI c-I..;L".-JI c-1..;Lbl ~
ke of causing the tires of a 0y..!.L....J1 \ ~ po •• c-I.)'~I 0~
motor vehicle driven over it to •..J""".:v...::...J I J..!. L-.J 0-" .•.J.".....J5
vibrate audibly as a warning to the
drivers.
56
•
-s
(' Safety Rest Area - See Rest Area. 'Uh.:..... yh.:- 1 - .....~ "i> I-.r-I ~
\
. ·•.>1..r-~'
Safety Zone - Th<.' area officially rL...i..:. ~I ·.'b·." II .....~ ~
established within a roadway for rI.~ ~ ...,.->...::...) J-,:-~ J>\..) L."..........)
Scour - Removal ,)f bed material ·O"""SI ~I .}\ ~lo..J'..,)1 - . ; ... 1;" -.1\
around bridge abutments and piers r' ~L" yL.::.51..) ..)~, cL.u.} Jy
by high-velocity ~~ter flow. . •L."...o.J.J ~.r-..ll ~~,
Screen Planting - Trees and shrubs c'~'..) ..)~~l - ...r=-I ."..-.J I 6s 1..)..,)
used for screenin~;. .~I .~ ~ ........ '.;.-. "II
I
\
57
Secondary Highway - A highway of ~? - (r::o 4- .J' ~ '-='..r) ~~ L:. J-,t~
J.-j..::.
·f·· ·
. :'
traffic at high speeds between pop 'o~ ~I ..:p' ~ I 0--:t-:' L......,...; ·o.."..Jw
ulation centers of 50,000 or more. .Jf .0.........-:, c..iJ'
~ u,..)\ ~ ~ ~,
International connections, military J L..a..::.)' I .b L..i..:. u-l I J.>"" I ~.J • .y ..:;.:..sf
installations, and seaports not o~ I ..,........J I .J '4..".~I c-L..:...:......- I.J ·O.."..J.J..LII
served by a Primary highway are ·o..h...,1 ..J-! ~..) ... .1. I , -..h.-)' .. 'I
~..r- -yo-.. Lr'-'
reached via Secondary highways. ").J~I oS? 0' r::o.J ."4.."...,..:- L..:..J I ~~ I
Traffic movement is the primary o.:>.Jl, ~ 0f )'1 ,J.J)rl ..)L.,...;...<:)'L..,. ~
consideration, but this type high
way may also provide some land ser
~ ~y 0' ~ ~.."hJ1 .J-4
• ~ I..)5u c L...ti-J I
0~~1
vice function.
~ .~
..)..).:>...0
, ..) I
•..)~ ,:?f -
..L,'
..)..)......,
.u.h..:.....o.J f
'..)~
.J-4 ~
~
• '• ..)..).:>...0
~
•
to be coupled to a motor vehicle in Ly-:...o I oj.:>- ~ .0..3-"'..)"6....,, .•..)L".- ~ .h...,.~
such a way that part of it rests on .•..) L.."..-JI ~.J ,'0..) L.."..-J I ~Y .D..H
the motor vehicle and a substantial 0,).J.J 0..)~1 0,).J .J-4 ~)r, o..P-J1
part of its weiRht and the weight • L;-::.-J."........,..
flOWing in the same or opposite di . •.. 'o..i...-.I... .~ ".. ", <
~ .....r-"'"" \,T~.J''''-'
rections, and so designed as to ..::..I..)L>- ..)~ .J-4 ~ .Jl cl..)~l
discourage or prevent passage by ~I j.:>-L.:...JI ~4 oh-f .J-4 ~.."hJ'
.?~I ~4-.JI
•
"ohic1es from the traffic lanes on
,e side of the separator to those
on the other.
58
•
Service Volume - Service Volume is ..i>.J 1 y" ....... ..ti..J I ~.~ ·........ti..JI ~
the maximum number of vehicles that 0' ~ ...,.:.-JI c.l...)L"..-JI .)~ ~~I
(
can pass over a given section of a ~~I J1 ::...)G..JI 0-" Le GLbJ ~
lane or roadway in one direction on .)~ ~..)o ~ ..l>I _~ 64-=-' ~
a multilane highway (or in both 0-" ..:;.,.,..):> ~ ~4-=-~1 ".- J') ..:.-1...)WI
directions on two-lane highways) F J .".)..b-o .~.) ;)..r::-- J)l>. (.:.,.."....:,...) ~
during a specified time period. JJl::.> L...,. ~J c. G L-J L..,. ...,..~ ....... ..ti..J I
Service volume is an hourly volume . ·...... .l>..JI \S~
and varies according to the level
of service.
pear.
~
Shrub - A small woody, multistemmed
plant.
.)...u..::..... ..J..,,~ ~ "-\~ _ .~
•0 L.<..".-J 1
Sidewalk - That portion of a street J1 C...)~I 0-" ~\ I~ - ~...)
or highway between the curb line or ...... t.> J1 y~'1' .b. ~. ,,., ~I ~..):>.JI
edge of the roadway, and the adja •...)J4---o-J1 ...)J.."........JI .b. ,~~...,..J .~...)hJl
cent right-of-way line constructed • ·0L:....a..J1 1'" ~'1 L.,~ ('~ ~.i.JI
specifically for pedestrians.
Sight Distance - The length of 6\...h' \S~I ~..):>.JI JY' .......,j..rJ1 uL-....
roadway ahead, visible to the dri •• • 6..e~~
0...) L."..-JI ...).!,Lj
ver.
~IJ
~
0-" '0...:,J~
..:.-1...) ~'1'
• 'yW'11
.• ~ ~
6y_"
r
-
Il J
0-"
.....) I-.:.'.II
...,.::.51 J'
":'-IJ.)~'J
V"'f ...)
termed "one way," "two way," etc., ... ..l>I J 64-=-1" j.5.: L~ u,.)1 ~,
dependent on the number of faces 6yy' .)~ ~ . ll\ "Ou4-=-' "
and the di rection(s) in which they • u~ ·•...,._... -,.01 c.u4-=-'1'J
are aimed.
Silt - Material passing the 0.075 J L...,.~ 0-" ~ .• .) L.. - (",-.h.J I) 0-='..,..aJ I
mm (No. 200) sieve that is non c.......,.J • (T r-J...)) ~L ....." ...)oVO ..,....Li..c
plastic or very slightly plastic,
and exhibits little or no strength
0-"
00
59
Single-Axle Load - The total load
4..Jy»-l' - I?...)..ri-J I ..),Y-J I 'LI~
transflitted by all wheels, the cen
c-~1 ~ L; );;, u ~, W~~,
ter of which may be includerl be
tween two parallel transverse ver
tical planes 1. 0 m apart, extend
~
·
~
- L
~
.
1o,',:.'
u'<\
..r- J-"
~ ~~
..,r"
~ U
. ..s........... ~..)
~L..i
.. It
(
• oJ.S '•..) L.."..-.JI ,""",...r"-:" ~ ,...».1..)
ing across the full width of the
vehicle.
Site - The lands and other places ~, lS?~' 05~~'J I.?""'..)~I r?..,
provided by the Ministry for the I .•..) I ..)...r-
. _ "
execution of the \vork.
• I __ 11
~
" ,. ; . ". u...rJ."..:.
I
alns.
- ,. II I,
u--
.),
1 ."
~~
..).j,
~
".
~
r • .h.
supporting capacity.
Spacing - (1) The distance between '.~ L..c-- J$ 0-='-:' 'OJ L-.o.J I (I) - J,...I ~ I
consecutive vehic1es t measured ........ ..l--i.,., ~I .•~ L"...... ....... ..l..i.o 0-" ..rLi.::. lS? r.)
~.
and revisions to the General and
Supplemental Specifications cov
~. I ... s- 11.)
• 0.:. I ~ t.J~
·....... LstJI ..:.,L.i.,,'~l
.•~ U.),.):>
ering conditions peculiar to an
individual project.
Specifications - The formal direc ..:.,1 , 16" 0 ".) ..:.,LA .. I~" 'I - .::..L.J...,I >-
tions t provisions t and requirements r-J L.v.o ..) ~ ~\
.b.).,r:.J I .) '0...".......-,.,r-J\
that outline the work to be done t '~,..,h-JI
.) , • 4,) L~ \ '-:-' I ~I .".J.b...o.J
the way it is to be done t the char ..)I~I ..,a!-~ .), .L~ ~ ~I
acter of materials and mixtures to ~
<~I , ..l.~ ~
"1\.)·r
" " ,
~.)
: '" ...
be used t or the results to be ob . ~ J.r=-J' ~ ~I
tained.
Speed Change Lane - An auxiliary ~ 'o."..J W,I '.~ L>. - 'O.s.,;--J I ~ ..~ t...:..
lane including tapered areas pri .• ..) L.".,) ~ L.. L.., r ~ 'o..:;..l.:..-..a ~ L:...o
marily for the acceleration or de .) , 'o.J.:;..'..\.J 1 c L..,...5.,;-..a-J I '.~ .r- ~ .) r
Split - The division of the cycle '.00';" n II '.~.)..\.J' J.J6 rL.-i..:-1 - :'~I
length that is allocated to each of .~ .• ..) L> L..£ ~) '.--1>,..)-'" J.S.J
the phases (normally expressed in . ( '.~.Y-o
percent).
I
\,.
61
Spur Dike - An earth embankment J"i- 1.--, ('L..:i.a ~J ~ -
-~L:, ~l...>.
projecting into the flood plain to
•
~ ~ • L.c..J I \S..p,-" ~~ .:> LA"....iJ \
guide water flow into a bridge cl..l..=. ~~ ",u-, . oJL,.& -,' ~\ ~
opening or cuI vert. Dikes may be Lr" L.y..::...".Lc>..J .~~ c.L5~ ~, ~l
armored by riprap to protect them .~I
from scour.
Stage Construction - The construc J>I J"'" ~ ~~I 'L..,. - ~J"'" -L..:....,.
tion of a highway by stages or in .,5...» ~Iy:- ~ 'o~lj-=o-o - c:.-I~ -,'
crements as traffic develops. A .,5...» ,-:-,-,L.:..."..J ~..;hJ' ~ .J-'.."......J,
highway is designed to be adequate ..lJ L.I ~ .J. g-. • 11 ~ J-'.."......J'
for future traffic, but initially 'u.......,. "O..."..!.~\ ~~I ~ LY 0""" ...., "
•
features may be omitted.
•
-
lrge enough for the passage of ,. • '~.-. II ·6..L..J'11 cL:..l . - 11
:..r-- -' - ~
domestic and wild animals.
Stop Line - A white line, placed ~ r-.,.r.f '"'"~ ~, .b..;. - J.j~l .b..;.
transversely on the pavement, at an ,,-I "L.II .l..L..i.;,...\...:"J: ''11
l:r-' ~ lJ.r- L '-"'J
intersection, to indicate where the .:>' ·oJL.."..-JI ~ ~ ~~I .:>L.5.....J1
vehicle must stop when obeying a ·oJ~'1u..l.!.Lj ~ ~ O..L...>: ....u~
traffic signal or stop sign. .-.jj..,..:. .6....0JU -,' '~y J-'J"'"
Stopping Sight Distance - The dis ..... l.-..A.J I - J""";."..u .Jy:..:....J I u '--...J I
tance required by a driver of a ~ ~I 0J~I ..l.!.Lj 0-" ......,,~\
vehicle, traveling at a given ~ U..L...>: 0..::.J L.".- .....u-'"'" .:>1 L... .~~
speed, to bring his vehicle to a .~~I ~ L... r----?" o....oL...1 J~ .:>'
stop after an object on the roadway .~, '~~I ·..... L-....JI d.J~ ~-'
becomes visible. It includes the '.j,..,,-, ~I I ~ j..J-:"Y 051 J j\
•
jJ
distance traveled during the per It", ph i ~I ·..... l.-..A.JI .:.r )l...;...i • o-L..J
ception and reaction times, as well . ·u......riJl • ~, 'oJ L.."..-J I
as the vehicle braking distance.
62
--------.--
.. ·~·.,..~_~ __Ki"
( collecting, concentrating,
veying water to a disposal
and con
point.
...;? 'o..b...:i..:. ~ 1 6 L"...A.J I J.j..;.-' ~~-'
• ........
outcrops or drill cores. • 6..-b
.. - ' ,.:.
"J 'I . . r
- - - -II c-~
, •• .. -' , ~
,.:. - 11
Street or Highway - A public way rL.I I:~ rW: ..) L-..o - ~.."b -,' C..) L:.
that is open to the movement of ve J-,i.:....JI-, " L.::......JI-, ,el..) L.".......JI ..)-'..r" '.5.,.»
hicular traffic, pedestrians, and ~ ~ ·UL-..o..JI ..,of .lS.,.»' ~L.-,"""
transportation by other means or .•,-,~I ~ ~ I:~' ~I .b."..b
conveyances. The entire width be ..)-,~I '.5.,.» rL.l I:~ .J...,ty" ~, ~
tween the right-of-way lines of any . ·..... w.JI
•
way open to public traffic •
Street Lighting Luminaire - A com '.J.o LS .• ~ w> 1 c- L.,...".5~ - C..) I y:.J I •..) L:.I
plete lighting device consisting of I: L.,...a...-' .• ~ W>1 ..)..lA..o 0-" c.iJ L
a light source and ballast. where '•.P-J I .J::..o .•..r L.."......J , L.-r-'4' I ~-'
appropriate together with its di .•~-, ·6....s<.:.~1 ..r- LS-, ..rS~'-' '.~L>.j-J'
rect appurtenances such as globe. '~ ..b..,...rJI e'-,.)'-, ",..:.!." II
reflector. refractor, housing. and J-,.L>...JI -,I .)~, ~ ~-' ...... _' ... fl
such support as is integral with • '..) L.:. ~ I IJ-O , ~j:?- ..) L...:..-.J I -' I
the housing. The pole. post. or
bracket is not considered part of
the lunimaire.
Stress - The force per unit area J>.I..) ~ '• .h-' J.S ,.,.,... .)4-:?-~ I
,'I·",,','
'-, .-,... acting within a mass. • '•..J.::..S.J 1
(
63
Subgrade - (1) The top 30 cm layer ·o...i...,.hJl ( ,) - ~~ • ..3s LiJI ~
of embankments or excavated areas I J -.... -. '. ",. ~ L...i.:.J 1 ~ o..".."...L.J'
on which the pavement structure
including shoulders is constructed.
~.J ..rb-JI
ill.:l ~ L.....,.
&>L..:.....
Jy~1 J~'
.J1 ·4-0..)-r-J1
Yyi
.r
(
(2) The top of a roadbed upon which .rL.J ."u-o I?~I '~I (T) .JL.=..$)' I
the pavement structure and shoul Jy~1 cLJl uyi ~ J-,:-.."hJ1
ders are constructed. •J L.=..$)' , .J
~perelevation Runoff -
sition distance
The tran
between normal
crown and fully superelevated road
way.
",jL-..o-!I
.... 1- II
~..r--.J..
- ~W)' I
'0........)1-<:
• 'o...L.L5 '''J..J''''-:'
CL..i.:.J )' I
'''...oJ.~
~U,I
'oJ.J")
·o.......J~)'1
..
6....UJ ,...::- I?.:LII
•
Superstructure - The entire struc , ~La 6...l5 '~)'I ~.".Js ·~I
ture except for the substructure. .~, '~)'1
II J...:,-r-JI ~
(
wearing course.
- T -
Tender - The bid or offer made by a L> ...\...i..". t,? ~ 1 ..;0~ I J f • Lh.s.J I - • L.b..-e.J 1
bidder t on the prescribed form t to dJ~ "~I '.-'~~' ~ JJl..i..a.Jl
perform the work and to furnish the ~lyo-JlJ Jt............Jl ~~J ~I ~ ~
labor and materials at the prices 'r~I~~
quoted •
Terrain - The physical features of ..;0-, f .o.....vh..i..J .•..".. p.: . b 1\ ...,a!-~1 - I.J"'"='-' L..<a.:.
a tract of land J geographic area J . • . 1.1
~J
1 'LJI . -~
.~
J
f
or territory.
65
Three-Leg Intersection - A roadway ~~
.
...
...,~
- ..)J
~ ~
~
.,,1. .l..L.i.:.
L
intersection with three intersec 6~ ..bo' WL5 '.:l U • LJ, LJ.:...., ..)J I,.".......
required for storm runoff to flow ~, Lr" ..) Lh.o ~ I 0 L."...o ~..)..:;..J "0..,-~ I
•
consideration. It is usually asso • 4 ... ".:" 0 ••• II
iated with the design storm.
~..)~'
the earth's surface, including the ~L.:..;. ~y J J5:;. ~.J.:l ~ L.....,.
(
act to slow down or stop runaway .,;;, \ ..) L.,..-J \ .....; L...i.". , J 1 ' Lb...,- I ..,Js
between the tires and the road sur 2'-J .,;;, I..) LJ,~, ~ wi ..)J")"')\ 4...0J Li..oJ
face. ....,."...;b-J ,
• J.j...:..J I d>~
the purpose of transportation.
..
trically operated device by which 'oS?
traffic is alternately directed to , ~ I ...; L.:..!..::..-' J "';,.,.JY I ~ ")J~ I
stop and permitted to proceed by • ~ 1yA>-J ~ I ~J ~ 1...)-"'-"" ~, y I .j.,,-.,;-b L.Y
the display of red, yellow, and
green light indications.
Traffic Island - An island provided k....J 1" LJ...::, 0J'-.f? - .,)J........-J I .....r-'?
in the roadway to separate or di , ")J~ 1 'oS? ~~ J' .j.,,-~ .j.,,-.,;hJ 1
rect streams of traffic; includes ...>...,,- ~J ,"." .", " ..;:-J'-.f? ,yo Jl5 ~J
both divisional and channelizing •\J 1.,) L>-..l1
islands.
Traffic Lane - That portion of the ~.,;-b..J 1 ,yo ~..:P.-..J' <!J..J ~ - ")J~ , ...,) L>
traveled way for the movement of a •\J I .,) L..,...-J , ,yo ...l> I J J..:> ~ ~ L5..i.J I
single line of vehicles.
0~ .. 1\ ~'} I - ' . II . ~1
Traffic Noise Impacts - Impacts ~.,) .,)J...r-- ~.,)
that occur when the predicted ......:0 • ", - 1\
L.;r---'
- .~,;, 1\
~
d"
u~
,-,...::....:L.
. ,.,---~
L....~
-~
.~,;, 11 .. L..J---A . w....::.......
traffic noise levels approach or '-' .,"
.,),) . .. J I . - I I
.,)J..r----
exceed the design noise levels, or ..::.-~."..::..-... ...>...,,-y L....~ Jt , L..>-~I
when the predicted traffic noise LY 'O.b..rL o..)~) o.......J~, ~,
levels substantially exceed the • i...o.!. L...i.J I ..::.- ~."..::.-.....J I
existing noise levels.
Traffic Sign - A traffic control ~ I J-. L> J..,..J ~SY 4.::;.j ~ - .,)J..r" 4.::;.j ~
device mounted on a support above .~ UL....,) ~ ,.j.,,-.,;hJ' LS""'::"-'" v-o
the level of the roadway that con .) y .,;..J 1 J I ..::.- L...o....15..J L..,.
veys a specific message by means of
words or symbols.
\,
67
Traffic Volume - The number of ve ~ , ..::- , .,) L."...-.J' "').i< - .,)-,.,.r-e-II 'i.j~
hicles passing a given point during Lr" '~ '6? 0 L..:.\ L.o lb....i...:,
~
"
a specific period of time. • Lr"..:rJ I
(
Transition - A section of variable J >'"..T" ~...;b Lr" t.. LJ:,j J Li.:...:.1 Ub-:....
pavement width required when chang Lr" JLL::...:,'1' ~ t'~ ..,o~1 ~
ing from one width of traveled way ~, -,' J-.jl IS""';-' 6.,)l.> ~, 6.,)l.>
to a greater or lesser width. .LDy:
fect a smooth transition from tan .,) L.....o ~I ...) L:.-Il J , ~ '11 Lr" J LL::...:, '11
gent to curved alignment. .~
•
-' ' ~I 0 .,)-' I ch-' Lr" ~ La-ll
rfaces of leaves or other parts •..::- L::. L,..:..J I-' .,) '~ '1 , Lr" IS""';- '1 , 0 I .)-?- '1 ,
UL trees and plants. Transpiration Lr" .,) Lh.... '1 , 6 L"...o ~~ 0~ I J--1.i.".-,
reduces the runoff of rainwater • 6~1 L;bL.......J1
Traveled Way - The portion of the ~...AJ' Lr" 0 ~, illj - ...,.,...-J I .k>
roadway for the movement of vehi o L..:....:...::. L...,. ..::- , .,) L."...-.J I 6.$ r-I ~I
cles, exclusive of shoulders and • y.;--UI ..::-1.,) L:.-II-, ~4--l1
auxiliary lanes.
Travel Speed - The average speed J..,b ~ '6.>- ...-J 1 J.l..A..o -.;---II 6s ..r
along a section of street. It is L...-j J.., l.> Y -' . t...,) L:..J I Lr" t.. Lb.J
travel time.
Travel Time Delay - The difference Lr"..:rJ' ~ 0...r"--l ' - ...,.,...-J I ? l.:. Lr".)
between actual travel time and .,r:-lJ ~ L2....o.J I Lr"..:rJ 1-' .,r:-lJ ~ I
ideal travel time under uncongested ~ t-.,. , ~ ~ .,)-'..T" "6.$? Jb ~
conditions, including deceleration ,'", t.....r-
.Jl-A-J'
, '1 I -' oLh...'11
' '--'---'
," IL -" 'I
v=->'-'-'
<!.LJj
and acceleration delays as well as .J-'"""y, ~ y.WI .y
stopped delay.
..
are measured as the traverse devel
ops.
68
Triaxial Shear Test - A test in .)J~I ~)l:.J1 ~I .)~I
which a cylindrical specimen of ..:ro .• ~' -,h- I ..:;.. ~ .u.)l;. ~~ .) L.,...:.>.'
~ L",.)."..,..... j.......;....::
.u...w..., ........ .. II
• .....,.-
~ ~
Truck - A motor vehicle designed -,T J-,i...:...J .~ '•.) L"..- - 'L.:.. L:.
for the transportation of goods or
t-'--J'
'YL.> ~-' L-r=-.)-' ~j-,1-, • J I ~,
..:ro
material whose unladen weight ex . r'?~ 10" .r 'o..J~'
ceeds 3,500 kg.
without full trailer, or a truck .~\ -,' ·u...LS '•.)~ '~L:. -,I
with one or more full trailers.
Trumpet Interchange An inter <.:- w.b L:i:.:..J, '-'- ~ ~b U.:; - ~.>-t ~ L.i.:,
change suitable for T-intersec T "-r" ~y ~ ~
tions.
~
Turning Lanes - Auxiliary lanes .
~ rLL::. Y~ <.:-'.)L> - ";Lb.£.;:l1 ..::..I.)L>
.. provided at erade intersections for JLk..sw), I ~ r..)';'- .. I LS~l <.:-L..bLi.:.
right- and left- turning movements. ..)L......"..J,-' ~l ~l
Turning Track Width - The radial 'u L......o.J \ - 0-::'-0' '•.) L,..-..J 1 ~..Y
l.>-::'.) Lb'11
distance between the turning paths ~..J-'>-U 0\.)-'.l..J' LS.}-?"-" ~ ....".~ ~ \
of the outside of the outer front ~~'-' .~L..o)'1 .)Lb'11 0-" Lr.'.JL>-J1
-U-
•
ternal to the traffic stream al
0~ A...:, I 0-" r-i
..r-l l ~ , ..)..J~ I 6.5...»
j>1..) 0-" "il....J<...,.L.. '-:-'L,.....~ c.1..)~1 c:,U-",1
• ")..J~1 6.5...»
causes internal to the traffic
stream.
tivity divided by a measure of c.l ..b- y -"J L..o.>. '11 ..)..\...9.J I ~ ")..l; ~
quantity such as total work units ••.)~' ,..::- '5.~1 J,....-....jl
completed.
-V-
Vehicle - Every device, in, upon,
..J 1 ~ '5. 1 ~ 6..J1 '5.' - A...,..S...JA
"r by which any person or property
, or may be, transported or drawn
upon a highway (except devices used
..J \
~..) ~f
dY
L.y.J.>.1..)
'11 r~
.~
~
'1
~f 0-"
~,
L......"..) ..J 1 c.l S \-.••
c.'1'l1
..JI
I..l;
Yy
L.)
(
exclusively upon rails or tracks). • ( ...."...)."...h.J \ I.!.15.-J.J 0 L..,....D.J
(
70
Visibility - The quality or state '.oiIbL:..o.Jl 'L! ~ -,'
.•~.,.,..:- - '6..,..,j.,rJl lS..I..o
of being perceivable by the eye. ..l."...l...stJ1 ~ '6..,..,j..r-l'
lS...Lo ..)~-' o~L..,.
observed from a moving vehicle. o .. 05~ ....J L.."..... .r oiIb L.:..". LS:LJ I ~ I
Stationary Vista - a view seen from oiIbL.:...". ,!?:LJl ~I .J-'b ..::......,.~I ..)~'-'
a fixed place or location; such as -,' 6.>'~1 ~..::......,.L:. e:JY -,I 0L.S..o 0-"
from a rest area or scenic over o ~ ..,..b...:..... ~ Jh.". 0 L.S..o
look.
-W-
Wadi - A stream or watercourse that U4 0-'.$..". ~Lo LS...P'-" -,' J-,~ - ~..)1-,
is dry except during periods of ..b:i....::. ~
.. I c-\..,r::.-iJ I 1..).s; l....o (' L...s.J \ J' ,.,.b
rainfall. o ..J L.h...o ~ , L~
~
Waste - Excess earth, rock, vegeta -,' ..J~I -,' .~~~, - '6..,..L.L
tion, or other materials resulting J~I 0-" .•-.U>....::...o ..), Y '!?, -' I c- L.::. L,...:..J'
from highway construction. o .J..):>-J 1 • L..:...,
Water Table - The top of the zone 6...,...r=--J I -' • La...l1 ~ f,J"L..a..::...J I e::b
of permanent soil saturation. The L~ 0-'~ .•...ih:....o .r '!?.rW I •~,
water table may rise or fall sea ~~ .D-, . ("-,...LJI ~ .~ .•....,-y:.:...J\
sonally, or it may be drawn down by • L."....o.....Y ~ -,' '-:"~ crLo..::...JI ch-
removal of water by drainage struc oJ? ,~L:.' ~~ 0-" ~ ~..J -,'
tures.
'6..,..~ I
~..".b-lJ
J.,. , y
rock, shale, etc., because of the . ·6..,..y-J1 <J-.'..,.......Jl ~ c-J' .00 ~I
Weaving Sections - Highway segments ~..):>-J' .r c-u Lh...; - . c.,.,.......:-JI <.:.oLs u...;
where the pattern of traffic en ..J-'~ I '.o5.,.».b..o..:. '!?..)~ ..:....".... ~..r-l'
tering and leaving at contiguous ..) l...S..::. .h L.i..:.. ~ .~..J L>-.J, -' .0....1.;., ...LJ I
points of access results in vehicle ~ ('y ~I .c-W.,.,......J, ~ <.r-"~
paths crossing each other. -.;:,I..JL.."..... ('Lol ~..):>-J! ~ c-I..JL."..-JI
'LS..,p-t
71
Well Graded - Aggregate material of c-~ .r ·~LS..> 4..)Lo - J..:...:>.J\ 4~
concrete.
-Y
.~ 01 ~ I?,.:.ul ~I ~ ~I
()-"
• '~~I d."...>.L..:...J\
•
produced.
(
72
Section 1.01 General
( \
Part 1 of Volume 2 describes the various design Section 1.12 Traffic Control Plans
elements that constitute the total roadway Section 1.13 Control of Traffic Through
composition. The elements discussed in this Construction
part are as follows: Section 1.14 Roadside Development
Section 1.02 Design Speed Section 1.15 Traffic Barriers
Section 1.03 Highway Capacity and Level Section 1.16 Sand Dune Control
of Service Section 1.17 Tunnel Design
Section 1.04 Access Control The purpose of Part 1 is to provide uniformity
Section 1.05 Geometric and Structure in the various classes of roadways in the King
Standards dom, giving the road user a consistent expec
Section 1.06 Geometric Cross Section tancy in operation. The various sections dis
Section 1.07 Grade Intersections cuss design element selection and provide
Section 1.08 Interchanges design standards to assure the required uni
Section 1.09 Structural Design of Flexible formity. Adherence to these standards along
Pavements with sound engineering judgment will provide
Section 1.10 Hydraulic Design
,
a safe, fast, and economical facility compatible
Section 1.11 Highway Lighting with its environment.
.A":;-;"
f'J
':t.
(
f
\
73
1.02 )
(
A. Selection The running speed is the speed of a vehicle
over a specified section of highway, being the
1. Speed
distance traveled divided by the running time
The value of a transportation facility in carry (the time the vehicle is in motion). One means
ing people and goods is judged by its conven of obtaining an equivalent average running
ience and economy, which are directly related speed on an existing facility where flow is rea
to its speed. The speed of vehicles depends, in sonably continuous is to measure the spot
addition to capabilities of the drivers and their speed.
vehicles, upon four general conditions: (1) the
physical characteristics of the highway and its The average spot speed is the arithmetic mean
roadsides, (2) the weather, (3) the presence of of the speeds of all traffic at a specified point.
other vehicles, and (4) the speed limitations For short sections of highway where speed
(either legal or because of control devices). Al characteristics do not vary that much, the av
though anyone of these may govern, the ef erage spot speed may be considered as being
fects of these conditions are usually combined. representative of the average running speed.
On longer stretches of rural highway, spot
The aim in design of the roadway is to satisfy speeds measured at several points, where each
the demands for service in the safest and most represents the speed characteristics pertinent
economical manner. In applying this principle
c
to a selected segment of highway, may be aver
to the design of highways, with particular ref aged (taking relative lengths into account) to
erence to speed demands, provision should be represent the average running speed.
made for a speed that satisfies nearly all
drivers. Only a small percentage of drivers After measuring average running speeds at
travel at extremely high speed, and it is not various locations along a section of roadway,
economically feasible to design for them. They the designer can identify those locations in
can use the highway, of course, but must travel similar terrain where speeds are not uniform
at speeds somewhat less than they consider with the rest of the section and make decisions
desirable. On the other hand, the speed, !-Josen for improvements. The average running speed
for design should not be so low that most may be converted to design speed from the
drivers would tend to exceed the speed and following Table 1.02.1.
involve themselves in unsafe situations. Table 1.02.1
Speeds should be consistent with driver expec Relation Between Design Speed and Average
are generally lower in rugged terrain and Design Speed Average Running Speed
densely developed urban areas than in open km/hr km/hr
terrain and sparse development. Drivers can 50 45
recognize the logic of this from the appearance 60 53
of the terrain and development along the 70 61
75
1.02 B
with respect to the topography, the adjacent curves that change the design speed by 10 km
land use, and the class of highway. Except for per hour through 800 m.
Once selected, all of the pertinent features of type highways. On rural highways or on high
the highway should be related to the design type urban facilities, a certain percentage of
speed to obtain a balanced design. Desirable vehicles are able to travel at or near the safe
design values should always be selected unless speed determined by geometric design ele
the MaC approves lesser values. Some fea ments, but on arterial streets the top speeds for
tures, such as curvature, superelevation, and several hours of the day are limited or regu
sight distance are directly related to, and vary lated to that at which the recurring peak
•
they affect vehicle speed, and higher standards
the through lanes and by control devices
•
fic volumes, and economic considerations.
tangent between sections of curved alignment
is apt to encourage high-speed operation. Geometric design features should be consistent :,
_.,.:se situations should be avoided since with a design speed selected as appropriate for
drivers will then tend to overdrive the section environmental and terrain conditions. Low de ',-.
of roadway. Therefore, the alignment must be sign speeds are generally applicable to high
generally compatible with the selected design ways with winding alignment in rolling or
speed to allow for consistency of driver expect mountainous terrain, or where environmental
highway, it is desirable, \... here feasible, to collectors, closely spaced intersections usually
assume a constant design speed. Changes in limit vehicular speeds and thus design speeds
terrain and other physical controls may dictate have little significance. Nevertheless, the
a change in design speed on certain sections. If longer sight distances and curve radii commen
so, the lower or higher design speed should not surate with the desirable design speed result in
be introduced abruptly but should be effected safer highways and shall be used to the extent
practical.
•
over sufficient distance to permit drivers to
change speed gradually before reaching this Rural arterials are designed primarily for fast
section of highway. A rule of thumb for reduc and safe movement of high volumes of traffic. '
ing or increasing design speed is to introduce To provide this service, desirable design speeds .- .,
76
1.02 B
are required. Since portions of the arterial *To provide a general basis of reference be
system pass through villages and small cities, tween terrain and geometric design, three
minimum standards may be necessary to fit classifications of terrain have been established,
local conditions. as defined below.
Because of varying situations that the designer • Flat: Level to moderately rolling. This ter
faces in the design of urban arterials, he must rain offers few or no obstacles to the con
determine the degree of interruption that can struction of a highway having continuously
be expected before selecting the proper design unrestricted horizontal and vertical align
speed. Table 1.02.3 contains the design speeds ment.
applicable for three separate conditions for ur • Rolling: Hills and foothills. Slopes rise and
ban arterials. The three conditions are as fol fall gently but occasional steep slopes may
lows: offer some restriction to horizontal and ver
• Outlying sections that approach rural condi tical alignment.
tions. • Mountainous: Rugged foothills, high steep
• Areas with minimal interruptions or con drainage divides, and mountain ranges.
trolled access. Terrain classification pertains to the general
• Areas of high volumes and considerable character of the specific route corridor. Roads
interruptions, such as found in downtown in valleys or passes of mountainous areas may
areas. have all the characteristics of roads traversing
flat or rolling terrain and should be classified
The highest type of highway is the expressway.
~
\
Essential expressway elements include
as flat or rolling rather than mountainous. Re
gardless of topographic features, different ter
medians, grade separations at cross streets,
rain type classifications shall not be introduced
ramp connections for entrance to and exit
more often than every 15 km.
from the travel lanes (for interchange of traf
fic), and (in some cases) frontage highways. Table 1.02.3
77
1.03 A
Table 1.03.1
Level of Service Characteristics by Highway Type
Level of Multilane Rural
Controlled Access Highway Two Lanes Urban and Suburban Arterials
Service Without Access Control
Free flow. Operaling speeds at Operating speed 95 km/h or great- Operating speeds of95 km/h Average overalilravel speed of
or greater than 95 km/h. Service er. Under ideal conditions, vol- ar higher. 75 percent of 50 km/h or more. Free flowing
volume of 1,400 vph on two lanes, ume is limited h\!>OO vph or 30 passing maneuvers can be with volumelcapacity ratio of
A one direction. Each additional percent of capacity. Average made with little or no 0.60. Load factor al intersec-
Jane serves volume of 1,00'J vph speeds are likely to be influ- delay. Under ideal condi- tions near the limit of the 0.0
lane. enced by speed limits. tions, a servIce volume range. Peak-hour factor at about
i of 400 vph, two-way, 070.
:"'"
~
Higher speed range of stable
flow. Operating speed at great-
er than 90 km/h. Service volume
Beginningofstable flow area.
Volume at which actions ofpre-
ceding vehicle will have some
can be achieved.
OperatIng speeds of80 km/h
or higher. Volumes may
reach 45 percent of capacity
Average overall speeds drop due
to intersection delay and inter-
vehicular conflicls, but remain
on two lanes in one direction influence on following vehicles. with continuous passing at 40 km/h or above. Delay is
B not greater than 2.00'J vph. Volume will not exceed 50 per- sighl distance. Volumes of not unreasonable. Volumes at 70
Each additional lane above cent of capacity of I,OO'J vph 900 vph, two-way, can be percent of capacity and peak-hour
two in one direction can serve at a 90 km/h operaling speed carried under ideal conditions. factor approximately 0.80. Load
1,500 vph. under ideal conditions. factor at intersections approxi-
mately 0.1.
Operation still stable, but be- Stable flow to a volume not Flow still stable. Operating Service volumes about 0.8D of
coming more critical. Operating exceeding 75 percent of capacity speeds of 65 km/h or above capacity. Average overall
speed of 80 km/h and service flow of 1,500 vph, under ideal with total volume under ideal travel speeds oflO km/h. Operat-
on two lanes in one direction at conditions maintaining at least conditions equal to 70 per- ing conditions at most interscc-
C 75 percent of capacity or not a 70 km/h operating speed. cenl of capacity with cantin- tions approximate load factor
more than 5 min. flow rate of uous passing sight distance, of 0.1. Peak-hour factor approx-
3,OO'Jvph. Under ideal or 1,400 vph. two-way imately 0.85. Traffic flow still
conditions each additional slable with acceptable delays.
lane above 11"0 in one direction
would serve 1.800 vph.
Lower speed range of stable flow. Approaching unstable flow at Approaching unstable flow. Beginning to tax capabilities of
Operation approaches instability volume up t090 percent of Operating speeds approxi. street section. Approaching
and is susceptible to changing cap~city of 1,800 vph at an mately 55 km/h. Volumes, unstable flow. Service volumes
conditions. Operating speeds I operating speed of about 55 km/h two-direction, at 85 percent approach 90 percent ofcapacity.
0 approx. 65 km/h and service flow under ideal conditions. of capacity with continuous Average overall speeds down to
rates at 90 percent of capacity. passing opportunity, or 25 km/h. Delays at intersections
Peak 5 min. flow under ideal 1,700 vph under ideal conditions. may become extensive with some
.~~ condition cannot exceed 3,600 cars waiting two or mare cycles.
vph for two-lanes, one direction; Peak-hour factor approximately
I ,ROO vph for each added lane. 0.90; load factor of 0.7.
Unstable flow. Overall operating Flow at 100 percent of capacity Operating speeds in neighbor- Service volumes at capacity.
speeds ofSO-55 km/h. Volumes at or 2,00'J vph under ideal hood of SO km/h but may vary Average overall traffic varia-
capacity of2,00'J vph lane under conditions. Operating speeds considerably. Volumes under ble. but in area of25 km/h. Un-
E ideal conditions. Traffic flow of about 50 km/h or less. ideal conditions, two-way, stable flow. Continuous backup
metered by design constructions equal to 2,00'J vph. on approaches to intersections.
and bottlenecks, but long backups Level E may never be attained Load factor at intersections in
do not normally develop upstream Operations may go directly range between 0.7 and 1.0. Peak-
from Level D to Level F. hour factor likely to beO.95.
Forced flow. Expressway acts as Forced flow, congested condition Forced, congested flow with Forced flow. Average overall
a storage for vehicles backed up with widely varying volume char- unpredictable characteris- traffic speed below 25 km/h. All
from downstream bottleneck. acteristics. Operating speeds tics. Operating speeds less intersections handling traffic in
F Operating speeds range from ofIess than 50 km/h. I than 50 km/h. Volumes under excess of capacity with storage
near 50 km/h to stop-and-go 2,00'J vph. two-way. distributed throughout the sec-
operation. tion. Vehicular backups extend
back from signalized intersec-
tions, through unsignalized
intersections.
<
79
1.03 B
General operating conditions for levels of Values for ~ for undivided highways are
service: c
taken from Table 1.03.4. Values for T are the
A-Free flow; low volumes and high speeds.
B-Stable flow; speeds beginning to be re
same as for expressways and are given in Ta
bles 1.03.3 and 1.03.5. Values for W depend on
(
stricted by traffic conditions. whether the highway is divided or undivided.
c- Unstable flow zone; most drivers re For undivided highways, these are given in Ta
stricted in freedom to select their own ble 1.03.6 and for divided highways in Table
speed. 1.03.7.
D-Approaches unstable flow; drivers have
little freedom to maneuver. Example
E- Flow is unstable; may be short Find the number of lanes required at level of
stoppages. service C in the uphill direction of an
undivided rural highway at the end of a 1.0 km
Table 1.03.2
long, 3-percent grade. The average highway
Guide for Selection of Design
speed is 100 km/h, lane width is 3.65 m and
Levels of Service
trucks constitute 7 percent of the one-way de
Type of Area and
sign hour volume (DHV) of 2,000 vehicles per
Highway
Appropriate Level of Service
hour (v/h). There is a 1.0 m wall located 1.5 m
Type from the edge of the traveled way.
Rural Rural Rural Urban and
Level Rolling Mountainous Suburban Solution
~,.mary
Secondary
Feeder
B
C
D
C
D
B
80
Table 1.03.3
Passenger Car Equivalents of Trucks and/or Buses on Multilane Highways,
( On Specific Individual Subsections or Grades
&c
4*
4.0
5.0
0.5
10
10
12
10
10
9
9
10
5
9
10
4
9
10
4
1.0 12 9 6 6 6
1.5 12 10 7 7 8
2.0 12 10 9 9 9
3.0 12 11 11 11 11
4.0 12 11 12 12 12
5.0 12 12 13 13 13
6.0 12 13 15 15 14
5** 0.5 13 10 6 5 4
1.0 13 tl 8 7 8
1.5 13 12 9 9 10
2.0 13 13 11 11 11
3.0 13 14 14 14 13
4.0 13 15 16 IS IS
* Values with dot (-). add 1 for service levels D and E.
** For 6-percent grade. add 1 (upprox.) to E, values for 5-percent grade.
(\
81
Table 1.03.4
Level
Operating Value i AHSof Four·Lane Hwy. Six-Lane Hwy. Each
Of Speed; For AHS (Two Lanes, (Three Lanes, Additional
Service Description km/h of 120 km/h 100 km/h 80 km/h One Direction) One Direction) Lane
A Free Flow ;" 100 ""o.30 - ii - ii 1,200 1,800 600
B Stable Flow
(Upper Speed
Unstable Flow
;" 55 ""0.95 ""0.90 ""0.70 3,800 5,700 1,900
Eiii Unstable Flow 50iv "" 1.00 4,000 6,000 2,000
F Forced Flow ",,50 iv Not Meaningful V
Widely Variable (0 to Capacity)
~perating speed and basic ~ ratio are independent measures of level of service: both limits must be satisfied in any
aeterminatiOIl of level. C
;; Operating speed required for this level is Ilot attainable even at low volumes.
iii Capacity.
i' Approximately.
c
•
Table 1.03.5
Adjustment Factors for Trucks and Buses on Individual Roadway Subsections or Grades
On Multilane Highways
8 0.93 0.88 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.67 0.64 0.61 0.59 0.54 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.42
9 0.93 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.68 0.64 0.61 0.58 0.56 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.41 0.38
10 0.92 0.85 0.79 0.74 0.69 0.65 0.61 0.58 0.55 0.53 0.48 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.36
11 0.91 0.83 0.77 0.71 0.67 0.63 0.59 0.56 0.53 0.50 0.45 0.42 0.38 0.36 0.33
12 0.90 0.82 0.75 0.69 0.65 0.60 0.57 0.53 0.50 0.48 0.43 0.39 0.36 0.34 0.31
13 0.89 0.81 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.54 0.51 0.48 0.45 0.41 0.37 0.34 0.32 0.29
14 0.88 0.79 0.72 0.66 0.61 0.56 0.52 0.49 0.46 0.43 0.39 0.35 0.32 0.30 0.28
15 0.88 0.78 0.70 0.64 0.59 0.54 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.42 0.37 0.34 0.31 0.28 0.26
{
\
82
Table 1.03.6
Combined Effect of I~ane Width and Restricted Lateral Clearance on Capacity and
Distance
(Includes Allowance for Obstructions on Both Sides of
From Edge Opposing Traffic on Left) One-Direction Traveled Wayiii,iv
Traveled
War (m) Lane
Width
3.65 3.50 3.25 3.65 3.50 3.25
(m)
Four-Lane Undivided Highway, One Direction of Travel
2.0 1.00 0.98 0.94 NA NA NA
1.5 0.99 0.97 0.92 NA NA NA
1.0 0.97 0.95 0.91 NA NA NA
0.5 0.94 0.91 0.88 0.93 0.90 0.87
0 0.89 0.87 0.84 0.81 0.80 0.77
Six-Lane Undivided Highway, One Direction of Travel
•
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
1.00
1.00
0.99
0.97
0.95
0.98
0.97
0.96
0.94
0.92
0.94
0.93
0.92
0.90
0.88
NA
NA
NA
0.96
0.91
NA
NA
NA
0.93
0.89
NA
NA
NA
0.88
0.85
; Divided highways. one directio'l of travel. use adjustment factors from Table 1.03.12.
ii Same adjustments for capacity and all levels of service.
iij Appropriate for use only where normally undivided roadway is temporarily separated into two roadways by
obstruCfions such as median barriers. bridge s'tructural clements. piers, and the like, which are closer than would he
the opposing traffic.
J' .\'.4 is "not applicable." Use adjustment of obstruction all rig/It side only. [n these cases clearance is lemporarily
greater than the usual separation from opposing Traffic but adjustment for this temporary improvement is not feasible.
Table 1.03.7
Combined Effect of I~ane Width and Restricted Lateral Clearance on Capacity and
~
\e~- ..
Adjustment Factor i , W, for Lane Width and Lateral Clearance
Obstruction on One Side of Obstructions on Both Sides of
Distance One-Direction Roadway One·Direction Roadway
From Traffic
Lane Edge
3.65 m 3.50 m 3.25 m 3.65 m 3.50 m 3.25 m
To Obstruction.
(m)
Four-Lane Divided Highwar, One Direction of Travel
2.0 1.00 0.99 0.96 1.00 0.99 0.96
1.5 1.00 0.98 0.95 0.99 0.98 0.94
1.0 0.98 0.97 0.93 0.97 0.93 0.91
0.5 0.96 0.94 0.90 0.92 0.90 0.87
0 0.91 0.89 0.85 0.81 0.80 0.78
Six· and Eight-Lane Divided Highway, One Direction of Travel
2.0 1.00 0.99 0.95 1.00 0.94 0.89
1.5 1.00 0.98 0.93 0.99 0.93 0.87
1.0 0.99 0.96 0.92 0.98 0.91 0.85
0.5 0.97 0.94 0.91 0.96 0.89 0.83
0 0.94 0.93 0.90 0.92 0.85 0.81
;Same adjustments for capacity and all levels of service.
\.
83
1.03 C
C. Two-Lane Highways • Capacity
1. General SV = 2,000 ( ~) T W
Service volumes and capacities for two-lane
highways are always both directions without
v
- = 1.0 (Table 1.03.8)
(
c
regard to the distribution of volume by direc
T = 0.56 (Table 1.03.9)
tion.
W = 0.67 (Table 1.03.12)
The procedure for the analysis of two-lane Capacity SV = 2,000 X 1.0 X 0.56 x 0.67
highway is expressed in the basic equation: = 750 v/h total both directions
SV = 2,000 ( ~ ) T W
2. Passing Opportunity
For purpose of capacity analysis it is assumed
where SV = Service volume in vehicles per that passing opportunities (PO) may occur
hour (total for both directions) only when the passing sight distance (SD) is
greater than 450 m. This distance is measured
~ = Service volume to capacity ratio
from height of driver's eye (1.05 m above pave
T = Adjustment for trucks on grades ment surface) to the height of object (1.36 m).
(truck adjustment factor)
W = Adjustment for width and lateral Availability of PO is expressed as a percentage
clearance of the length of highway in which the SD is
450 m or more. It is important to remember
•
'T'1,~ value ~ depends on average highway that the 450 m from driver's eye to pavement
c surface, past which the SD becomes less than
s1!eed, level of service, and percentage of avail 450 m, should not be included in the length of
able passing opportunity greater than 450 m. roadway on which PO is available. (See Figure
1.03.1 ).
1.03.8. Values T for various percentages of continually. Where the SD remains 450 m con
trucks and character of terrain are given in tinuously along an extended length of road
Table 1.03.9. These are generalized adjustment way, as across the inside of a long horizontal
factors for the use in the analysis of extended curve in a cut section, the percentage of availa
lengths of a two-lane highways that may in ble PO would effectively be less than 100 per
clude a number of different grades. cent because some of the drivers would not
a two-lane highway having a specific grade and considered that all drivers will take advantage
length of grade, the passenger car equivalent is of passing opportunities only when the contin
found from Table 1.03.10 and used to find T uous SD reaches approximately 600 m. The
Values of W for levels of service Band E are of available passing opportunities where the
Al,tained directly from Table 1.03.12. Values SD is limited continuously to one valve.
Determine the service volume at level of serv rection. On sufficiently long sections, however,
ice C and the capacity of a section of a two the available passing opportunities will be
lane highway, AHS=80 km/h with 50 percent nearly the same in either direction and averag
0.5 m lateral clearance on each side. The sec 3. Climbing Lane Sections
tion is in rolling terrain and trucks constitute
20 percent of the traffic. Sections of a two-lane highway that include an
uphill climbing lane may be analyzed in the
• Solution
same manner as ordinary two-lane sections,
Level of Service C
with some modification of the procedures for
SV = 2,000 ( ~) T W
determining the percentage of available pass
ing opportunities and the truck adjustment
v factor T.
- = 0.38 (Table 1.03.8)
c
Trucks in the uphill climbing lane have no
T = 0.56 (Table 1.03.9)
effect on the capacity of the free uphill lane
W = 0.62 (Table 1.03.12 interpolated)
a. Speed
Range)
40
20
0
0.39
0.36
0.30
0.27
0.24
0.18
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
" " V
'Operating speed and basic - ratio are independent measures oj level oj service. Both limits must be satisfied in any determi
nation oj level. c
;, Where no entry appears, opcraling speed required Jar this level is unatwinable even at low volumes.
iii Capacity.
;, Approxima tely.
"No Passing.
'"; Demand volume capacity ratio may well exceed 1.00 indicating overloading.
J
~,
85
Table 1.03.9
•
16 0.76 0.81 0.86 0.68 0.61 0.61 0.51 0.41 0.36
18 0.74 0.80 0.85 0.65 0.58 0.58 0.48 0.38 0.34
I 20 0.71 0.77 0.83 0.63 0.56 0.56 0.45 0.36 0.31
j Applicable to buses under most conditio/Is.
i! Capacity.
Table 1.03.10
Passenger Car Equivalents of Trucks on Two-Lane Highways,
On Specific Individual Subsections or Grades
Passenger Car Passenger Car
Equivalent, E T for All Equivalent, E T for All
Percentages of Trucks Percentages of Trucks
Length Level of Length Level of
Of Level of Level of Service Of Level of Level of Service
Grade, Grade, Service Service D and E Grade, Grade,. Service Service D and E
Percent km A and B C (Capacity) Percent km A and B C (Capacity1
0-2 All 2 2 2 0-2 All 2 2 2
~ 0.5
1.0
7
12
5
13 II
3 3.0
4.0
37
38
53
55
62
65
(
1.5 16 20 18 5.0 39 56 66
2.0 18 23 24 6.0 40 57 67
3.0 21 27 28 6 0.5 28 31 34
4.0 22 29 30 1.0 36 52 60
5.0 22 30 31 1.5 40 58 69
6.0 23 31 32 2.0 43 61 73
4 0.5 9 10 7 3.0 46 64 79
1.0 19 25 26 4.0 48 67 83
1.5 25 34 37 5.0 49 69 85
2.0 28 37 42 6.0 50 70 86
3.0 30 41 46 7 0.5 33 48 56
4.0 31 43 49 1.0 48 68 80
5.0 31 44 50 1.5 52 73 88
6.0 32 45 51 2.0 55 77 93
5 0.5 15 19 19 3.0 58 81 99
1.0 27 39 43 4.0 59 83 102
1.5 32 46 52 5.0 60 85 105
2.0 35 49 57 6.0 61 87 107 (
86
Table 1.03.11
Adjustment Factors i , ii for Trucks on Individual Roadway Subsections
( Or Grades on Two-Lane Highways Incorporating Passenger Equivalent
And Percentage of Trucks
Pas-
senger Truck Adjustment Factor, T
Car
Equiv-
Percentage of Trucks, P T
alent,
~lij 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20
2 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.89 0.88 0.86 0.85 0.83
3 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.93 0.91 0.89 0.88 0.86 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.71
4 0.97 0.94 0.92 0.89 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.79 0.77 0.74 0.70 0.68 0.65 0.63
5 0.96 0.93 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.81 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.71 0.68 0.64 0.61 0.58 0.56
6 0.95 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.80 0.77 0.74 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.63 0.59 0.56 0.53 0.50
7 0.94 0.89 0.85 0.81 0.77 0.74 0.70 0.68 0.65 0.63 0.58 0.54 0.51 0.48 0.45
8 0.93 0.88 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.67 0.64 0.61 0.59 0.54 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.42
9 0.93 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.68 0.64 0.61 0.58 0.56 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.41 0.38
10 0.92 0.85 0.79 0.74 0.69 0.65 0.61 0.58 0.55 0.53 0.48 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.36
11 0.91 0.83 0.77 0.71 0.67 0.63 0.59 0.56 0.53 0.50 0.45 0.42 0.38 0.36 0.33
12 0.90 0.82 0.75 0.69 0.65 0.60 0.57 0.53 0.50 0.48 0.43 0.39 0.36 0.34 0.31
;~.
13 0.89 0.81 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.54 0.51 0.48 0.45 0.41 0.37 0.34 0.32 0.29
14 0.88 0.79 0.72 0.66 0.61 0.56 0.52 0.49 0.46 0.43 0.39 0.35 0.32 0.30 0.28
15 0.88 0.78 0.70 0.64 0.59 0.54 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.42 0.37 0.34 0.31 0.28 0.26
16 0.87 0.77 0.69 0.63 0.57 0.53 0.49 0.45 0.43 0.40 0.36 0.32 0.29 0.27 0.25
17 0.86 0.76 0.68 0.61 0.56 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.34 0.31 0.28 0.26 0.24
18 0.85 0.75 0.66 0.60 0.54 0.49 0.46 0.42 0.40 0.37 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.25 0.23
19 0.85 0.74 0.65 0.58 0.53 0.48 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.36 0.32 0.28 0.26 0.24 0.22
20 0.84 0.72 0.64 0.57 0.51 0.47 0.42 0.40 0.37 0.34 0.30 0.27 0.25 0.23 0.21
22 0.83 0.70 0.61 0.54 0.49 0.44 0.40 0.37 0.35 0.32 0.28 0.25 0.23 0.21 0.19
24 0.81 0.68 0.59 0.52 0.47 0.42 0.38 0.35 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.18
26 0.80 0.67 0.57 0.50 0.44 0.40 0.36 0.33 0.31 0.29 0.25 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.17
28 0.79 0.65 0.55 0.48 0.43 0.38 0.35 0.32 0.29 0.27 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.16
30 0.78 0.63 0.53 0.46 0.41 0.36 0.33 0.30 0.28 0.26 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.15
35 0.75 0.60 0.49 0.42 0.37 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.25 0.23 0.20 0.17 0.16 0.14 0.13
40 0.72 0.56 0.46 0.39 0.34 0.30 0.27 0.24 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.15 0.14 0.12 0.11
45 0.69 0.53 0.43 0.36 0.31 0.27 0.25 0.22 0.20 0.19 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.11 0.10
50 0.67 0.51 0.40 0.34 0.29 0.25 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.17 0.15 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.09
55 0.65 0.48 0.38 0.32 0.27 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.16 0.13 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.08
60 0.63 0.46 0.36 0.30 0.25 0.22 0.19 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08
65 0.61 0.44 0.34 0.28 0.24 0.21 0.18 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07
'f 70
75
80
0.59
0.57
0.56
0.42
0.40
0.39
0.33
0.31
0.30
0.27
0.25
0.24
0.22
0.21
0.20
0.19
0.18
0.17
0.17
0.16
0.15
0.15
0.14
0.14
0.14
0.13
0.12
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.11
0.10
0.10
0.09
0.09
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.06
0.06
90 0.53 0.36 0.27 0.22 0.18 0.16 0.16 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.05
100 0.50 0.34 0.25 0.20 0.17 0.14 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.05
100
I Computed by -_.........::...=...::_-
(100 PI + EI PI)'
Ii Used to convert equivalent passenger car volumes to actual mixed traffic; use reciprocal oj these values 10 COli vert mixed
traffic to equivalent passenger cars.
iii From Table 1.03.10.
87
Table 1.03.12
Combined Effect of Lane Width and Restricted Lateral Clearance on Capacity and Service
Volumes of Two-Lane Highways with Uninterrupted Flow
Adjustment FlIctor WI. lind We for Lateral C1ellrance and Lane Width;
(
Distance From
Obstruction un One Side Only;; Obstruction on 80th Sides;;
Traffic Lane
Edge to 3.65 m 3.50 m 3.25 m 3.65 m 3.50 m 3.25 m
Obstruction, m Level Level Lewt Level Level Level Level
Level Level Level Level Level
8 Eiii 8 E iii 8 Eiii 8 E iii 8 E iii B Eiii
2.0 1.00 1.00 o.n 0.94 0.83 0.86 1.00 1.00 0.94 0.95 0.84 0.87
1.5 1.00 1.00 O.<)() 0.91 0.81 0.84 1.00 1.00 0.88 0.90 0.79 0.83
1.0 0.98 1.00 0.8h 0.87 0.77 0.81 0.93 0.95 0.80 0.85 0.72 0.78
0.5 0.95 1.00 0.82 0.84 0.74 0.78 0.84 0.88 0.72 0.78 0.66 0.72
0 0.92 0.95 0.7S 0.81 0.70 0.75 0.75 0.81 0.64 0.70 0.58 0.65
Adjustment We given for Level E. ca!"lcity. and WI. for Level B. interpolate for others.
i
iiIncludes allowance for opposing traJ)ie.
in Capacity.
Table 1.03.13
•
Effective Passing Opportunity
Continuous Effective Available
Sight Distance (m) Passing Oportunity, Percent
450 25
500 50
520 70
550 85
'i80 95
hOO 100
ml"O
:::l
C. 0
(j)
I~
.-0 ,,~
\5'0 ,,~.;
-.\~
~ ,,<0
'? /'
--~------
~.,-.:J""~"'-------
\,\\s\ ~S~\3"\"
C
I Direction of traffic 01
I~
.........
~ \..:03'J
,,5
-:;..--:::
sa ~ \e Eo
3S\ IJ, i\\3'O, /
.-/'/ '
....--:y
• ......•.
.'
'.
ff
\. "SO '0
\ ./
I=-----:'
Figure 1.03.1
Measun'l11cnt of Available Passing Opportunity
88
•
1.03 I
cient to use one half the actual percentage of to any other chart in order to analyze a given
trucks in the total traffic volume when select section of expressway.
( ing the truck adjustment factor in Table
1.03.10. Furthermore, since all trucks to be
The charts are based on 3.65 m lanes, full
width shoulders, and adequate clearances.
accounted for in the adjustment are operating
in the downhill direction, an equivalent of two The charts are extremely flexible and can be
passenger cars for each truck is used. used in a number of ways. The major variables
are the level of service, the number of lanes,
In general, climbing lanes shall be provided
and the expressway volume, and anyone of
where the effect of slow moving trucks is to
three can be found from the other two. Con
bring the level of service below the desired
struction lines on Figures 1.03.2, 1.03.4, and
minimum. Climbing lanes should be extended
1.03.6 present examples that demonstrate how
sufficiently far beyond the top of the grade to
the charts are used.
permit trucks to accelerate to normal speed
before merging with other traffic. Older expressways may have lower design
standards than modern expressways, including
It is important when analyzing an extended
lane widths less than 3.65 m and lateral
length of highway that the length be divided
clearances less than 2.0 m. The expressway
into sections within which the design charac
charts in Figures 1.03.2 to 1.03.6 may also be
teristics are consistent. As a guide, the design
used for the analysis of older expressways. The
speeds on the various segments within each
procedure is to find the service volume from
analysis section should not vary more than
the expressway chart and then adjust it by
20 km/h.
means of the appropriate factor for lane width
(" D. Expressways and lateral clearance from Table 1.03.7. The
factor may be applied either before entering
Figures 1.03.2 to 1.03.6 combine in one set of
the chart when the expressway volume is
simple nomographs all the procedural steps for
known or to the re~ult from the chart when the
analyzing expressways.
volume is to be determined.
The three axes of the chart represent the serv
1. Example
ice volume per lane, the percentage of trucks in
the expressway volume and the expressway Given
volume in one direction. Supplementary scales Eight-lane expressway through industrial area
for service volume per lane are indicated for
PHF = 0.90 Trucks = 420 v/h
the first axis and are used only when the lane
AHS = 110 km/h (P T = 15%)
service volumes for a given level of service and
Lane width = 3.65 m DHV = 2,800 v/h
a given peak-hour flow are required. If the
Lateral clearances = 2.0 m Grade = 4%
peak-hour flow is not known, it may be as
Length = 3 km
sumed on the basis of the metropolitan area
population. Suggested values are 0.91 for areas 2. Determine
of over a million population, 0.83 for areas Level of service on 3 km upgrade section of
between 500,000 and 1 million population, and expressway.
{ 0.77 for areas under 500,000 population. For
rural expressways, the peak-hour flow is
assumed to be 1.0.
3. Solution
Use Figure 1.03.3 for AHS of 110 km/h
Each of the five charts applies for a different Enter with Vf = 2,800 v/h
average highway speed covering the range For grade 4%, Length 3 km, and P T = 15%
from 120 km/h in Figure 1.03.2 to 80 km/h in E t = 11
Figure 1.03.6. Once the average highway speed Turn at PHF = 0.90
has been selected, no reference need be made Intersect ray for four lanes in zone for level of
service E.
89
\0
o ,
J\'\ 1\ -150
\ \ , "'1\<\ --l
~ r\ 1\ 1\ 1\ \ ~~~ 2
40 ()
120 km/h I I , ,I ,I I I
2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000
v V, -Expressway volume, one direction (v/h)
Figure 1.03.2
r--,
~ ~
•
E- Passenger Car Equivalents of Trucks
on Expressways
Grade Up Trucks-Percent of Vr
% Length km 3% 5% 10% 15% 20%
0.1 all 2 2 2 2 2
0.5 4 4 4 3 3
1.0 5 5 5 4 4
1.5 7 5 5 4 5
2.0 7 5 5 6 6
2 3.0 7 6 6 6 6
4.0 7 7 7 7 7
5.0 7 7 8 8 8
6.0 7 7 8 8 8
0.5 10 8 5 4 3
1.0 10 8 5 5 4
1.5 10 8 6 5 6
3 2.0 10 9 7 6 6
3.0 10 9 8 7 I 8
--
4.0 10 10 9 9 9
5.0 10 10 10 10 10
0.5 12 9 5 4 4
1.0 12 9 6 6 6
1.5 12 10 7 7 8
2.0 12 10 9 9 9
4 30 12 11 II II II
I 4.0 12 11 12 12 12
5.0 12 12 13 13 \3
6.0 12 13 15 15 14
0.5 13 10 6 5 4
1.0 13 11 I 8 7 6
1.5 \3 12 I 9 9 10
5 2.0 13 13 0 II II II
- 3.0
4.0
13
13
14
15
I 14
16
14
IS
\3
IS-
o Add one for service levels D and E.
--For 8% grade, add one (approx.) 10 3 values for 5% grade.
f
.~ Figure 1.03.2
Nomograph for Expressway Levels of Service,
Service Volumes, and Capacity
Average Highway Speed (Cont.)
91
\0
IV \I K \" \ I ," I"' -1 50
\ \ 1\ \ ~
\ 1\ 1\ \ \ \ \ ~ ~
\ \ \, " ' \ ~ U'C!J., 40 ~
\ 1\ 0', 1'\ <1' "'\ \ IY~ ~
\ -0 r\ ,\""?" '\ [\9'''''61 - 30 ~
\\ -;'.,.1""- " \ . I\. " , , \ Y~i - ~
,,\ ?v I'" ~ '\ " ~ I\.. I"'- '", T~., ~
." " %
- 20 '"
~~"~~l~ ~ ~ , ~~ ~ ~ ~~ - ~~
"~~ "- ;-.. . . . . . ""r-..... r---- "" 'c..., ~
~~~f:::::-r:::::: K ...... ~f': .....'t--.... "" '\ 10
0;:::-
<0 ...... --.:::::
g.3
~ I--. ........... t:::::~ ~N '\ - co
Level of service
,--- -
16
c 20 ~~-~H-~--";+---f~r-:i;;~
'" 16 118
.g 14+
'6 18 ~I- - - ,.,';"'--I-i--+++---t'fl--T';:;-:;;f oj, I III,L I II I,L I II 10L II
c 14 I 16
o
u 16
1~'00
ca 12+ 4
Q)
12
:2
.2 10+
r
12
14~-~--ft--tr~~I/f
10
oo'"
12 ~-------;1+b:4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~f"'1
i ~~~i}'>
Q) phf 6
~~~~-~--Jr@~~~~~~~
c
ro
~
Q)
4
Q.
Q) 2
E
OJ
o>
.~
e -----------HtJ
(}5 110 km/h
10,000
VI -Expressway volume, one direction (v/h)
Figure 1.03.3
~.
~ /'"
•
/
(
5.0 10 10 10 10 10
0.5 12 9 5 4 4
1.0 12 l) 6 6 6
1.5 12 10 7 7 8
2.0 12 10 I 9 9 I)
4 3.0 12 11 I II 11 11
4.0 n- Il 12 12 12
5.0 12 12 13 13 13
6.0 12 13 15 15 14
0.5 13 10 6 5 4
1.0 13 Jl 8 7 8
1.5 13 12 9 9 10
.
5 2.0
30
4.0
13
13
13
13
14
15
11
14
16
11
14
IS
II
13
IS
• Add one for service levels D and E.
--For 6% grade, add one (approx.) to 3 values for 50/< grade.
t: Figure 1.03.3
"" Nomograph for Expressway Levels of Service,
93
1.0
... --.--.~ -150
\1
1\ 1 \
~"\ \
~,~
1\"·_ ~ 40 9"2
LL~ \1~+~+~\d-IITv\~
1\ 1\ "I \
1\ I, -., \ rn
r\ '\ \ r-.. \ "'t<3 <J
r
1\ \ 6' 6'\ <S 1\ '" \ . " ," 9'...11l _ 30 So
<D
100 km/h
2,000
~ V, -Expressway volume, one direction (v/h)
Figure 1.03,4
Nomograph for Expressway Levels of Service,
Service Volumes, and Capacity
Average Highway Speed-IOO km/h
/'
~
(
/ . '•
1 .
4
O,S
1.0
L5
2,0
3,0
4,0
S,O
6,0
12"
12"
12"
12"
12"
12"
12"
12"
9
9
10
10
11
11
12
13
S
6
7
9
II
12
13
IS
4
6
7
9
11
12
13
15
4
6
8
9
II
12
13
14
O,S 13" 10 6 5 4
1.0 13" 11 8 7 8
L5 13" 12" 9 9 10
S 2.0 13" 13" II" 11 11
"" 3,0 13" 14" 14" 14" 13"
4,0 13" IS" 16" IS" 1S"
" Add one for service levels D and E,
""For 6% grade, add One (approx,) to 3 values for 5% grade,
95
\D
0'.
\ \ 1\ \ \ - 50
'\ '\ r\ I\~
1\ r\ r\ \ ::;!
1\ 1\ '\ ~ c:
40 o
,..
'\' \ \ 1\ r\ il'~ ro
/J)
'\:\ "', 6'".s \. i\. \ \Y~ oR.
o
\ -0 '" \. I'v, \ \ ~~ 30 8
(1)
1\\ ~ I\. \ '" I\.. I'\.. if Y~i x
"0
in
/J)
i'.\ ?v, I\.. "" '" ",- f'.... i"-.. I" "', ~ /J)
20 ::E
I~M~~I~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~v~ ro
"<
."-- .....
" I'-... r'--." 1"--1' . . .' 1'-.. f'.... I"" ,,(> <
.......-::~
1~1{j
~ o
C
I""':~ t--::::: f::::- h::-t----.. i"'--..t--... f"-..-f'....t-.......... t--.... '- \'" 10 3(1)
o -..;;:...;: :::::;; E=::::: :::::: t;:::: \.
Level of service
~t-[5t:::::~t:---.l'-....1 ~ ~_
/J) ...-----,----..,--...---,----,--,-------,
c: o
g 16 f- c:- Cap city ¥
'6
16,18~20
c: ) f- () J
.: : <Z> / <Z> -; y max
o
(J
14-r r16 1 18B f ! ! ( c:- I, 0.20 0040 0.60 0.80 1.0o
Cii 14 .f-
Q) ~o-/r-, V'" / >~ IA <;:-<1>
:Q 16
12 14
E 12 :f-- #- / (' / V [7
/J)
14
(:, 10 12 ; f-- ~-L - l/J I-- ~ / / /11 IV 11/ / 1/J [~ -:% r% f/:; l;%:v~v~r/ //.. ~ t%- .~ ~ ~ V'
o I mxO/ /'00,' //r//,/'/.'/,// /
1/1'/,
10.L .L 12 ~! /~/ ~/~v:/ /':r.V
(J
! I II :/1/ ,,,/~o,~~ / '~~)J~0 ~/~~:%-~~~~ ~~~B~
0. ~ ~ ~ : .cff/ I 0/1/ /~~~~ () / //I~v:Jl0~ ~~~~ /-,/Vh~/. ?-~~
j C) C,. C). . . . .
~
..
Q)
0.
phf
Q)
: ~!97 'l:'<1>,p'~:%~r;;:L--'O! ;V;' ;::.~~~~~ ~ \7' \0\
E
::l ;..~ ~/ :<: / / / :<0'" t/.;::~~ ~ . 'il~W'i>
-0 ~ 0 ,.~V \.~ ~~v \\ '+
:>
Q) 2 ,~ ~ ,~C"'~ III/V; y/V ~ ~V ,,__ :'i\
() I////. /Y ,§ '/,//Y/A'//
.~
Q)
(f) I~«e~~'" //l/~~
90 km/ ,I' I~~'" III I II II II
2,000 4.000 6.000 8,000 10,000
v V, -Expressway volume, one direction (v/h)
Figure 1.03.5
;-"'-""""
~ /~
•
E- Passenger Car Equivalents of Trucks
on Expressways
Grade Up Trucks-Percent of Vf
% Length km 3% 5% 10% 15% 20%
0.1 all 2 2 2 2 2
0.5 4 4 4 3 3
1.0 6 5 5 4 4
1.5 7 5 5 4 5
2.0 7 5 5 5 6
2 3.0 7 6 6 6 6
4.0 7 7 7 7 7
5.0 7 7 8 8 8
6.0 7 7 8 8 8
0.5 10 8 5 4 3
1.0 10 8 5 5 4
1.5 10 8 6 5 5
3 2.0 10 9 7 6 6
3.0 10 9 8 7 8
4.0 10 10 9 9 9
5.0 10 10 10 10 10
t
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
12'
12'
12'
12'
9
9
10
10
5
6
7
9
4
6
7
9
4
6
8
9
4 3.0 12' II 11 11 11
4.0 12' 11 12 12 12
5.0 12' 12 13 13 13
6.0 12' 13 15 15 14
0.5 13' 10 6 5 4
1.0 13' 11 8 7 8
1.5 13' 12' 9 9 IO
5 2.0 13' 13' 11' 11 11
•• 3.0 13' 14' 14' 14' 13'
4.0 13' 15' 16' 15' 15'
• Add one for service levels D and E.
·f
"
Figure 1.03.5
Nomograph for Expressway Levels of Service,
Service Volumes, and Capacity
Average Highway Speed-90 km/h (Cont.)
1\
1
1
'-0
00
\ f\ \ \ - 50
\ \ ~ \~
1\ \ \ \ 1\ \ \1 -l
40 <:
()
\\ \ \ r'\ i\«:l?,.,
l»
"
U>
\ \ '\ '\ 's \.. \ '"" ofJ(
\ '0 I\- ,,\., '\ 1\- -«:l,., I:30 Q.
\\ ~ '\.. '\ r\. I'\. 'S, \~~. <1>
x
D
\.\1'>,. '" ~" " "'" "I"- \ .~-:n iil
en
20
~10~l::"~I'" "",- "", ~ ~ 1\ 0....,-; - ~
I>J
'<
~~~~~~~ ~~~~ K ~
C5
~~~~~,,~~~~,~-~--- o c
3
--.;;::p::::: ~ ~ ~I:::::::[-... r-.. :---....:1:::'--0...... .... '" - <1>
I_eve! 01 service I-.: k ~l ---"'L---...l ....... ~......... \.
en ,----------,-,---r---.--.----r---. ....;: ~ :'-.. I'\.
C
2 16 ) ~ Cap city ~y : o
-0 16 I 18.1- 20
c tJl.~ If!.> /maxIE/ I
o .f!' to 10 /..0 L;;,.0 T
u 14
Cii 14' 16 L 18: j!V/"" 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.0o
Ql
V'" / ~,'b'
1/ >.'I>~ i
:E 12 16
14
.2 12
14~
"- t/ / ~)/ 1/
.++-----,1/
:
en
oo 10 12
Figure 1.03.6
4
• • •
(\
~
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
12
12
12
12
I 9
9
10
10
5
6
7
9
4
6
7
9
4
6
8
9
4 3.0 12 II II II 11
4.0 12 II 12 12 12
5.0 12 12 13 13 13
6.0 12 13 IS IS 14
0.5 13 10 6 5 4
1.0 13 II 8 7 8
1.5 13 12 9 9 10
5 2.0 13 13 II II II
- 3.0
4.0
13
13
14
IS
14
16
14
IS
13
IS
- Add one for service levels D and E.
--For 6% grade, add one (approx.) to 3 values for 5% grade.
#
t Figure 1.03.6
Nomograph for Expressway Levels of Service,
\,
99
1.03 E
E. Expressway Ramps and Weaving Sectiv.;; vehicles, The maximum (k = 3.0) is applicable
On urban expressways capacity constraint~ e-i> to the shorter weaving sections whose opera
usually by ramp merging and diverging r:;_ tion is represented by Curves III, IV, and V.
neuvers or by weaving maneuvers. Where the weaving section length is greater
than the minimum required, as is the case for
Traffic volumes entering and leaving the ,~,_ conditions to the right of Curve III, the ad
pressway, the distance between points of en ,", verse influence of weaving is less, hence the
and exit, and the geometric layout at h,'~ k-factor is reduced, reaching a value of 1.0 for
terminals are factors that affect operating ef; Curve I.
ciency and should be considered in any Carji;'
ity analysis. Merging and diverging traffic v Jl In the cases of two-sided weaving, such as
directly affect the operating efficiency in J;'1~ where a left-hand entrance is followed by a
one (the lane nearest the outside shoulder! ,f right-hand exit and in weaving adjoining a ma
the expressway. Checkpoint volumes in pass';i_ jor (expressway to expressway) interchange,
ger cars per hour (pc/h) for lane one pi), only use of the lower curve is permitted as a
ramp volumes for Level of Service C are I ,l~r, minimum.
through 1,550 pc/h for merge areas and L<r; Values of design capacity for ramps, generally
through 1,650 pc/h for diverge areas. M .,.~ equivalent to level of service D, are given in
detailed analysis of merging and diverging 'I> Table 1.03.15. These values are for the ramp
eration is not included because of incomr;'~.' proper. The equivalent service volumes in
status of ongoing research on this subject. merging and diverging areas are generally less.
"1
J:'
most urban expressways, multiple wea\,,,!
more common than simple weaving dm ,',
the proximity of ramp entrances and exits. } 'i,
ure 1.03.7 shows examples of simple and n" .
tiple weaving sections. Operating conditi',·<;
within weaving sections are affected by',·.,
Lenl of
Service
Table 1.03.14
Lane Service Volumes for Weaving Sections
(SV) Maximum Service Volume (Ideal
Conditions) pc/h for Number of Basic
Lanes (N b ) on Major Approach Roadway
•
weaving intensity factor that expands the 111 SV jbr Level C predicated on PHF 0.83. for Level D on
fluence of the smaller weaving movement up I" PHF between 0.83 and 0.91, and for Level E all PIIF
100
•
Table 1.03.15
/ Design Capacity of Single Lane Ramp
Ramp Design Capacity in v/h When: V = Design Speed and
P T = Percentage of Trucks During Peak Hour
V = 30 km/h or Less V = 40 km/h V = 50 km/h or More
Upgrade in % Upgrade in % Upgrade in %
0-2 3-4 ~ 5 O' 2 3-4 ~ 5 0-2 3-4 ~ 5
or or or
Down- Down- Down-
PT grade grade grade
0 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,250 1,250 1,250 1,500 1,500 1,500
5 940 910 880 1,170 1,130 1,080 1,410 1,350 1,300
10 900 830 770 1,120 1,040 960 1,350 1,250 1,150
15 860 760 680 1,080 960 860 1,300 1,175 1,040
20 830 710 620 1,040 900 780 1,250 1,100 950
25 800 660 570 1,000 840 710 1,200 1,025 860
30 770 620 530 960 780 660 1,150 950 800
No/e:
For /wo-Ialle opera/iorl, ill crease the tabular values up to nearly double.
-
~
Simple Weave
--------
-
~
~
~ Two-S,gm'oI ~
#."t.. ,.
~.
------------ ---
~oo-s~m'oI ~
Multiple Weave
Figure 1.03.7
Examples of Typical Weaving Sections
(.
101
u.c
~
: :1 ~Y~+/I /t4~
2,500
(
~m
~a.
-",
en~
.s rl 2,000
fC(j)
Olen
~e:
-Ol
ctI'"
-",
£ ~ 1,500
lI
e:
- Ol
~Cii
>
+.~ 1,000
~Ol
•
C) 400 800 1,200 1,600 2,000 2,400
1.5m 3.75m
:,~~s~:, N
- number of lanes
-larger weaving volume, v/h
W
W'
-smaller weaving volume, v/h
F, F'
-outer flows, v/h
F' - - - - F'
L V
-total volume, v/h
I' -I k
-weaving (intensity) factor
SV- service volume or capacity per lane on approach
and exit roadways, v/h
N= W + kW' + F + F' WoW' - total weaving traffic equivalent passenger cars
SV per hour
N= V + (k-1) W'
SV
(
Level of Weaving Volume-Length Relation
Service for Minimum Design Designated
Service Volume by Chart Curves
SV
See Table Expressway CoD Road &
1.03.14 Proper Interchanges
A I-II II-III
B II III
C II-III III-IV
D III-IV IV
E IV-V V
Figure 1.03.8
Design Chart for Weaving Sections
(
102
1.03 F
.7
tions. pacity
The analysis assumes that the intersection is Table 1.03.19 contains adjustment factors
controlled by a fixed time signal system. Other that can be used to convert the design ca
types of signal systems are discussed later un pacity to a service volume for any other
der "Special Conditions." Nonsignalized level of service. Alternatively, if the ap
intersections rarely require analysis. proach width or G/C is required for any
other level of service, the volume can be
Figures 1.03.9 and 1.03.10 present graphically adjusted before entering the chart by divid
the relevant relationships for two-way streets ing by the appropriate factor. The tables
and one-way streets respectively. These charts may also be used to determine the level of
are predicated on average conditions. service at which an intersection operates by
When the analysis requires other than average first determining the design capacity, then
conditions, the design capacity (CD), used as dividing the demand volume by the design
input demand volume when approach width or capacity and comparing the ratio with the
ratio of green time to total cycle time (G/C) is factors in the tables.
unknown, must be multiplied by the appropri b. Signal Systems Other Than Fixed Time
ate factors.
The capacity charts are predicated on fixed
Table 1.03.16 gives the adjustment factors for time signal controls in which the signal
right turns and for some conditions, left turns. setting remains unchanged during the anal
Table 1.03.17 gives the adjustment factor for ysis period. Use of the G/C ratio in capacity
left turns under remaining conditions. Table analysis for fixed-time control is also appli
( 1.03.18 gives the adjustment for trucks and for
buses that do not stop at or near the intersec
cable, with some modification, to actuated
control and progressive systems.
tion. Design capacity as given in Figures 1.03.9
and 1.03.10 is representative of level of service c. Fully Actuated Control
C. For other levels of service, the adjustment For fully actuated signal control, the same
factors are given in Table 1.03.19. procedure as for fixed-time control may be
employed as a close approximation for pur
Figure 1.03.11 presents the relationships for
poses of planning and design of inter
intersections located in rural areas. The ad
sections. Since the fully actuated control is
justments described above are incorporated in
more efficient than fixed-time control, be
the chart.
cause the effect of actuation more nearly fills
Adjustment factors for buses stopping at or or loads each green interval, the method
near an intersection are found graphically in suggested for analysis is on the safe side.
Figure 1.03.12. These factors are applied as
d. Semiactuated Control
before.
The volume of traffic using the minor
Figures 1.03.13 and 1.03.14 are used to deter crossroad to some extent dictates the choice
mine the capacities and service volumes of sep of cycle length and phase lengths at an in
arate turning lanes with or without a separate tersection under semiactuated control.
signal indication. Where the left-turning vol Usually, the G/C on the minor highway ap
~.
ume is greater than 100 v/h, the left-turning proach is adjusted to a preset limit to meet
movement should always be analyzed first.
103
1.03 F
the demand on this approach, and the phase nated in advance of and beyond the intersec
length for the main highway approaches is tion for a sufficient distance, Figures 1.03.9
highway approaches and to enable low G/C distances for elimination of parking to
values to be used on the minor highway ap achieve this condition are as follows:
way.
in seconds but not less than 80 m.
As long as there is no call from the minor • Beyond the stop line on the approach, a
approach, the green indication remains on distance in meters equal to or greater
the major facility. The minimum or preset than 3.5 times the green interval in sec
values of C are achieved only when there are onds but not less than 100 m.
two calls from the minor highway in suc
cession within the time interval of less than i. Check for Capacity of Left Turn
C. Determination of actual G and C values Any intersection approach carrying a sub
should be based on an evaluation of individ stantial volume of left-turning traffic should
ual characteristics of a given intersection. be checked for the capacity of the left-turn
Having established the G and C values, the movement, whether on a separate lane or
•
analysis is made as for a fixed-time signal not. Figure 1.03.13 is used for this check
.1ntrol. prior to the use of Figures 1.03.9, 1.03.10, or
1.03.11. If the volume of left-turning
e. Progressive Signal Systems
vehicles exceeds the possible capacity as de
In some cases, notably on one-way streets, termined in Figure 1.03.13, a separate signal
highly efficient signal progression can be indication or prohibition of peak hour left
achieved and load factors approaching 1.00 turns may be necessary.
are not uncommon. At intersections where
such load factors occur frequently, the de j. Nondeterring Turning Movements
sign and possible capacities may be in On the intersection approach of a two-way
creased by a factor of 1.05. facility where the right-turn path is reason
ably direct, and on a one-way facility where
f. Widened Approaches
either or both turning movements are direct,
Intersection capacities can be significantly the turning movement can be considered as
increased by widening the traveled way part of the through movement; in which
through the intersection. This may be ac case the percentage of turns would be zero.
complished, in conjunction with one or Such conditions are likely to occur at high
more approaches, by adding a traffic lane type, channelized intersections where turn
for a certain distance before and after the ing movements can be accommodated as ef
crossroad. On streets with parking, the addi ficiently as through movements.
. 'onal lane through the intersection can be
.iltroduced by partial elimination of park k. Left-Turn Lane on Advance Green Indi
cation
('
ing. Where the extra lane is of sufficient
length before and after the intersection, the An advance green indication for left-turning
service volumes and capacities will corre vehicles may take the form of a green direc
spond to those for the total width of ap tional arrow with the solid green indication
proach, as if the added lane were continu for the through movement. The opposing
ous. through traffic is held on red until the end of
the advance green indication, generaIly 6 to
g. Increased Width Through Intersection
12 seconds. This form of control provides
-No Parking
for considerable efficiency because of the fol
Figures 1.03.9,1.03.10, and 1.03.11 are used lowing:
in the normal manner with the approach
width including the extra lane. Required • Short advance green interval.
minimum lengths of widening are deter • No amber period at the termination of
mined in accordance with the tabulation the advance green.
and instructions in Figure 1.03.16. • Permission for the left-turning movement
to continue during the remaining green
h. Elimination of Parking Through Intersec
phase on the approach.
tion
Where parking on a street approach is elimi
(
104
1.03 F
(
Red Signal After a Stop
Where right turns are continuous and at a
Figures 1.03.9 and 1.03.10. The through
movement only is considered, with turning
speed greater than 25 km/h on an exclusive percentages zero. Adjustments are made for
lane with an auxiliary lane on the crossroad, local buses, only if the bus stop is on the far
the design capacity of the turning lane is side.
estimated to be 1,200 pc/h. This type of n. Two-Lane Turning Movements
design is not likely to be used where pedes
Where the capacity of a right or left turn is
trians are present.
insufficient to accommodate the demand
At a somewhat lower standard of channeli volume, the use of a double-turning lane
zation, yield signs at signalized intersections should be considered. The capacity of a
often control right-turning movements on double-turning lane can be found by first
an exclusive lane with island, allowing for computing the capacity of a single-turning
this traffic to merge with crossroad traffic at lane from Figure 1.03.14. The second or
alI times. In this case, the design capacity outer lane is assumed to be able to handle 80
would be the turning capacity found from percent of this volume. Thus, the capacity of
Figure 1.03. I3 for the green interval, plus an a double-turning lane is 1.8 times that of a
additional three vehicles per cycle assumed single lane.
'.
.~~ intersection exit from the intersection approach is analyzed separately using the
ahead. The latter condition may be cor charts in the normal manner. It may be nec
rected by coordination of signals and the use essary to consider two or more operational
of lagging or leading green indications. patterns for a multiple intersection and to
Where the intersection exit is narrower than analyze each one separately before deter
the approach, either due to physical restric mining the final design.
tions or the presence of parked vehicles, the
II
I'
I
I
105
Table 1.03.16
Adjustment Factor
With No Parking ih With Parking iV
Approach Approach Approach Approach Approach Approach
Turns ii Width Width Width Width Width Width
% <Sm 5 to 7.5 m 7.5 to 10 m <6m 6 to 9 m 6 to 12 m
6
7
8
9
1.08
1.06
1.04
1.02
1.020
1.015
1.010
1.005
LOW
1.005
1.005
1.000
1.08
1.06
1.04
1.02
1.020
1.015
1.010
1.005
LOW
1.005
1.005
1.000
•
22
24
26
28
30+
0.89
0.88
0.87
0.86
0.85
0.940
0.930
0.920
0.910
0.900
0.980
0.985
0.990
0.995
1.000
0.89
0.88
0.87
0.86
0.85
0.940
0.930
0.920
0.910
0.900
0.980
0.985
0.990
0.995
1.000
•
106
• '.
;<
(,
Table 1.03.17
Adjustment Factors for Left Turns on Two-Way Streets i
Adjustment Factor
With No Parking With Parking
Approach Approach Approach Approach Approach Approach
Turns Width Width Width Width Width Width
% :<: : 5 m 5 to 10 m > 10 m :<:::6m 6 to 12 m > 12 m
0 1.30 1.10 1.050 1.30 1.10 1.050
1 1.27 1.09 1.045 1.27 1.09 1.045
2 1.24 1.08 1.040 1.24 1.08 1.040
".'.'"
., 6 1.12 1.04 1.020 1.12 1.04 1.020
7 1.09 1.03 1.015 1.09 1.03 1.015
8 1.06 1.02 1.010 1.06 1.02 1.010
'"
't 22
24
26
0.84
0.83
0.82
0.89
0.88
0.87
0.940
0.930
0.920
0.84
0.83
0.82
0.89
0.88
0.87
0.940
0.930
0.920
(,
107
Table 1.03.18
0 1.05
1 1.04
2 1.03
3 1.02
4 1.01
5 1.00
6 0.99
7 0.98
8 0.97
9 0.96
10
11
12
13
14
15
0.95
0.94
0.93
0.92
0.91
0.90
•
16 0.89
17 0.88
18 0.87
19 0.86
20 0.85
108
•
- - - - - - - ... . __
$ _
• . Table 1.03.19
•
Adjustment Factor (0 for Level of Service
Load
"
Width of Approach W A, (m)
Level of Service Factor 3.0 4.5 6.0 7.5 9.0 10.5 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0
Two-Way Streets, No Parking
A No Backlog 0.0 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.89 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.85
B 0.1 0.90 0.91 0.91 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.91
C Design Capacity 0.3 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
D 0.7 1.14 1.14 1.14 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20
E Possible Capacity 0.85 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.21 1.23 1.25 1.26 1.28 1.30
Two-Way Streets, Parking
A No Backlog 0.0 - - 0.95 0.93 0.91 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.84
B 0.1 - - 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.89
C Design Capacity 0.3 - - 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 \.00 1.00 1.00
---_._--- - "'
two-way 20 m street
no parking
metro population-400,000
fringe area
•
18
~. __ --- ---7~~-'I-vrr-r--;V,,------,-,---~17-
// /
YVA- 'V",
G/C--O.50
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-
Table A-Adjustment Factor (F) for .,cvel of Service
t-..J
- 18 7~
1 II / / 16.0 18.0
15 0.97 0.96
1 J~~ 1.00 1.00
g
£; 1.11 1.11
-0
·i 1.22 I 1.23 I 125 I 1.27 , 1.29 I 130 1.3 I I 1.J3
12 r----.'L---A!:..L!l'W
~
1.28 I I.JO I l.J2 I 1.35 I 1.38 I 1.40 1.42 I 1.44
lilo
a.a- Example Solution
9
~~ given: Go -740 v/h
t '\
~ ~ .. /
W A -6.5 m Gp -740 x 1.29 ~ 950v/h
T -15 %
0\0
R -12 %
l -7 %
G/G-0.55
PHF -normal condition
3
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
o 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000
'-', ,$-_."
\
c\
,r
\
120 ~ J No Parking
.c ) ~ro-/
oc 10
.:s~oy,#;
rJ)
Q)
8) ~/
60r---~A 1/
rJ)
:J
.c
(ij
(.) 40
-~J<{I-
o
.....J
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. t
I 2 t~:r' I Fe-Local bus factor
J
OJ
I/' : 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 max.
o
~
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V<--'"
'-....lI 4
I
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•
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I~ 'l:"J/~------------------:,----""I:""~,,"'.,,~r:::,,=---,
/~'i ~ l.--:::'~\\{\'" Far side bus stop i. (915-" " <"0 "-.
~ .. k';:"~co tUQ'/.)-.. 10 .:'-..:
~y \A<> 0 '10, o.,,~~
/. ......-- e /; .,
~ ~ ~
0.8 0.9 1.0 max.
FB-Local bus factor
120.-----------" Parking
.c
oc 1001----------.i~"'"
rJ) 80f------..,"i7f--~
(
0.9 1.0 1.1 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
I
I WA-14.6 m WA-11.00m
I Fe-Local bus factor Fe-Local bus factor
t
I
~- I I I I I T~/~
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 max
Fe-Local bus factor
Figure 1.03.12
Local Bus Factor for Use in Conjunction with Figures 1.03.9 and 1.03.10
~.",,,,, ..;,¥??",
High-type design
J::.
.....
g
~
.r:
C>
::l
e
>
800
600 ~l
"
0.80 ~6
~
T
.:
~~
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"0
u
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<.?
.Q
ro
a: 0.40
1
0
a.
a.
0
I I I I I I I I I I 0.20
0
>
•
200 400 600 800
800 600 400 200 o Cor-Design capacity right-turn lane v/h
CoJ-Design capacity left-turn lane v/h
Chart 0
Chart A
600
-&// I J vy V
J::.
.....
>
Q) 500
8// / V V V vy V
Cfl
"0
'If
~ :0
Q) ~ 200 ~
13 o 'iii
> N Q)
> E
~
"0
::l
~
100 E
280 c
: r/ V 260 E
I V VI V
240 180 E
~ J~7 I,220 160
40 60 80 100 120 140
I /1- v~ Q)
c
<11
I /1 V.I $>/
•
,::;",'" 200 140 -;;,
CDJ-Design capacity left-turn lane v/h
I II r/~// ~O.::."
c
Chart B 180 120E
: / ~Mr *":> 0' .;:!
~
Normal curb return and pedestrian interference I ~ W""V2; 160j 100
~'o,j 1/ "'''",0\0 140 80 g'
0.80
rM",,,,o' Q)
~
--'
Chart C
multiply chart design capacity by 1.30.
114
Figure 1.03.13
~I t 500
1\
s;:>0.60 ,'If "
~ .~
0 400
.Q ~
> I ~ r /I !I y,Os' I~~..{~<t>1 I I I I
C;;
a: I,..:5 <;.<to .I::.
..... OJ V 3__ cOl OJ
~
Ol
200 (j '"
j 120 'E
,~ 140 ::;
Chart A 100 -B
A!L:M~~'-:----1120 .I::.
80 0,
0.80 I > i 7 i IL,UL~------100 c0)
High-type design - - - - - 80
with separate signal indication 60 1
1LAfL--------i 60 o
-J.~b
40 ~
o
~~-------140
v
~ 0.60 I _>r" A / 71
~ ILL -:-__~ 20 20 0
.Q
C;; 800 .I::.
..... 0) Length of right· or left·turn lane Chart C
> c
a: 0.40 I / 717"7"1 ;.,nl
''5 ~
0,20
600 ~.2
nl~
u-
c~
~~rfR~
Ol~
'Cij 0
(1)'
1111 I D2 Charts A and B apply to both two-way and one-way streets,
400°-§,
L-=
,,0)
u nl
11 Chart B generally does not apply to CBD,
A and B by 0,90
/~
A'Sq.,:;.l..... I 200 (j '" ~~ To determine possible capacity of right· or left-turn lane,
~".:r
Chart B
Figure 1,03,14
Design Capacity of Signalized Intersections
Signalized Intersection
Capacity Analysis
Project
Intersection
Basic Conditions
Metro Population PHF
(circle one) area: CBD fringe aBO
resid. rural 'Note below
GIC Capacity
WA Chart
.vement (m) Reference Req'd Used Co Cp DHVt Remarkst
(
GIC Capacity
WA Chart
Movement
(m) Reference Req'd Used CD Cp DHVi Remarkst
Checked
Figure 1.03.15
Typical Intersection Capacity Form
(
\,
I 16
1.03 F
)----1 l
•
- I.
-
__
Tap" .1. D:
• Stop
W~ine
11 r-( =:
1===============-------=========
.1. Tap.' .1
__
•
t Use the larger of two values but not less than 60 m
Figure 1.03.16
3. Examples Given
Given One-way street Metro population
Two-way street, 10.0 m approach width, park 750,000
ing prohibited, in a fringe district within a Approach width 13 m Outlying business
metropolitan area of 400,000 population. Ma district, OBD
jor intersections are signalized. Specific data Parking both sides G = 30 s
regarding trucks, turning movements, etc., are Trucks: 9 % C = 60 s
not known, but conditions are assumed to be Right turns: 14 % No bus stops
average. Half of the time during the hour can Left turns prohibited
be allotted to green on this street. Determine
same procedure but turn at the appropriate Factors: right turns 1.0 (Table 1.03.16)
line in upper part of the chart. At the intersec Left turns 1.0 (turns prohibited)
•
Trucks 0.96 (Table 1.03.18)
pacity) 1,070 v/h. Therefore, design capacity is
reduced by (1,500-1,070) 430 v/h. Therefore, design capacity = 1,700 X 1.0 X
1.0 X 0.96 = 1,630 v/h
117
1.03 F
•
T"o'termine capacity = 1.20 (Table 1.03.19). Therefore,
possible capacity = 650 X 1.2 = 780 v/h.
.. 0esign capacity of intersection approach.
If left turns are prohibited, left-turn factor be
• Possible capacity of intersection approach. comes 1.10 (Table 1.03.17).
the intersection.
Therefore, design capacity = 960 X 0.99 X
1.10 X 0.97 X 1.0 = 1,010 v/h.
Possible capacity 1,010 X 1.2 = 1,212 v/h.
118
1.04 A, B, C, D
control of access, partial control of access, or year ADT (20) less than 2,500 and local high
approach road and driveway controls. ways-approach road and driveway regula
tions.
to indicate the most desirable design for all include the degree of access control for the
~.
ways and by prohibiting crossings at grade and the permitted access openings. Control of ac
direct private road or driveway connections. cess shall only be shown on the right-of-way
plans.
2. Partial Control of Access
3. Location
Partial control of access means that preference
is given to through traffic as in full control, but Where appropriate, the right-of-way line and
there may be some crossings at grade and some the access control line shall be coincident.
private road or driveway connections. When fencing is to be installed to control the
access rights, the fence shall be located on the
3. Approach Road and Driveway Controls access control line. Careful consideration must
Approach road and driveway controls means be given to roadway maintenance requirements
that each abutting property owner is permitted when establishing fence lines.
access to the street or highway, but the loca
tion, number, and geometrics of the access D. Design Criteria
points will be limited or regulated in accord 1. Expressways
ance with the design criteria in section 2-l.04D Direct access from private property to the ex
below. pressway is prohibited except as may be al
The principal advantages of access control are lowed by locked gates. Access rights shall be
the preservation of highway capacity, higher acquired along interchange ramps to their
speed, and improved safety. When access is not junction with the nearest public road, and shall
{ controlled, interference from the roadside as
roadside businesses develop can become a ma
extend to the end of the ramp taper (or at least
50 m beyond the end of the curb return or
jor factor in reducing the capacity, increasing ramp radius). Control of access is achieved
the accident potential, and eroding the mobil through either of the following methods.
ity function that the facility was designed to a. Acquiring rights of access to the ex
Full or partial access control generally is ac and permitting ingress and egress to the
access from the abutting property owners b. constructing frontage roads to restore ac
(usually at the time of expropriation of the cess to abutting properties, but permitting
right-of-way) or by the use of frontage roads. access to the traveled ways only at inter
All highway facilities will have some degree of In remote areas, locked gates may be provided
access control as determined by the following in the fencing to provide access for infrequent
warrants (see HDM-I-2.02 for a description of usage, such as maintenance of utilities, high
the various design classes of highways): way maintenance operations, etc. These access
I. Expressways-Full access control. openings will be allowed only upon satisfying
the following conditions:
2. Multilane arterials, multilane collectors, and
119
1.04 D
(I) The location is in a remote area. openings on one side of a divided highway
(2) Access from an interchange is not fea exceeds three in 400 m, a frontage road
sible or not economically justified.
(3) Usage is infrequent (not more than
shall be provided. See item 4, Frontage
Roads, for other warrants. (
once or twice per month). (10) Access openings on divided highways
(4) Approach to the main lanes can be shall not be permitted within 100 m of a
made without causing a hazardous situa median opening unless the access opening
(5) Right turns only will be permitted. (II) Access approaches shall be limited to
to the MOe.)
lowing left turns would significantly re
and Two-Lane, Two-Way Collectors and nearby intersection; or (2) there are no
Arterials with Design Year ADT greater than intersections, existing or planned, that al
a. Access Openings
2-1.15 for details on the use of median
The term "access opening" means the open separator to deny left-turn movements).
•
(12) Access approaches that have the po
ies for an exit from or entry to the high tential for signalization and require left
(2) Police, fire, ambulance, and other ning, and operation of the general street
emergency vehicles shall have a right to system and access to nearby properties.
(6) For parcels with a highway frontage of tion, number, and geometries of access points
1;2 km or greater, not more than one ac must meet the following criteria:
openings would not be detrimental to the parcel shall be controlled by safety and de
safety and operation of the highway and sign considerations contained in 2-1.07H. In
are necessary for the safe and efficient use general, all access approaches shall be sepa
stream or ridge, making it necessary to are not permitted along two-lane highways
may be preferable to connect the physi tion of these roadways could result in the
cally separated portions of the parcel with appearance of a multilane divided facility
a low cost structure or road rather than with the resulting assumption that the two
permit the two access openings. lane, two-way highway is a one-way high
required safety and design standards are (2) Economic Considerations-In gen
met. eral, a frontage road is justified if the costs
(
d. In rural areas, approach roads shall be
of furnishing the frontage road are less
than the costs of providing access by other
provided as necessary to provide access to
means. Right-of-way considerations often
pasturelands, farms, ranches, etc. along the
are a determining factor. Thus, a frontage
highway, and at convenient places for travel
road would be justified if the investment
ers to get off the highway in case of emer
in construction and extra right-of-way is
gency or for rest stops. The maximum spac
less than either the severance damages or
ing between approach roads shall be 5 km
the costs of acquiring the affected prop
for these purposes.
erty in its entirety. Frontage roads may be
e. In urban areas with signalized inter required to connect parts of a severed
sections, the minimum spacing between ac property or to serve a landlocked parcel
cess points shall be that which is necessary resulting from right-of-way acquisition.
for the safe operation and proper design of
b. New Alignment
intersections as specified in 2-1.07H.
Frontage roads generally are not provided
4. Frontage Roads on highways on new alignment since the
a. General Policy abutting property owners never had legal
(I) Purpose-Frontage roads are pro right of access to the new facility. They may
vided on highways (as listed under items be provided, however, on the basis of consid
121
1.04 D, E
highway has been constructed, control of fic at the ramp terminals and crossroads.
access as originally conceived for the facility • The frontage road shall be constructed to
and 2-1.06. (
may be permitted by safety considerations
and in keeping with established policies and E. Protection of Access Rights
procedures. Access control will be similar to For proper control of acquired access rights,
precedents as far as traffic volumes, safety fencing, or other approved barrier, shall be in
and design policy permit. stalled on all expressways and where practical
Additional frontage roads may be consid on multilane divided facilities. See 2-1.15 for
ered when the following conditions are met: appropriate barrier designs.
• A usable section of frontage road shall be Once access rights have been acquired, no ad
developed. The intent of a usable section ditional access openings shall be permitted
would be a facility from a separation to a upon the splitting or dividing of parcels, or
separation or connecting public roadway. contiguous parcels under the same ownership
• The construction of frontage roads shall or control. The specified use of access openings
not adversely affect the movement of traf shall not change.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
• Property or Ownership Boundary
Existing Fence
•
xX KKK K X K Proposed Fence
l""~"""'~"""
coincident with Right-of-Way Line (
~', ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~I
7
15 m , I~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Access Opening
~~~~"""~"'~~~~"~~"~"
)( Jl ,,- ~!( Ii l Locked Gate Permitting Access on
an Infrequent Basis
Figure 1.04.1
/
Standard Symbols
'"
122
r ,
Access opening
width to be shown on right-aI-way plans
{ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,
I
10m A~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
J
/
/ \.. r- Shoulder
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - ...-
, 1. _
Access opening
; - width to be shown on right-aI-way plans
20 m /'
Opening~
Public . /
/'
/
)~
/
I /
I
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I
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.---- -..._-------
- - - - - - - - Single-Ope~n~ - - - - - - - - ~~h:ld~r
(Public Approach)
If Figure 1.04.2
Typical Examples of Access Openings
123
N
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(j)
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Commercial area I «l
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.~ "10 "
Right-of-way line
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-'-- Control of access line
---
L::. Through-traffic roadways J t. - c C - Expressway
"1 _
Existing highway ~----~ -
Control of access line
,""""""""''''''''''''''''' """""''''''''''''''''''~
. -- jII! \~"''''~ :...I _ ___
,"""''''''''''''''''''''''~'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
--- _ ...'....1..'_ _'1
- I J( - lrb~~lr ~, ,,
I See note 3
~Ri9ht-of-Way line I 8
-, -,- I I
Notes:
I I
1. This drawing is diagrammatic only and is not to be used
fronlage roads.
entrances.
Figure 1.04.3
Existing Highway Converted to a One-Way Frontage Road and New Frontage Road Added
/~
~ ~
•
,~ /-~,
i,- j
- ~j II - - IJ 1I- d ll -
--li- -I I- I ~ I
'"
li- I I
frontage roads.
entrances.
Figure 1.04.4
Access Control of Expressway on Location of Existing Road
Existing Parallel Highway Converted to a Two-Way Frontage Road
N
Ul (No second frontage road in right-of-way)
N
-
0'1
/ /
/
/
/ A;ght-ot-w", t;" , , _
[
r I, -~ I~,":'"":'-:"'"":'"":'-:"'"":'"":' \~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~::L~:~~~-:~::~S:::)~~X~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~
L ~ """~-~" ~')A.. ~ ~","- "----See note 4 .i
,
/ \
,
/
- , /
Expressway
-0 /
,
/ / " -
/
- ,/
x~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~\~~~~~~~~~~~
.
Figure 1.04.5
Access Control of Expressway on New Location
Frontage Road Connection to Land Remainder
• • " •
/
Right-ol-way line\
I -~----;
__ _J
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
/ ....,
4
-- /~/
/ / Expressway
z z r--r
~
/ / ..
/
~ /
/
~
// //_ ~~~~~~~~~~~~i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~\)
/ /"-~
/' / /' - / '---- Control 01 access line
"7 and right-ol-way line
":"""\::'7 . y
./"
I /
. .--/" . .
/
Notes:
1. This drawing is diagrammatic only and is not to be used
be outside 01 expressway.
Figure 1.04.5
5. No ramps to crossroad.
Figure 1.04.6
,.... Access Control of Expressway on New Location
N
-..J Frontage Road Connection to Local Road
IV
00
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Ol
C
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-
-
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Notes:
I n
1. This drawing is diagrammatic only and is not to be used as
a basis lor geometric layout.
2. Commercial areas on crossroad serve highway.
3. Control 01 access along the outside 01 Irontage roads
between ramp terminals and crossroads may be re
quired where high volumes of exiting-entering traffic
would be subjected to hazards due to side road
entrances.
Figure 1.04.7
Access Control of Expressway on New Location
Intermittent Frontage Roads to Connect Intercepted Cross Streets
~,~g2~tj <"~"
,~~~;:
'iIJ/
• •
",
, """ E,,,,.,,way ~I I~ E,,,,.,,way " ",
.,.. / I
, , ", .ll.
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Control 01 access line with lence 4
- /
,"'~,~"~~~~~"~"~~"'~""'~~~ Animalguards .. I' • • __ • • • • • p • • • • _-,. • • • • • • •
,
, Frontage road Frontage road
,,
H --*"*
-x-x-y )(){ *""* o L )(){ - )(){ ~~
Right-ot-way ,,' t"c. Ii'. ~ ' "
j/:otes: ~
<
1 This drawing is diagrammatic only and is not to be used as
possibility.
Figure 1.04.8
Access Control of Expressway Passes
N
~ Expressway Severs Properly Resulting in Land Remainders on Each Side of Highway
/
/
/
•
5 m locked gate
(Name of permittee)
II /
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
Utility line
jl
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/ /
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/ /
/ /
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/
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/ /
/ /
/ ,;-;
/ /
/ /
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/ /
/
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5 m locked gate
Right-of-way line and /
,.,ell (Name of permittee)
control of access line --I / ~
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Figure 1.04.9
Typical Example of a Locked Gate in a Remote Area
130
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---------------_.__.'
1.05 A
(I ture Standards
A. Sight Distance
I. General
3. Passing Sight Distance
Passing sight distance is the minimum sight
distance that must be available to enable the
Sight distance is the continuous length of road
driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle
way ahead, visible to the driver. Of utmost
safely and comfortably, without interfering
importance in highway design is the arrange
with the speed of an oncoming vehicle travel
ment of geometric elements so adequate sight
ing at the design speed.
distance exists for safe and efficient operation.
Two basic types of sight distance must be con It is important, for reasons of safety and serv
sidered; that required for stopping and that ice, to provide as many passing opportunities
required for passing overtaken vehicles. Safe on two-lane highways as possible. The passing
stopping sight distance must be provided con sight distance available on a section of high
tinuously on all highways. Safe passing sight way influences the average speed of the traffic,
distance is applicable only on two-lane high particularly when a highway is operating near
ways, primarily in rural or in outlying urban capacity.
areas. Sight distance for intersections at grade
Minimum values for passing sight distance are
including railroad crossings is covered under
shown in Table 1.05.1.
2-1.07.
4. Sight Distance Standards
2. Stopping Sight Distance
Table 1.05.1 shows the standards for stopping
Stopping sight distance is the distance required
and passing sight distances for various design
by the driver of a vehicle traveling at a given
and assumed running speeds. These are mini
speed to bring his vehicle to a stop after an
mum values, and wherever possible, larger
object on the roadway becomes visible.
values should be used.
The distance required for stopping under pre
vailing vehicle and climatic conditions depends Table 1.05.1
on the initial speed of the vehicle, the percep Sight Distance Standards
Ie
I
133
I
I
1.05 A
.'
Effect of Grade on Stopping Sight Distance distance at vertical crests
Sp = Minimum passing sight
Increase Stopping Sight
Design Distance for Downgrades (m)
distance
Speed Values for K for various design speeds are
(km/h) 3% 6% 9%
shown in Table 1.05.3.
40 2 4 6
Table 1.05.3
60 5 10 18
70 7 15 26 Minimum Vertical Curvature
80 9 21 (a) "K" Values
90 12 29 -
Design Stopping Passing
100 16 38 - Speed
Conditions Conditions
110 20 48 - (km/h)
Ksl ' K pc
120 24 (a) -
130 29 - - 40 5 83
140 35 - - 50
II 123
60
18 188
80
49 333
•
90
72 408
The minimum length of a crest vertical curve 7. Stopping Sight Distance for Sag Vertical
is controlled by stopping sight distance, or if Curves
passing is desired, by passing sight distance The minimum stopping sight distance for a sag
requirements. The minimum vertical curve vertical curve is controlled by stopping sight
length is expressed by the following equation: distance, which in turn, is controlled by the
vehicle headlight sight distance. The sag verti
L = KA cal curvature must be flat enough so that the
where L = Length of vertical curve headlights illuminate the roadway ahead for a
in meters distance of at least the stopping sight distance.
K - Expression of vertical curvature
(constant for each design speed)
A = Algebraic difference in percent
of gradient
The crest vertical curvature constant for stop
ping sight distance conditions is computed by
It is assumed that the headlight beam slopes
upward at an angle of I G from the plane of the
vehicle and that the height of the headlights is
0.6 m above the roadway. The minimum
length of vertical CUT\'e for the above condi
tions is expressed by the equation:
•
the equation: L = KA
S'
K sc = _s where the terms of the equation are as in Sec
405 tion 2-1.05A6. The sag vertical curvature con
where K sc= K Value for stopping sight stant is expressed by the equation:
distance at vertical crests S/
Kss =
Ss = Minimum stopping sight distance 122 + 3.5S s
The crest vertical curvat ure constant for pass where K ss = K Value for stopping sight
ing sight distance conditions is computed by distance at vertical sags
the equation: Ss = Stopping sight distance
Sp' Values for K for various design speeds are
K pc = 943 shown in Table 1.05.4.
134
•
1.05 A
Design Speed
(km/h)
40
50
Minimum Vertical
Kss
8
12
The driver's line of sight to the roadway ahead
is intercepted by the obstruction. For stopping
sight distance, the height of this intercept is
assumed to be 0.60 m above the center of the
inside lane (inside with respect to the horizon
tal curve). The intercept height for passing
sight distance is assumed to be 1.17 m. These
60 18 intercept heights are for tangent grades and
70 24 must be adjusted up or down for vertical cur
80 32 vature.
90 41
100 49 The clearance, C, is the distance from the cen
110 60 ter of the inside lane to a point where the sight
120 71 line intercepts the obstruction. Figure 1.05.1
130 81 shows the relations between clearance, radius,
140 86 design speed and stopping sight distance. Fig
ure 1.05.2 shows the same information for
For aesthetics and driving comfort, sag vertical passing sight distance. To increase the clear
curve lengths determined from the above crite ance, the obstruction should be moved away
ria should be increased substantially if eco from the roadway, or possibly eliminated, or
nomically feasible. else the alignment must be revised.
. 8. Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves 9. Sight Distance Through Underpasses
Where an obstruction on the inside of a hori Stopping sight distance must be maintained. If
zontal curve restricts sight distance, the mini economically feasible, passing sight distance
mum radius of curvature is determined by shall also be maintained as the highway passes
sight distance, either stopping or passing, as under a crossing structure.
Ifi
~r,;
•
135
o
Line of sight
~ Sight obstruction
C = Rvers CO~RSs)
t>
50
60
70
80
90
100
200
E
Q) 300
c:
:l
() 400
'0 500
(/)
:l
'6
<ll
ex: 1,000
II
ex:
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
2 4 6 B 10 12 14 16
Figure 1.05.1
Sight Distance
•
136
• :,'-,,:
.------- ,~~_~'.;::.'!..~..l;:~-.~~~_>...,.,~.,"'~._,~ ..__ .,'.... '~_
~
~ HIghway
Inside lane
-
()
Line of sight
\ Sight obstruction
v ~ 40 S, ~ 280
C = R vers (1007TRS5) ,
V ~ 60 S,
--
Vo 50 S, ~ 340
~ <20
I - - V c 70 S, 0.' 480
I V = 80 S, -. 560
V = 90S, c. 620
200
V -= 100 S,C 680
•
300 f----+-++-+-t+++-t---+-:r-ifH:'t-::~7;17*- V 110 S, = 740
400 --I-:,,.L.J7"1HA7H;(l,-<r-.-h''J,;...... V ~ 120 S, ~ 800
500
600
f- I I I I I I III V = 130 S, = 860
700 V = 140 Se, 920
'00
900
E 1.000
~
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2:
:>
<.l 2000
\/
0
en 3.000
Xv ~p
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w
4.000
5.000
'///V/
a:
II
a: 10,000
~
~
V ~IDesitn tefdl h, ('1'1
sp ~ Pas Ing! Sl&h~ ~sl~n~e {m)
20.000
30,000 ~
~ g ~ ~ £ Rg~ § ~
C = Clearance from centerline inside lane
to sight obstruction (m)
Figure 1.05.2
Sight Distance
•
137
1.05 B
Table 1.05.7.
'es ot side friction factors for various design
"r _cds are shown in Table 1.05.5. Table 1.05.7
Table 1.05.5
Maximum Safe Side Friction Factors Desirable Absolute
Highway Maximum Maximum
Design Speed Side Friction Design Superelevation Superelevation
(km/h) Factor Class Rate Rate
(m/m) (m/m)
40 0.17
50 0.16 Expressway 0.08 0.10
60 0.15 Arterial 0.08 0.10
70 0.15 Collector 0.08 0.12
80 0.14/ Local 0.10 0.12
90 0.13
100 0.12 Lower superelevation rates for all classifica
110 0.11 tions of highways may be necessary in urban
120 0.10 areas where restricted speed zones or at-grade
130 0.09 intersections are controlling factors. In addi
140 0.08 tion, established street grades, curbs, or drain
age may impose limitations on design. Such
:num radii of curves for various design conditions may warrant, for example, a reduc
speeds and maximum rates of superelevation
are shown in Table 1.05.6. The radii have been
tion in the superelevation rate, different rates
for each half of the roadbed, or both. In warp
(
rounded to the nearest 5 m. ing street cross sections for drainage, adverse
138
1.05 B
.,
1i.·.:.:Z.<i!;
b. Ramps and Expressway Connections. The
axis of rotation may be either the edge of the
traveled way or the centerline. Appearance
and drainage considerations shall be taken
into account when selecting the axis of rota
70
80
90
100
110
120
0.54
a.. 50
0.47
0.44
0.41
0.38
tion.
130 0.36
c. Divided Highways. The axis of rotation 140 0.34
shall be at the median edge of each traveled
way, except as follows: To avoid a sawtooth For expressway and arterial highways, the
effect on bridges with decked-medians, the minimum length of superelevation runoff shall
axis of rotation shall be at the centerline. be 50 m. For collector and local highways, the
The selection of the axis of rotation shall minimum shall be 30 m.
always be considered in conjunction with
For long transitIOn curves where the runoff
the design of the profile grade and
slope, r, is less than 0.30 percent, the attain
superelevation transition.
ment of superelevation within the super
4. Superelevation Development elevation runoff as shown in Figure 1.05.3
The superelevation development shall be de should be modified as follows:
signed to satisfy the requirements of safety and a. From section B (level on the high side.
comfort and should be pleasing in appearance. normal crown on the low side) to section C
Figure 1.05.3 illustrates the desirable methods (superelevation at the normal crown rate),
-~ for developing superelevation. When transition the runoff slope should be 0.30 percent.
~ curves are used, the transition curve and
b. From section C to section D (full
superelevation runoff should be coincident. On
superelevation), the runoff slope should be
circular curves without transition curves, two
less than 0.30 percent.
thirds of the superelevation runoff shall be
placed on the tangent before the curve. The In special restrictive situations where the stan
length of the superelevation runoff shall be dard superelevation rate is not feasible or the
long enough so the runoff slope meets the cri desirable runoff length is not attainable, the
teria shown in Table 1.05.8. The runoff slope is highest possible rate and longest length respec
in longitudinal gradient between the edge of tively shall be used. These situations occur on
the traveled way profile and the center of the interchange ramps, frontage roads, and sepa
traveled way profile. The minimum length of rate turning lanes where the length of radius,
superelevation runoff can be computed using curve, and adjacent tangents are short.
the following equation:
After the superelevation development is de
L = 50 ew signed, profiles of edges of the traveled way
r should be plotted and irregularities removed
where L = Minimum superelevation runoff by introducing smooth curves. Flat areas that
may not drain properly must be avoided.
length in meters
e = Superelevation rate 5. SupereJevation of Broken Back Curves
in meters per meter
Broken back horizontal alignment occurs
139
1.05 B
when two adjacent curves in the same direc the distance from the ETC of the first curve to
tion are connected by a short tangent. Broken the BTC of the second curve is less than 30 m,
back alignment should be avoided, but when then a linear transition from section B (see
•
between the curves. A normal crown section justed to meet this standard.
lid be attained between the curves, with
~_ Ai curve superelevated independently. The superelevation rates for paved shoulders
shall be as shown in Figure 1.05.8.
6. Superelevation of Reverse Curves
Where the traveled way and shoulders are
Sufficient length shall be provided between re gravel surfaced, the cross slope of the shoul
versing horizontal curves so that adequate ders shall match the cross slope of the traveled
superelevation runoff lengths can be provided. way.
If two reversing curves are close together and
140
Tangent
;;;1--.' Superelevatlon runoff
Runout
•
5
u uu
tu uu
mw
Slope 1:400 [ \ u
5 RunoHslope ")---.----~fOutside
------ edge of traveled way
I
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[D
...... Normal --
--- It Grade u.~
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crown -~
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------ Jl
---------...
Q.
Inside edge of traveled way
-- - -- .
<l; m u 0
It Profile control
~
-
Traveled way revolved about centerline
Tangent
Superelevation runoff
Runou!
(;
u u
u u
U CD LU
.......
I
Slope
U
I-
m
- - - et Grade
-
Normal It profile gra~
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Normal
crown
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U 0
_ Ir
side edge
~--
Profile control
---n-
CD Outside edge of tra' eled way
_ _ _ _ Normal It profile grade [D
/_-----
""- Normal
crown - ---- ---=--=---=-----------.......=-------=-------- c:
~.
- -- - -- 't Grade
.Q
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---- ~ -- -
= &i
-"-:1---
lID Q;
<l; co u
Runoff slope - - __
- -
Q.
:'l
~_ .
Inside edge of trav eled way
Outside edge
Profile control
Notes:
A = Normal crown,
o = Full superelevation
Figure 1.05.3
Development of Su.perelevation
•
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Notes:
V Design speed. km/h
RC =
Remove crown and superelevate at
normal crown rate
NC = Normal crown, superelevation not required
Figure 1.05.4
Design Superelevation Rates
.'
eMax. = 0.06
142
( -.. .-::l"ZO
. _-l
\ ~~J.j..
5,000
r===r: ~=--:.::.:....----:
-~ --
2,000
E
ai
>
:; 1'\
--T"=4:_+
u
~.
eli
C
o
N
8
.c
o
VJ
:::J
'g 500
a:
II
a:
h ",,",M' I--:~ ~
'-==r.....
200
~-_1R
r---~ ~_:=f--~-=-=--_,=-.=_-.~ -:_~_.-----'_. ~--~=_-~--=~ ~_~
r---'-~~f__---_;_ ~-~- -~--- ---~- - - - - - ~=-=-~. --~
f---c-,---;---'-t--c------+-...---,----- ---r~--- - ~ -- - f---- - - ----- ~--
100 - '-r---= _--c--- 1'<..= - ~ --"
~r- ..... ' -=
£(, ._-- =-~-=:
~
-:------:==
~~I---
f-------:-------r--r- +_..
~_'
-1-------+ -r- r- .......- ~- c:::--
- -. --F=-
----------r-
-
=""--:'
-,...---... ~~t-~
I-r--' ; -~t::::T:-'--~+-
" - ~ ..+-r
~- •-- ~~.
.- c-l- t=::-. -- ---" - ;....::----:~.
. , -. -.
50 -~ -•
-- + - __ +- ~ _~d-' :~....... ~~ ~ __. ~~~---;---===
~::r---+ __ ..~-= :_~,_-==§ -;=:
o 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
Notes:
V = Design speed, km/h
RC = Remove crown and superelevate at
normal crown rate
NC = Normal crown. superelevation not required
Figure 1.05.5
Design Superelevation Rates
e!\lax. = 0.08
143
•
f~
1
j
~
~ ~ ~
~~
II ~
III
a
a a
~ '"
w 'aNn:> /eluozlJ04 10 snlpet/ = t/
~ I 'tlt++++I+I,++H+++
, '
a o a a
a
a 8. 8N a LO
al
W 'allJn:J lejuozlJoLj )0 snlpel::! = l::!
•
1.05 C
I' Sh,,"e'l n"e:d we, rhO'ldee,1 new conditions. In this way, erratic operation
and accidents can be minimized as the driver
•
a short tangent between two curves in the same
Figure 1.05.8
direction should be avoided. The use of transi
Superelevation of Paved Shoulders
tion curves or compound circular curves that
will provide some degree of continuous curva
C. Horizontal Alignment ture and superelevation is preferable under
such conditions.
I. General Controls
Horizontal alignment is a combination of cir Compound circular curves should be joined by
cular curves, transition curves, and tangents. transition curves, especially when the radius of
Horizontal alignment must provide for safe the flatter curve is more than 33 percent
and continuous operation at a uniform design greater than the radius of the sharper curve. In
speed for substantial lengths of highway. some situations it may be possible to substitute
a long transition curve for one of the circular
The major considerations in the design of hori curves of a compound combination.
zontal alignment are safety, highway design
class, design speed, topography, vertical align For small central angles, curves should be of
ment, construction cost, cultural development, sufficient length to avoid the appearance of a
and aesthetics. All these factors must be kink. Curves should be at least 300 m long for
balanced to produce an alignment that is safe, a central angle of 6G or less.
economical, and in harmony with the natural On divided multilane highways, independent
2. Standards for Curvature used for each travel direction to fit the terrain
and produce a pleasing appearance. See HDM
Table 1.05.9
Design Speed
(km/h) 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Radius
400 500 800 1,000 1,700 1,900 2,100 2,300 2,600 3,000 4,000
(m)
t., a:
a:
..'\ ~~:;:::-:'cK:--:t
----t
_
- L
c
--.::::.:..
Elements: Elements:
··
... '
PI = Point of Tangent Intersection PI = Point of Tangent Intersection
Figure 1.05.10
Transition and Circular Curve Elements
147
1.05 D, E
. --,-tical alignment consists of a series of sure that the required minimum vertical curva
ture is maintained across the pavement. For
O' ddients connected by vertical curves. It is
example, the lane profile on the opposite side
controlled by safety, topography, highway de
of the roadway from the superelevation control
sign class, design speed, horizontal alignment,
line may have sharper curvature due to the
construction cost, cultural development, drain
change in superelevation rate required by the
age, vehicular characteristics, and aesthetics.
superelevation runoff. It is, therefore, neces
The vertical alignment is usually referred to as
sary to check both edge profiles and adjust
the profile grade or the grade line.
where necessary in order to maintain the de
A smooth profile grade with gradual changes, sired minimum vertical curvature.
consistent with the class of highway and the
In flat terrain, the elevation of the grade line is
character of the terrain, is preferable to a verti
often controlled by drainage. The grade line
cal alignment with numerous sharp breaks and
must be positioned so that adequate drainage
short lengths of grade.
structures can be constructed.
Table 1.05.10
I Radius
Of 3.65 m Lane Width
Radius Pavement Widening (m)
3.25 m Lane Width
...:urve
(m)
40
Design Speed (kmlh)
50 60 70 80 40 50
Design Speed (km/h)
60 70 80 90 100
(
500 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.6
400 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.6 0.6
350 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7
300 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7
250 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.8
200 0 0 0 0 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
175 0 0 0 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.8
150 0 0 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
125 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
100 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.9
80 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.1
60 0.8 1.1
50 0.9 1.3
45 1.0 1.4
Notes: Widening shown is Jar two-lane pavements in either one or two directions.
For three-la/ze pavements in one direction. multiply above values by 1.5.
For Jour-lane pavements in one direction. multiply above values by 2.0. (
'
148
1.05 E
Table 1.05.11
(
Design
Highway Design Class
Speed Expressway Arterial Collector Local
(km/h)
Desir Abso Desir Abso Desir Abso Desir Abso
able lute able lute able lute able lute
40 8 12/
50 7 9 7 II
60 6 8 6 10
70 4.5 6 5 6 5.5 9
80 4 5 4 5 4 7 5 8
90 3.5 5 3.5 5 3.5 6.5 5 7
100 3 5 3 5 3 6
110 2.5 4.5 2.5 4.5
120 2.5 4 2.5 4
130 2 3.5
140 2 3
In areas where the surface water is above the position of the grade line should be as follows:
ground level or the ground water table is im
a. Undivided Highways
mediately below the surface, the grade line
shall be established so that the low edge of the The grade line should coincide with the
finished shoulder is at least 0.5 m above the highway centerline.
water level. In areas of rock, if practical, the b. Ramps and Directional Highway
grade line should be established so that the low Connections
edge of the finished shoulder is at least 0.3 m
The grade line may be positioned at either
above the rock level. This will avoid unnec
essary rock excavation. edge of the traveled way or at the centerline.
c. Divided Highways
For aesthetic reasons, the length of vertical
curves should be substantially longer than the The grade line may be positioned at either
length required for stopping sight distance. the centerline of the highway or at the me
dian edge of the traveled way.
2. Grade Standards
4. Vertical Curves
Maximum gradients for various highway de
sign classes and design speeds are shown in Properly designed vertical curves will provide
Table 1.05.11. adequate sight distance, safety, comfortable
driving, good drainage and pleasing a~(:'
Minimum longitudinal gradients for highways ance.
{,
and ditches are shown in Table 1.05.12.
Table 1.05.12
tions of maximum gradient broken by lengths mass-power ratio of 250 g/w is recommended
considered good practice to use the steeper characteristics for such a design truck on as
gradients at the bottom of the grade, thus de cending and descending grades.
speed of trucks.
Climbing lanes should end where the design
6. Critical Length of Grade and Climbing truck regains a speed equivalent to or higher
Lanes than the speed for which the climbing lane was
The critical length of grade is that combination initiated. This usually places the end of the
of percent of gradient and length that will climbing lane beyond the crest of a vertical
cause a designated design truck to operate at curve, where sight distance is somewhat re
some predetermined minimum speed. A lower stricted. Sight distances should be checked and
speed is considered unacceptable for safety and where necessary, the climbing lane should be
operational efficiency. There are two alterna extended. The minimum length of a climbing
tives that should be considered when the de lane should be 250 m, excluding tapers.
sign gradient exceeds the critical length. Figure 1.05.13 illustrates the design of climb
lane is considered necessary when the DHV The grade line under grade separation struc
equals or exceeds the design capacity of the tures shall provide a minimum vertic?-J.c'~ar
150
(
Deceleration Curves
~;-"'~<'''''
~ E~- ~ ;;
80 ----- i
~ y-
~-?'-'"~g,,,,,,-
E 601
:2 '\1\. '" .... I.. . . . . .......
""" 1- =t-- ---,f---II
.....
..><:
............, I I
II .P
~
2=- X ~
"0401 1\"1'0
,~ \ \ '1 " I ' .... 1 I I
-7 O; "\
~'l. ~
..><:
g,=+ g201-- I \ 'l=? I I I
.= ' I
(a) (b)
o I I I I , ! I I
Types of vertical curves: (a) Sag curves. (b) Crest curves. a 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Distance (m)
Q)' .,.../
Speed vs distance chart on uniform ascending grades
for trucks with mass: power = 250 g/W
.,... .,.../
~. :>
ct.
BOr---
Acceleration Curves
777V7:::;::oj:::;;:
00
~ 60 0
E 1
0
0
..><:
2'0
Elements: oL I I I ! I I
g, and g2 = Gradients in percent o 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
PVC = Beginning of vertical curve Distance (m)
PVI = Point of gradient intersection
PVT = End of vertical curve Speed vs distance chart on uniform descending and
E = External distance (mid ordinate) in meters
ascending grades for trucks with mass: power = 250 g/W
d = Elevation difference from g, to the vertical curve in meters
Ip = Length of parabolic curve in meters Figure 1.05.12
f = Length to any point on the vertical curve in meters Truck Operation on Ascending
Ic = Length to the level point on the vertical curve in meters
11 And Descending Grades
~
Equations:
g, - G2
E = Ip ( 800 Note:
g, - g2 in these
t2 equations is the
d = E [ ('l2lp)2 algebraic difference
(AD) in gradient.
g,
to = g, - g2 (Ip)
Figure 1.05.11
f }\
lSI
Notes:
Lp =600 m
Use the deceleration and acceleration curves of Figure
C\l
-1% 1,000 m
:>
a.
0%
-\-1.5%
80 km/h
O%\~ '"
:>
a.
.r.
......
E
-"
15
.r.
E
-"
g
•
Figure 1.05.13
can impair the good points and intensify the in proper balance with the terrain and area
•
deficiencies of each. Excellence in the design of traversed.
encourages uniform speed, and improves ap horizontal curvature will generally provide
pearance, in most cases with little additional improved appearance. This combination
cost. It is extremely difficult and costly to shall, however, be analyzed for its effect
come back later and correct alignment defi upon traffic operations, and safety.
ciencies. Once a facility is constructed with c. Sharp horizontal curvature including re
poorly designed alignment combinations, it verse horizontal curvature shall not be intro
will in all likelihood remain in operation for duced at pronounced grade crests or grade
tionship between horizontal and vertical e. Two-lane highways shall provide adequate
alignments. Nor can the subject be dealt with safe passing opportunities. This requirement
in isolation without reference to the broader may limit the achievement of desirable hori
subject of highway location. Horizontal and zontal and vertical alignment combinations.
cable to the other. In the centerline projection made as flat as feasible at intersections.
zontal alignments for each direction shall be From an operational and safety standpoint,
considered where such combinations would one-way frontage roads are preferred. One-way
// result in reduced cost or improved opera operation inconveniences local traffic to some
(
tions. degree, but reduction in vehicular and pedes
trian conflicts at intersecting streets often fully
h. The alignments shall be designed to en
compensates for this inconvenience. Also, slip
hance attractive scenic views of the natural
ramps from a frontage road to a highway are
and manmade environment, such as wadis,
permitted only on one-way frontage roads.
rock formations, parks, and outstanding
buildings. 3. Outer Separation
Horizontal and vertical coordination is espe The area between the traveled ways of the
cially important when the highway is visible main highway and the frontage road is the
ahead for long distances. For long oblique outer separation. Such separations function as
viewing distances, each deviation in the hori traffic buffers and provide space for ramps or
zontal alignment and the profile will be re intersection connections to or from the high
vealed, and unless these deviations are gradual, way.
they will be visually magnified. For example, a The wider the outer separation, the less influ
distant view of a long grade will show sharp ence local traffic will have on highway traffic.
grade changes as bumps. A distant oblique Wide separations lend themselves to landscape
view of a highway will show short horizontal
..
153
1.05 H
••
~
transition should normally be made on a Very often a new project will have slightly
l""lgent section. However, a transition on a flat wider travel lanes and/or shoulder widths than
circular curve is also acceptable if the direction the existing highway at the project termini. To
of the curve is in the same direction as the shift provide a smooth transition from an existing to
in the traveled way centerline. Intersections a new section of highway, the length of pave
at-grade within the transition should be ment transition in meters shall be at least 2.25
avoided. times the design speed in kilometers per hour.
(
154
A,;A ~
r"':"'~~ \,
"..
Case 1 L
-
I
approach to two-,ahe section-narrow median.
/6.10 m .7.30 m ,
\ 65m Double traffic stripe and raised bars _
R ~~ml 3. l -V
l-I
L "- \
"
--
I
.
= h -
-- I 130m ~ 7.30 m
.-./' • 215 m ~~
(No passing traffic stripe) --'
0t-
CI:z
t--
zO
Oel.
o
Case 2
R 2.300 m ~
h
-- I. 130 m ~L7.30 m
---
215 m 15 m
~ ~
(No passing traffic stripe) Equation
--'
0t-
CI:z L=2,3 V Where L=Len!;jth of variable width traveled way in m
t--
zO V=Deslgn speed In km/h
Oel.
Case 3 o
60 m L
Tangent appro ach to two-lane section
3.65 m"l C3.65 m I Double traffic stripe and raised bars 7.30 m \
L tJ
7 __ I L
~ r -"-_\~ ~ \ \ \_\\ \ --
7.30 m
150 m 120 m L R 915 m min.
--
L J (No oasslno traffic strloe I
J
--' . ---
t--~ R=915 m min.
zO
Oel.
o
Figure 1.05.14
VI
VI Typical Two- to Four-Lane Transition
VI
0'
c
o c
'iii .,u
C iii
L,=1.50 V c
~ 0:0=
c: Transition ~ ~ E
'0, "0
III c: Normal shoulder width 1 '" E
~ :l
CD W U '"
"';> <;> t
""----- - -
\~ @- c e:-', ,.J}A.J/.I· <
@ - - - ; > - - - - - - - -
--
- ~
I
• 1.20 m min.
L=Length of transition in meters r
V=Design speed in kilometers/hour ~
c
.g
'iii
c
E ~'"
c: L2 =2.25 V
g'"
'0, 'iii
III c:
90 m CD Transition ·1
~'"
"t:l
Minimum c:
W i
~!
i~
- .
- - ~- I
<;. -I -
I---
1 ~
--- .
--
t Normal shoulder width~
1.20 m min.
Figure 1.05.15
Typical Auxiliary Lane Transitions fi
·w.r"",
e.
~
1.05 I
,~
{
(
'
157
~A
~
"l
(
t._
A 0 40:1
~
'¢
'"
~
"
"
Conical surface
Precision instrument approach
Visual or nonprecision approach
(Slope-E)
•
hC
Figure 1.05.16
Airway-Highway
Clearance Requirements
Civil Airports
158
•
'.;'
r"~''~.•
Runway Standards
Visual Nonprecision
Types of Runway Runway Instrument Runway Precision
II Instrument
I II I Runway
III IV
Dim Item Dimensional Standards (m)
Width of Primary Surface and
A Approach Surface Width at
Inner End 75 150 150 150 300 300
B Radius of Horizontal Surface 1,520 1,520 1,520 3,050 3,050 3,050
C Approach Surface Width at End 380 460 610 1,070 1,220 4,880
D Approach Surface Length 1,520 1,520 1,520 3,050 3,050 •
E Approach Slope 20:1 20:1 20:1 34:1 34:1 •
I -Utility runway.
II -Runways larger than utility.
III -Visibility minimums greater than 1.2 km.
IV -Visibility minimums as low as 1.2 km.
• -Precision instrument approach slope is 50: I for inner 3,050 m.
and 40:1 for an additional 12,200 m.
Figure 1.05.16
Airway-Highway
Clearance Requirements
.,
• 159
(
Notes:
1. All dimensions in meters.
2. Dimensions "a" and "b" are multiples of overall helicopter length.
3. Minimum vertical clearance is 5.5 m for all highways. Highway clearance,
profile at pavement edge nearest airfield.
155
At helicopter enroute altitude
/
/
Heliport 1.
departure &
approach surface
8:1 Slope"
7
•
/
Figure 1.05.17
Airway-Highway
Clearance Requirements
Heliports
(.
160
1.05 J, K
/--
------ - -
( // G
-
9,150
I
F I
I
G
I
• ...
.,C'
,' ...
Legend
A - Primary surface
B - Clear zone surface
150
/
/
/
/
Figure 1.05.18
Airway-Highway
Clearance Requirements
Military Airports
J. Bridges and Grade Separation Structures and pedestrian traffic. A minimum separation
width of 1.2 m is desirable for all urban high
1. Width
ways.
separation structures shall be equal to the sum Sidewalks should be hard surfaced with port
<'....;:.~,' of the width of the approach traveled way, and land cement concrete, tile, or bituminous pave
shoulders and barrier offset distances. When ment. The minimum cross slope should be
ever there are sidewalks on bridge approaches, 0.015 m/m. In areas with heavy volumes of
the sidewalk width shall be continued across pedestrian traffic, sidewalks should be placed
the bridge. on each side of the roadway. Some urban areas
and most frontage roads can be served with a
2. Cross Slope sidewalk on only one side. In these areas,
The cross slope on a bridge deck should be sidewalks must be continuous between
consistent with that of the adjoining roadway. intersections.
161
1.05 L
the intensity of land use must be quite high to L. Curbs and Gutters
require sidewalks of large capacity. In deter
I. General
mining sidewalk width the following guides
should be considered. Curbs and gutters shall be used only when they
are justified by the following:
(
a. The minimum sidewalk width shall be
1.0 m. a. Where required for proper drainage.
b. Near multiple family dwelling units, a b. Where needed for channelization, delinea
width of 1.8 m is adequate unless there is a tion, control of access, or other means of
possibility that the sidewalk will be used by improving traffic flow and safety.
many pedestrians from other sources. c. For replacement of existing curbs and
near schools, offices, and industrial plants d. In intersection median openings to shield
•
Warrants for a pedestrian grade separation a. Type A
Jctures are based on detailed assessments of These are commonly called "barrier curbs,"
the present and future needs of an area or com but they do not constitute a positive barrier
munity. Each situation should be investigated as they are easily mounted except at low
and considered on its own merits. The investi speeds and flat angles of approach. Their
gation shall cover studies of pedestrian gener main functions are to deter vehicles from
ating sources, pedestrian travel patterns and using areas outside the traveled way not in
crossing volumes, classification of highway to tended for vehicular travel, control drain
be crossed, location of adjacent crossing facili age, and regulate and control parking of
factors.
Barrier curbs are generally used in urban
The design of pedestrian overpasses shall be in where the design speeds are above 80 km/h.
mum vertical clearance required over the road typical uses include drainage control and
way shall be 5.5 m plus an allowance for 10 cm channelization. Mountable curbs are gener
of future wearing course. Pedestrian ramps ally used on rural highways or on high speed
basis.
ble, they should be used in preference to a
Although an overpass is much more desirable The following typical bituminous curb sections
than an underpass, there are instances when an are illustrated.
underpass is necessary. Underpasses shall be
well lighted, and clear unobstructed visibility a. Type A
is essential. The required minimum clear verti This type is used to control roadway surface
cal distance is 2.0 m, however, 3.0 m is desira drainage and is used in conjunction with
ble. The minimum width shall be 2.5 m. A paved waterways and spillways.
162
1.05 L
drainage as well as to facilitate a paved ditch tween two different curb types. This allows for
section. warping from one curb shape and height to
( 3. Position of Curbs
another. At curb termini, the curb
warped in a distance of 5 m from
should be
a normal
Curbs should be placed where they will not curb height to zero height.
obstruct travel lanes or shoulders.
5. Gutter Cross Slopes
4. Curb Transitions
The cross slopes of gutters should be 8 percent.
#
:~
'<
163
1.06 A
1. Widths
drivers because vehicles tend to be pulled in
No feature of a highway has a greater influ the same direction when changing lanes.
*'
',~
isting development become stringent controls,
the use of 3.35 m lanes may be acceptable sub
ject to MOC approval as a deviation from pol
objectionable in appearance and may be an
noying and uncomfortable in operation.
Steep cross slopes are undesirable on tangents
icy on a case-by-case basis.
because of the tendency of vehicles to drift
Auxiliary lanes at intersections and inter toward the low edge of pavement. Cross slopes
changes often are provided to facilitate traffic up to 1.5 percent are barely perceptible as far
movements. Such added lanes should be as as effect on vehicle steering is concerned, but
wide as the through-traffic lanes. cross slopes steeper than 1.5 percent are no
ticeable to the driver. The latter rate requires a
Refer to 2-1.03 to determine the number of
conscious effort in steering and would increase
lanes required to serve the traffic on the partic the susceptibility to lateral skidding when
ular roadway to be designed. vehicles brake on wet pavements and even on
2. Cross Slope dry pavements when stops are made under
Two-lane and urban-curbed arterial pavements emergency conditions.
on tangents or on flat curves have a crown or The prevalence of high winds may significantly
high point in the middle and slope downward alter the effect of pavement crown on steering.
toward both edges. On divided highways, ex In rolling terrain with alternate cut-and-fill
cept urban-curbed arterials, each one-way sections or in areas alternately forested and
pavement shall have a unidirectional slope cleared, any substantial cross wind produces
across the entire width of the traveled way, and an intermittent impact on a vehicle moving
the slope is usually downward to the outer along the highway and affects its steering. In
165
1.06 B, C
areas where such conditions are likely, it is 2. Climbing Lanes
desirable to avoid high rates of cross slope. Warrants for and length of climbing lanes are
and safe control of the vehicle and shall be 1.5 lane. The outside shoulder width, when climb
percent for all paved traveled ways. ing lanes are introduced, is 1.25 m.
•
1\ roadway network provides for the safe and
.Ient movement of the vehicles operating on C. Shoulder Standards .
the system. Although the movement of
vehicles is the primary function of a roadway 1. General
network, segments of the network may, as a On highways, shoulders are necessary to pro
result of land use, be required to provide for vide structural support for the pavement edges.
the parking of vehicles. On highways carrying higher volumes, shoul
ders provide structural support, emergency
Only emergency stopping or parking should be
parking space for stopped vehicles, and the
permitted or considered in the design of arte
required side clearance between moving
rial and expressway facilities. However, within
vehicles and stationary objects. On most urban
urban areas, existing and developing land uses
streets, shoulders are not necessary, as struc
necessitate the consideration of on-street park
tural support is provided by the curbs and
ing. This situation may also occur in small
gutters, and disabled vehicles can find refuge in
rural communities located on arterial highway
parking lanes, side streets, and driveways.
routes. Usually, adequate off-street parking fa
cilities are not available, so the designer must The shoulder on minor rural highways with
recognize the fact that on-street parking must low traffic volume serves essentially as struc
be a design consideration so that the proposed tural lateral support for the surfacing and as
street or highway improvement will be com an additional width for the narrow traveled
.,Ie with the land use. way. It permits drivers meeting or passing
Only parallel on-street parking should be con
sidered. Angle parking should not be permit
other vehicles to drive on the very edge of the
roadway without leaving the surfacing, thus
(
making use of the shoulder itself. Such opera
ted for the reasons that vehicle lengths vary
tion is fitting only where traffic volume is so
significantly and vehicles such as vans and
small that meetings and passings occur infre-·
small trucks require extra length so as not to
quently. Where there is appreciable traffic vol
interfere with the traveled way. Accident in
ume, highways with narrow surfacing and nar
vestigation studies also show a much higher
row shoulders give poor service, have a high
incident of accidents, particularly relating to
accident experience, and require frequent and
the unparking movement, at angle parking
costly maintenance.
zones than in areas where parallel parking is
permitted. Well-designed and properly maintained shoul
ders are necessary on rural high ways with any
Parking lanes shall be designed for all curbed
appreciable volume of traffic and on some
local and collector streets. On all other classes
types of urban highways. Their advantages are
of roads the shoulder shall act as a designated
as follows:
parking lane or as an area available for emer
gency parking. • Width is provided for safe stopping because
of mechanical difficulty, a flat tire, or other
The parking lane width shall be 2.5 m from emergency.
edge of traveled way to face of curb. The
• Width is provided for safe stopping to con (
length of a typical parallel parking space shall
"
be 6.5 m.
166
1.06 C
suIt highway maps, to rest, or for other per • Storm water can be discharged farther from
sonal reasons. the pavement, and seepage adjacent to the
( • Width is provided for increased mobility to pavement can be minimized. This may re
\ escape potential accidents or reduce their duce pavement breakup.
severity. • Structural support is given to the pavement.
• The sense of openness created by shoulders • Space is provided for pedestrian and bicycle
contributes much to driving ease and free use.
dom from strain. • Space is provided for bus stops.
• Sight distance is improved in cut sections, Pavement edge dropoff, which can cause loss
thereby improving safety. of vehicle control, is eliminated when the
• Some types of shoulders enhance the aes shoulder is stabilized.
thetics of the highway.
Where on-street parking is permitted, the
• Highway capacity is improved, and uniform
parking lane provides some of the same ser
speed is encouraged.
vices listed above for shoulders.
• Space is provided for maintenance opera
tions. 2. Widths
• Lateral clearance to signs and guardrails is Table 1.06.1 shows the desirable and minimum
increased. shoulder widths for the eight major classes of
roadways.
~.
Table 1.06.1
•
recommendations in rock. Retaining walls of
hydraulic capacity. The flow line of ditch must
partial height shall be considered where space
!equate to accommodate drainage of the
restrictions require slopes that otherwise
pavement.
would be steeper than 2: 1. On the other hand,
Ditches should have a streamlined cross sec soil characteristics may necessitate the use of
tion for safety and ease of maintenance. See slopes flatter than 2: 1 or even 3: 1. If adequate
2-1.15C2. Wide ditch bottoms facilitate grad width is not available in such cases, partial
ing operations where side borrow methods are walls may be necessary. To minimize the feel
used. ing of constriction, walls should be set back a
minimum of 0.5 m from the outer edge of the
The depth of the ditch in cut sections is depen
usable shoulder.
dent on hydraulic needs but should normally
be no deeper than 0.25 m below subgrade for The highway should be designed with a clear
safety and maintenance. Short sections of ditch zone free of hazards. Desirably, slopes should
deeper than 0.25 m may be required to drain be 6: 1 or flatter. If slopes are steeper than 3: 1,
flat gradient ditches to a culvert inlet or to an a traffic barrier may be required. The purpose
embankment area. Should hydraulic needs dic and width of clear zone and warrants for traf
tate ditches of greater capacity than the nor fic barriers are described in 2-1.15.
mal depth V-ditch, the designer should design
The intersections of slope planes in the high
a flat bottom ditch of sufficient width instead
way cross section should be well rounded to
•
of deepening the V-ditch. Subsurface ground
simulate natural earth forms.
may require the installation of
uno"rdrain systems in lieu of deeper or wider The combination of flat slopes and rounding is
ditches. frequently referred to as streamlined cross sec
tion. With this shape the cross winds sweep
E. Sideslopes along the surface without forming eddies that
Sideslopes should be designed to insure the contribute to the wind erosion and drifting of
stability of the roadway and to provide a rea sand. The streamlined cross section usually re
sonable opportunity for recovery for an out-of sults in a minimum of expenditure for sand
control vehicle. removal because the winds blow the sand off
the pavement instead of drifting it, as happens
The desirable foreslope, the slope from the in cross sections with steep slopes without
edge of the surfaced shoulder to the edge of the rounding. When combined with the design
subgrade shoulder, is 6: 1 except that on rural practice of making the level of the roadway
local roads with an ADT (20) less than 300, above that of the surrounding land to also in
the foreslope shall be 4: I. In excavation sec sure drainage of the subgrade, the streamlined
tions with ditches, the slope from the edge of cross section results in a highway requiring a
the subgrade shoulder to the bottom of the minimum of maintenance and operating costs
ditch shall be an extension of the foreslope. and a maximum of safety. See Figure 1.06.5
•
Earth cut and fill slopes should be flattened as and 2-1.16 for special cut-and-fill treatment in
appropriate with the topography and consist- sand.
168
1.06 F
Table 1.06.2
Desirable and Maximum Slopes
• Height (m)
Desirable
Earth Slope, Horizontal to Vertical,
Type of Terrain (Except in Hard Rock)
Flat
Maximum Desirable
Rolling
Maximum
Mountainous
Desirable Maximum
•
aSlopes 2:1 or sleeper are subjecl 10 a soil slabilily analysis.
Design guide values for the selection of earth Wide ditches at the ;...-;; tom of cuts having rock
slopes in relation to the height of cut or fill fall potential ha\e~-.; vantages in that a safe
yield generally favorable cross sections, but landing area is pre' '. Jed for falling boulders.
best results are obtained by area and individual This width can a;s, ~e shaped to provide a
study for each case. Contour maps are partic clear roadside reco'. .~:- 2' area. See Figure 1.06.5
ularly helpful and should be used for difficult for rock cut slope r:-~:-~lment.
design situations. Table 1.06.2 shows what Rock outcroppings :-.,·,e sometimes been left in
slopes are used as a general basis for design of
place during constr.;.<:lOn of new highways for
earth sideslopes. These values are suggested for
reasons of econorr~ ')r aesthetics. These are
use where the topography or right of-way re
lethal if struck by 2: <:utomobile and any such
strictions do not permit the use of flatter
obstacle should n~7 0e tolerated within the
slopes. Even in steep terrain there are places
clear roadside rece. ';' y area where removal is
where for appearance and increased safety it is
feasible. If they ca:-.:-. 0)1 be removed, a roadside
desirable to use flatter slopes than those
barrier of appropr12' '; design shall be installed.
shown. The selected slope should conform gen
erally with existing land and ground forms. F. Median Standar (; >,
The necessity for benches, their width and ver ders. The principal (unctions of a median are
adequate geotechnical investigation is made. • Provide the desirl:d freedom from the inter
ference of opposill~~ traffic
For ease of maintenance, 4.0 m width benches
• Provide a recowl)' area for out-of-control
are satisfactory. Benches should be on a slope
vehicles, to provide II stopping area in case of
of approximately 20: I towards the roadway to
emergencies
prevent ponding of water behind the bench
• Provide for speed ~'hange lanes and storage
that would create slip plane problems. Benches
lanes for left turnill~ and U-turning vehicles
should be constructed to blend with geological
• Minimize headliF.ht glare, installation of
strata rather than conforming to any set grade.
utilities, illuminati"ll, traffic control devices
Slope stability as well as appearance may be • Provide width for future lanes.
•
enhanced in poor-quality rock by the establish Another benefit of :1 median in an urban area
ment of serrated cut slopes in any material that is that it may prO'i.k an open area for aes
can be ripped. See Figure 1.06.5.
169
1.06 G
thetic treatment. For maximum efficiency, a roadside safety. All drainage inlets in the me
median should be highly visible both night and dian shall be designed with the top flush with
of roadbed, but the additional cost may not be types of urban arterials. When used on
appreciable compared with the cost of the expressways, a median barrier may be re
highway as a whole and may be justified in quired. The median should be slightly crowned
•
v;~w of the benefits derived. A distinct advan
of the wider medians on roadways other frequently used because it eliminates the need
than expressways is to provide adequate shel for collecting drainage water in the median.
ter for vehicles crossing at intersections with However, the slightly depressed type is gener
public highways and at crossovers serving ally preferred with the depression being
commercial and private drives. However, wide formed by 4-percent cross slopes being con
medians are a disadvantage when the intersec structed from the shoulder of each inside lane
tion is signalized. The increased time for and intersecting in the middle of the median.
vehicles to cross the median may lead to ineffi 2. Median Widths
cient signal operation.
The desirable median width is 20 m for all
If the right-of-way is restricted, the median rural and urban highways except that the de
shall not be widened beyond a desirable mini sirable width for rural mountain highways is
mum at the expense of narrowed border areas. 10 m.
A reasonable border width is required to ade
Under restraining circumstances that arise due
quately serve as a buffer between the private
to economical, topographical, environmental,
development along the highway and the trav
or political factors the median width may be
eled way, particularly where zoning is limited
reduced to a minimum width of 5 m for any
or nonexistent. Space must be provided on the
class of highway.
borders for sidewalks, highway signs, utility
.. ';, parking, drainage channels and struc Whenever two abutting highway sections have
.. _-:s, for proper slopes, and any retained na
tive growth. Narrowing these areas may tend
different median widths, a smooth transition
shall adjust the difference. For good appear
(
to develop hazards and hindrances similar to ance the transition length shall be as long as
those that the median is designed to avoid. possible and occur within a horizontal curve.
A depressed median is preferred on G. Cross Sections
expressways. This type is more efficient for
drainage. Median side slope should be no Figures 1.06.1, 1.06.2, 1.06.3, and 1.06.4 show
steeper than 6: I, and preferably 10: I. Slopes of cross sections depicting the essential elements
4: I may be adequate structurally and for vege for typical sections of two-lane rural highways,
tation, but they are questionably steep for urban streets, multilane rural highways, and
urban highways.
(,
170
•
"a"
Shldr.
"b"
<t
I
"b"
Traveled lane Traveled lane
"a"
Shldr.
Depth of cut
Round top
of cut
0.25 m
6:1 -
1.5%
_
1.5% I 1.5%
Crown I Crown
-
1.5%
6:1
Additional Warrants:
Shoulder and Traveled Lane Widths (m)
1. For traffic barriers,
Shoulder Traveled Lane refer to 2-1.15.
Class "a" "b"
2. For truck climbing
-
Rural Local 2.00 3.25 lanes, add a width
Rural Collector 2.50 3.65 equal to "b".
«
. '.. .'.' . ' Rural Arterial 3.00' 3.65
3. Reduce adjacent "a"
Figure 1.06.1
<t
"a" "b" "b" "a" 0.5 m min.
-~~p
,
- 1% 1.5% I
I
...-- Crown Crown
1.5%
---
1%
Figure 1.06.2
171
(
~
Median
-
shoulder
- 1.5% median)
1.5% 1.5%
- Crown
Round top
of cut 0.25 m Pavement Subgrade
min. structure
(See 2-1.09)
See Table 1.06.2
Additional Warrants:
e,
Shoulder and Traveled Lane Widths (m)
I 1. For traffic barriers,
Outside Traveled Inside refer to 2-1.15.
Shoulder Lane Shoulder
"c" 2. For truck climbing lane,
Llass "a" "b"
add one 3.65 m
Rural Arterial 3.00 3.65 2.00 traveled lane.
Rural Expressway 3.00 3.65 2.00
3. Reduce "a" to 1.25 m
Urban Arterial 3.00 3.65 2.00
for climbing
Urban Expressway 3.00 3.65 2.00
lane.
See Figure 1.06.5 for Special Treatments
Figure 1.06.3
(Half Section)
--
sidewalk or other
1% offset 1.5% I 1.5%
appurtenances
Curb, or curb
and gutter Pavement
- Crown ! Crown - -
Subgrade
- 1%
Structure
(See 2-1.09)
See Table 1.06.2
Figure 1.06.4
(Half Section)
172
.$ 5c' --.
1.06 H
ct
m
3.0m 3.0m
I
( 10:1 Flat 6:1
I
_!........::::===j======="",,--
Variable
slope
Round breaks
in slope.
Sand Dune Only
(See 2-1.16)
0.3 to 0.6 m
"H"
J _
.. 1 '/
'/
Staked slope
Rock Cuts
on geotechnical requirements.
'Height Width of
of Cut Fallout Ditch
"H" (m) "'V" (m)
0- 9 3.0
9-18 4.0
18-30 5.0
over 30 6.0
\( are constructed.
Figure 1.06.5
Special Treatments
II. Structure Clearances vertical clearance shall be 7.0 m above the top
of the rails. The lateral clearance to piers or
The desired horizontal clearance for roadway
abutment walls shall be 6.0 m from the
structures between the edges of the traveled
centerline of the track.
way and piers or abutment walls shall be the
clear zone width determined from Figure The vertical clearance for overhead communi
2-1.15.1. In many cases, such clearance is not cation lines is 7 m and for power lines is as
economically feasibly. Then, lesser clearance is follows:
allowable if barrier rail or guardrail is used to o to 750 volts 7m
protect both the structure and highways users. 750 to 15,000 volts 9m
Vertical clearances on all roadway structures Greater than 15,000 volts 10m
should be at least 5.5 m with additional provi Horizontal clearances for major line supports
sions for future surfacing if applicable. are the same as discussed for roadway struc
( If the roadway structure crosses a railway, the tures.
173
Section 1.07 Grade Intersections
• 'A. General
Many accidents and safety problems on high
ways are attributable to intersection opera
tions. Capacity and traveltime are also con
trolled by the type and spacing of intersections.
The three-leg intersection has three intersect
ing approach legs that form a shape of a T or
a Y. The T shape provides better driver visibil
ity. The Y shape can cause driver confusion
when two legs diverge from the stem and thus,
requires careful signing.
Geometric design considerations and types of
The four-leg intersection may be right angled,
traffic control measures must be coordinated in
oblique, or offset. The right-angled crossing
intersection design. Geometric design consid
can be easily signed and signalized, provides
erations include the number and width of
good driver visibility, and is the safest to nego
through and turning lanes, channelization, and
tiate by drivers and pedestrians. The oblique
turning radii. Traffic control measures depend
crossing creates problems with driver visibility,
upon the design class of intersecting highways
pedestrian safety, and vehicle-turning angles.
and may include stop or yield control or traffic
The offset intersection has low intersection ca
signals. Traffic signal warrants are given in the
pacity, is difficult to comprehend and negoti
Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices
ate, and is difficult to sign and signalize. Offset
(MUTCD).
intersections shall not be used when the offset
Intersection of public highways, commercial or in Figure 1.07.1 is greater than one lane width.
•
private side road connections, and highway
Multileg intersections have more than four in
railroad grade crossings are the three groups of
tersecting approach legs and can form several
intersections described in this section. Al
different shapes. Multileg intersections have
though the basic intersection design principles
poor driver and pedestrian visibility, have poor
apply to each, geometric design criteria will
turning angles, are confusing to drivers, and
vary slightly between these intersections.
are difficult to sign, mark, and signalize. This
B. Intersection Types type of intersection can occur when a highway
is located diagonally across a street grid system
The three-leg, four-leg, and multileg are the or when more than four approach legs inter
three basic types of intersections. These are sect. This type of intersection shall not be used
illustrated in Figure 1.07.1. Where traffic on new highways and existing multileg
volumes and design speeds are low, and a intersections should be reconstructed to the
multileg intersection is desirable, a rotary in four-leg type.
tersection may be used but only with the ap
proval of the MOC as a deviation from policy.
•
175
1.07 C
•~' oFf
Three-leg Intersections
"'
---j r Maximum offset
of one traveled lane
J
-
85 G to 115 G
f&;, J
l IRI9hl009
Four-leg Intersections
1ed ~ --:Jtli
•
~
Multileg Intersections Figure 1.07.1
Basic Intersection Types •
C. Establishing Intersection Traffic Control 3. The intersection of an arterial with a local
may be channelized depending upon speed and
The design class of each intersecting highway
traffic volumes with stop control on the local.
shall be considered when designing channeliza
This type of intersection should be avoided,
tion and establishing the types of traffic control
whenever possible.
devices. Traffic control and channelization for
intersection of the various design class high 4. The intersection of two collector highways
way approach legs are as follows: may have channelization and signalization at
1. The intersection of two arterial highways higher voh!mes or be controlled by stop signs
should be signalized and channelized when on the lower volume collector.
ADT (20) is greater than 5,000. 5. The intersection of the collector with a local
2. The intersection of an arterial with a collec
shall have stop control on the local.
•
tor shall be channelized and signalized at 6. The intersection of two locals shall have
higher volumes or have stop control on the stop control on the lower volume local or stop
collector for lower traffic volumes. control on all intersection legs.
176
1.07 D, E
D. Data for Intersection Design features and ground contours.
Adequate data are required for proper design • Existing sight distances.
( of intersections. After the necessary data are
obtained, the appropriate number of turning
3. Intersection Capacity Analysis indicating
required approach widths, special turning
and through lanes may be provided for as well lanes, and signalization; see 2-1.03.
as proper channelization and installation of
traffic control devices. The following data shall E. Intersection Maneuvers and Conflicts
be obtained or developed and used in design or 1. Merging, diverging, crossing, and weaving
redesign of intersections. are maneuvers that can occur within an inter
1. Traffic Characteristics section. These maneuvers are illustrated in
Figure 1.07.2, and shall be considered when
• Through and turning vehicle volumes for
designing intersections.
current and design year (20 years).
• Percentages of cars, trucks, and buses. 2. Conflicts at intersections occur when a ve
• Design class of trucks. hicle makes a maneuver and its path either
diverges, merges, or crosses that of another
• Design speeds.
vehicle or pedestrian. The safety and operation
• Design classes of intersection legs. of intersections shall be improved by minimiz
• Pedestrian volumes and movements. ing the number of conflicts through the use of
• Accident data for existing intersection. channelization and signalization. Figure 1.07.3
• Any proposed roadside development. illustrates the types of conflicts for signalized
~. • Driver habits.
2. Field Data
and unsignalized intersections while Figure
1.07.4 illustrates the corresponding maximum
number of conflicts that could occur.
• Topographic map showing all planimetric
Diverging
Right , ::\ ---
~----
Left
...
Left
)
I~Ri9ht
J k Left
Merging
:(
L ~"L
7
I
(
------~
Crossing
-
~ One sided
~
~ Two sided
Weaving
Figure 1.07.2
\
Types of Maneuvers
177
(
••
Possible Conflicts
• diverging
• merging
8
8
.through-flow crossing 4
• turning-flow crossing 12
1 1111 I 1
I
Diverging Merging
Four-leg intersection single-lane
number of conflicts 32
1 L
approach no signal control
~ lL~ L ~
I f POSSible, Conflicts
• diverging 4
•
• merging 2
• through-f1ow crossing a
I II{ I 1 (
Through-flow crossing Turning-flow crossing
• turning-flow crossing
number of conflicts
2
L ILL
Vehicular-Pedestrian Conflicts Four-leg intersection single-lane
At unsignalized intersections
1 (
Four-leg intersection one-way
)llL ~J1L
~.
+ I
_ t! L Possible Conflicts
• diverging 3
f
• merging 3
~lrr irri
.through-flow crossing a
• turning-flow crossing 3
number of conflicts 9
Phase A Phase B
(
At signalized intersections Three-leg intersection single-lane
approach no signal control
Figure 1.07.3
Types of Conflicts Figure 1.07.4
Intersection Conflicts
178
F. Design Vehicles 1.07.6, and 1.07.7. Intersections shall be de
signed to accommodate at least a single unit
The turning radii and other dimensions shall
truck. If it is anticipated that trailer truck
(
'-
be large enough to meet the turning require
ments of vehicles using the intersection. Four
combinations will be using the highway, the
turning requirements for WB-12 or WB-15
types of design vehicles with their dimensions
trailer truck shall be met.
and turning paths are shown in Figures 1.07.5,
5.8
p
Passenger car
or pickup truck
9.1
I:1.8-I 6.1 1.~ I
..
'I
~[I X IJ
SU
Single unit truck
or bus
12.2
I: 3.1
I 7.3
-I 1.8:1
~[I II I J
B12
Large bus
'5'
1:'8.:!\ ,;" ". ::, ;
I
, 1
4.0 1.2
·1- I, -I
~II II II IJ
f WB12
Trailer-truck
combination
[',. 'a,
:h;1
15.2
'1
:~.2• I • 7.9
I
1.2
II -I- 4.9
•
~I~I III IJ
WB15
Trailer-truck
All dimensions in meters combination
Figure 1.07.5
Design Vehicles
\
179
(:
I,, 1 I\ -I
. . .: :';::::'-::-,-=-=-- - - C
r- Palh of
Path
o~,h,",
o~nt wheel ~
i ~7 ___
J11. ~/ ' ~ --- "C;.lh of ,;,hl ,e., wheel
:/1'
I~I
J-. 6~/~ I
I
~
\ \
--+-~--~., WB12
Trailer-truck
combination
\ I
\~<
--
0' I
p \~ ~~~~~~
" ---
""'~
r:-(I
··1
I---
'.0
XI 7.0
12.2
XX
1.2 1.'
1:1I
.
:1
l~ __
15.2 I
J \ _ _ _ -ICPatho~~ _
It \ // ::::::.=:--::..=f:.=.=
. I
~ Path of left front wheel ~ _
I~
II //
L,- ~;'::'i:: w:
!1/7 \ /
,"I \
WB15
combination
\\\
'\,
" , :::::- " [['" -- -
....:
'I I~~
-"'" I ~11.2~
II I 09
l L -: J . . . .
. '.9 I· ,
2
15.2
7.9 I1.2:~
.,
r~6
: :: 16.7 •
1
l'
'~
Jl.
181
'~~i.."!,::;;.~;,,~,,":~~ ,...: "'"~ _ . ~~-:.-""'''-.. __ .,.. ~~,_. ~ __ ~:~ ~_- ... :;:"':'"'"'C-J':-:~ _ '~,_71'-"" _ _ '~-_~'''~' '.__ .~_
(
:II:1 t '\'y " ---+
~
....t= Path o~~~n:..
~ ~'
/ ' /' P.th of Ief",o" .h'"
- - = --=
:II '1 .~"_~ Path of ",ht '''' ~'" _ -
I /( ~v I ~ Path of rear overhang
I
1-T~:·
1'1
,'&~\\
\
...
i$-<::-c>'! ~<::-~.
:
I
p
Passenger car
or pickup truck
\. ......§ '\'?
\.
" - -1I!I~- -
"'~~(~I
~ I --
/
T-
0.9 3.4
:.1. 5.8 ./. :
1.51 =-=-=--=-=--
~ Path of overhang
-
•
:\ ~ I ;t' ' " ~
~~
-- ~ Path of left front Wheel--=
I
I'I ,1/ 1(/ ///
'.\>'f -t--~---
Path of right rear wheel
'1 / / I
:,1; \ / I
I" ~
4--~. ~
fh,.. I
I SU
Single unit truck
or bus
\\
\
\
\
.;
....'1Y,
I
I
(
\~ ~ ~c>.! if lQ
" '\. J.....~ ~'
\.~ A I
"V '-,---1__
'~~[I X []~-
11.~ 6,1 1.81 - -
.j.:
I
: I 9.1
Figure 1.07.6
(
180
G. Intersection Design Elements Before T can be determined, the crossing dis
(
channelization, median openings, roadside de of crossing vehicle to the near
velopment, and superelevation. All these ele edge of the traveled way (gener
driver can easily comprehend and negotiate W = Width in meters of the traveled
the intersection, that the number of potential way measured along the path of
conflicts are minimized, that all vehicular and crossing vehicle. If the major
that provisions are made for drainage and width of traveled way in one di
There shall be adequate sight distance along both traveled ways plus the me
each approach leg at an intersection having dian width when the median is
stop control on the minor crossroad. This too narrow to accommodate the
sight triangle, Figure 1.07.8A. The sight dis L = Overall length in meters of the
•
tance between the vehicle on the crossroad and crossing vehicle
to be made in time to avoid a collision. is 1.30 m. The line of sight in the sight triangle
Hi9~~:;~i~• • • _!t~~1
in meters along the major high t
way measured from the centerline
of crossing vehicle path to the ap I I
-
w
~
-
proaching vehicle
V = Design speed of the major high
V _
" I L S (
D 1.1
way, kilometers per hour
T = Acceleration time, in seconds, re -t S=d+ W+ L
quired for the crossing vehicle to
clear the distance S beginning
from a stop condition, (T shall Figure 1.07.8A
182
14 I I I I I I
3. Vertical Alignment
The gradient of a minor crossing highway shall
( v;
match the cross slope of the main highway.
~
-g 121 I
8 I I / I Proper treatment of minor highway gradients
I is shown in Figures 1.07.9 and 1.07.10. The
minor highway gradients shall be checked to
---r---I~c;\.J)'~'/
~
§~ 10 I
0:; I _ I, 7 7' I insure that adequate crossing sight distance is
I provided. Shoulder edge profiles shall also be
checked to insure there are no flat spots where
~ the road surface will not drain.
.:i.
~
~Ql 8I I 7' I >' I AP' j,.r
I
Major Highway
Traveled
61 I I I I I
:;;>'
(0 nl ~y 'I~O ~I
G, lG 3 G2
4 ;:::;;-- ,
~----r---~
I I I , I I
o 10 20 30 40 50
S=Crossing distance traveled during acceleration (m)
Minimum
Stopping Sight Figure 1.07.9
183
(
Diagram A Diagram B
--
cross slope
110~1
~G4'! G~G4 ~
10 m ___
!'GL.-c
---
20m
-
~
Triangle shape -I
- II
-
-LG'H --=_
---
•
Ascending gradient Ascending gradient
%
.r
'c,:.
"
-;.
G, = original gradient
G2 = revised gradient
G 4 = tangent gradient of
from G 3 )
Figure 1.07.10
Alignments at Intersections
184
1.07 G
~~ '"
'fI~;~
6~ i~~ //' - ~ ~6
I ""
_
///
1/1// C Undesirable solution D Acceptable solution
(See note 1) (See note 2)
( "
Acceptable
E L =20 m min.
t; = S5 G to 115G
./
Notes:
1. Requires a left turn following a right turn creating a chance 2. Solution D can only be used if solutions A' and B are not
for a rear· end collision. feasible.
\ Figure 1.07.11
Realignment of Intersections
185
1.07 G
I~ L ~I I~ L ~I
-----) \..'--- ) l
- ----
-----==.:-::...... - - - -- - ---
) '~\ ( MI 1< )"'''''\ ( - - - -
II
I - - - - ---- \\
II
1 L
d
( 1 "r
_ _ _ _--' I") \,'1 I' ) l 'I L
_
-=
_ _ _ _ _ _,
r~;\
II
II
II
C=Ml t=J~~\
C
---- ----
,\
1\ -----
'1 II ( ..
1
II
II (
(
M
Semi- Bullet Semi- Bullet M
Semi- Bullet Semi- Bullet
(m) circle Nose circle Nose (m) circle Nose circle Nose
1 29 29 44 36.5 8 22.5 12 37 22
2 28.5 23 43.5 34.5 10 20.5 12 35 20
3 27 18.5 42 31.5 12 18 12 30 17
4 26 16 41 29.5 15 15 12 28.5 12
5 25 15 40 28 20 12 12 25 12
6 24 13.5 39 25.5 30 12 12 15 12
Figure 1.07.12
Median Opening Length for Left Turns (
186
(
- -+
~y
----
~\
taper
I
I
Combination
Simple curve \ taper and simple
curve
I
ti
• Turn
Angle
6
(grads)
Design
Vehicle
SU
Simple
Curve
30
R
(m) (m)
-
Combination
Taper and Simple Curve
Radius R Offset
h (m)
-
Taper
Ratio
35 WB-12 45
WB-15 60
SU 18
65 WB-12 27
WB-15 - 30 1 15: 1
SU 15 12 0.6 10:1
100 WB-12 - 13.5 1.2 10:1
WB-15 - 18 1.2 15: 1 i
SU -
I
9 1 10:1
135 WB-12 - 10.5 1.5 8: 1
15: 1
( WB-15
SU
-
-
13.5
9
1.2
1.2 8: 1
165 WB-12 - 9 1.8 8: 1
WB-15 - 10.5 2.1 6: 1
SU - 9 0.5 10: 1
200 WB-12 - 6 3 5: 1
WB-15 - 8 3 5: 1
Figure 1.07.13
Minimum Right-Turn Radii
At Edge of Traveled Way
,
\
187
1.07 G
tion and deceleration lanes shall be used with length shall be at least 1.5 times the average
these turning lanes. Figures 1.07.14, 1.07.15, number of peak hour vehicles to be stored per
and 1.07.16 are examples of turning lanes on cycle.
multilane highways. Figure 1.07.17 and
1.07.18 are good examples of providing The length of deceleration lanes, P, is shown in
shielded left-turning lanes and providing ref Figures 1.07.14 through 1.07.18. The length
uge lanes to accommodate left-turn move varies according to the approach speed and
ments from a crossroad onto a two-lane, two type of intersection. Through traffic movement
way highway. In rural areas, raised median lanes may have to be shifted laterally to ac
curbs shall not be used unless the highway is commodate turning lanes at intersections. Ta
multilane divided and the design speed less per transitions lengths as shown in Table
than 80 km/h. 1.07.2 shall be used to minimize abrupt
changes in lane alignment within the intersec
Turning lanes shall be at least 3 m and desira tion.
bly 3.5 m wide. When used with a curbed is
land, these widths should be increased by at Table 1.07.2
m. Design
Speed
" length of turning lanes shall depend upon (km!h) 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
the length required for speed change and the
Taper
number of vehicles to be stored. The storage Length
length is based upon the number of vehicles (m) 75 90 105 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
that are likely to accumulate in 2 minutes, as
determined from the capacity analysis, and is Lanes shall not be dropped within an intersec
calculated by the following formula: tion but shall be carried through the intersec
tion, as shown in Figures 1.07.17 and 1.07.18.
S = NL Lane drops shall begin a minimum 30 m past
30
the center of the intersection.
where S = Storage length in meters
N = Design volume of turning vehicle
in vehicles per hour
188
( ~
~- --
--
-,.-.-
T - - _-d:::/·/·)::··::'-':::::·::·::··:·: ':"::,;);;"';;;
i
a R150
b
50 P S
L Storage
L=50+P+S ct
I
• 73 ., Iill 5.0 mio. • I It 7.3 .. I Rural
Design Speed km/h 70 80 90 100
.... .." P 60 80 100 120
----r' 'I II ~ S Storage Length Required
----n.-.. 'IT'
... ""
'J
the longer length governs.
•• Curbs pemlitted only if the design speed is ;;;:
80 km/h.
Section bob All dimensions in meters.
Figure 1.07.14
Turning Lanes on Multilane Divided Highway
Lt" rt u
K2.0~
30:1
R 2,000
;,., "- R 500 - R 150
---
--- rf"l+
----- ...
:>'~:"-" :~
-
R 2,000 ~ ~
!=l
R 2,000
30:11+ a R1S0
~n
( L=50+P+S
I- 50
L
..
H -
S
Storage
I
"r15mir,
I ct
ct
~I~
I
.. 73 .. 1'II 20 .. 1ill
min.
ci ci l .. ill 7.3 II ! Rural
80 90 100
I Design Speed kmlh 70
~
P 60 80 100 120
D ..
0 S Storage Lengt h Required
I
,.
7.3 "
~ 3.0 "
I ill
7.3 ..
I'II
3.0 ..
I ·S min. 25 40 60 80
Figure 1.07.15
Introduced Median and Turning Lanes on Multilane Undivided Highway
189
--
,,?i:1
v..
r?U
--
~~:~
_.~"'1fik:':': """""":"'o':@":'.:" '" _ rf)
(
---
--
-+a
I
I
l+b
-- ...........
t I
I
T i p
I S'
c+ ..................
Storage
IJ .~
I 't
I
-c
Varies 't
..
2.5 _I" 7.3 I Rural
l
'II It'
pesign Speed km/h 70 80 90 100 110
I
------r'IQ=-
I
. ry- .. P
T
55
105
60
120
70
130
80
140
90
150
I
Section a-a Urban
•
't Design Speed km/h 50 60 70 80
10.0 10.0 P 30 30 30 40
'S min. 75 90 105 120
7.3 .1_ 2.0 _11 3.0 _I. 7.3
-I
Tmin.-11 I •• • If the storage length calculated in accordance
with section 2-1.07G6, is longer then these values,
I ~
I _ rr- the longer length governs.
----r'
•• Curbs permitted only if the design speed is ~
80 km/h.
Section b-b
All dimensions in meters.
Figure 1.07.16
Introduced Median and Left-Turn Lane on Multilane Undivided Highway
t: r=~torng".
I
30 15lmin. S .1 p
[fa
a p S. I 15\min.I' 30
T J
Storage -, I -I
Deceleration
't
Design speed (km/h) T P
I
..
"riB,
't
I
I
• •
365 I 1
365 I
50
60
70
80
75
90
105
120
45
50
55
60
~
90 130 70
---r= I
Section a-a
100
110
140
150
80
90
120 160 100
130 170 110
Figure 1.07.17 (
Left-Turn Lane and Turning Lane on Two-Lane Highway
190
(
- ;:t:r:8i~
l .. __ I... _ .....
~-~+
~ Figure 1.07.18
Left-Turn Lane and Turn Lane at Two-Lane "T" Intersection
f
•
•
Regulate traffic flow and indicate proper use
of intersection.
Favor predominant turning movements.
attention of drivers. Raised curbed islan
shall be at least 8 m 2 in size while painted
islands should be at least 5 m 2 in size. Divi
• Protect pedestrians. sional islands shall be at least 1.5 m wide with
• Protect turning and crossing vehicles. lengths varying between 6 m for urban areas to
• Provide proper and safe location for traffic 30 m for rural areas.
control devices. When an island is situated on a vertical crest
• Provide reference points. curve or a horizontal curve, the approach end
• Discourage prohibited movements. of the island shall be extended so as to be visi
• Control speed. ble to approaching drivers.
• Protect bicyclists. Figures 1.07.21 and 1.07.22 show examples of
• Control or restrict access. proper layouts for directional islands. Figure
• Restrict through traffic. 1.07.23 shows special treatment for left-turn
lanes in wide median areas, to improve the
Directional islands and divisional islands are sight distance for drivers making left turns.
the two types of intersection channelization.
These are illustrated in figure 1.07.20. When designing directional islands for chan
nelized right-turn roadways, the pavement
a. Directional islands are triangular in width shall be wide enough to accommodate
shape and are used to direct turning move the design vehicle. This width varies with the
ments.
191
1.07 G
turning radius of the inner edge of the turning stalled vehicle, and (3) two-lane operation. The
roadway. Table 1.07.3 shows the required width of roadway should at least meet the re
width for three cases: (I) one-lane operation,
(2) one-lane operation with provision to pass a
quirements of Case 2 and shall not be less than
Case I. (
Table 1.07.3
Case II
R Case I One-Lane, One-
Radius on
One-Lane, One- Way Operation Case III
Inner Edge Way Operation With Provision Two-Lane Operation
Of Pavement, No Provision for For Passing a
(m) Passing Stalled Vehicle
A B C A B C A B C
15
25
35
5.50
4.50
4.50
5.50
5.00
5.00
7.00
5.50
5.50
7.00
6.25
6.00
7.75
6.75
6.50
9.00
7.75
7.50
9.50
8.50
8.50
10.75
9.50
9.25
13.00
11.50
10.50
t
t:tw
I I:?
!i'~ '!fi?7
I / '9
I I I:? I
stalled
I I vehicle I
I
I
I I
(
Notes:
If barrier curbs are used all aile side, add 0.5 m for Cases I alld III.
If barrier curbs are used on both sides, add 1.0 m for Cases I alld III alld 0.5 In for Case II.
If there is a stabilized shoulder: deduct shoulder width ill Case II but millimum pal'emelll width should be that for Case I: deduct
Traffic conditioll B: sufficiellt SU vehicles to govern desigll but some cOII.lideratioll for semitrailer l'ehicles.
192
1.07 G
Table 1.07.4 through-lane cross slope and the super
Design Values for Rate of Change elevation of the right-turn roadway shall con
Of Cross Slope for Turning Roadways form to Table 1.07.5. By knowing the ap
(
Design Speed 25 55 and
proach speed for the right-turn roadway and
(km/h) 30 40 50 More the cross slope of the through lanes, it is possi
ble to determine the superelevation at various
Change in rate of points along a turning roadway. After the
superelevation (m/m) superelevations have been determined, gutter
40 m length 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 flow lines shall be plotted and adjusted to in
10 m length 0.03 0.022 0.020 0.016 sure proper drainage.
9. Bus Bays
Table 1.07.5
Bus bays shall be located along outside of
Maximum Algebraic Difference in Pavement
traveled way or adjacent to a directional island
Cross Slope at Turning Roadway Terminals
for safe loading and unloading of passengers.
Bus bays are illustrated in Figure 1.07.26.
Maximum Algebraic Difference
Design Speed of In Cross Slope at Cross Over 10. Spacing of Intersections
Exit or Entrance Between Traveled Way
Curve (km/h) And Turning Roadway (m/m) a. General
Up to 30 0.06 The spacing of intersections shall vary ac
30 to 50 0.05 cording to the design class of the highway.
a
50 and over 0.04
{
superelevation of highways, See 2-1.05, since
superelevation must be compatible with the
outer separation. This results in tw'"
intersections: (1) frontage road to cro.
street and (2) cross street to multilane high
intersection cross slopes and since drivers ex
pect lower superelevation rates at inter way or to a ramp terminus from the
sections. The rate of superelevation for chan multilane highway. When adequate distance
nelized right-turn roadways can be obtained is not provided between these intersections,
from Figure 1.07.24. The development of these problems occur with turning movements
superelevations is shown schematically in Fig and signalization. Therefore, the intersection
ure 1.07.25. The rate of change in super of a frontage road and cross street shall be
elevation along the right-turn roadway shall spaced at least 50 m from the intersection of
conform to the values of Table 1.07.4. The the multilane highway or ramp terminus as
maximum algebraic difference between the shown in Figures 1.07.27 and 1.07.28.
'.
193
i!II!rZ= Ij~
- - - - - . control the "Before" trallic control
~ 111 1 ~
II
f-----+------;--'-"--'--O
t I ~ n s,lualion shown IS
preferable
devices
i~f ~.
~;:'
AddItion of slop line and island
show driver where to sto;z
--
=
9 ---
----
=
---- :=:=: E Provide relerence
iill!1ilW'r
points
2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 01
lilllL ill l
I 1 \\ Merge al
possible
conllict
II I
~IIIL
1
I I~ I I' ,-"
~"IL
lIal angles
~
Speed conlrol by
V
II
..~~~..~~
pavement areas
Control speed
- - - - - - = -=v:=-,.-=-=='=
e---j'II'i- I I\lllr ~~9~~~~~~:I~~~~~~
c(e~sed for cr~a5ed for
major flow mInor flow
1/
4 i use 01 Intersection
~JIIIL
I
I I I I ~IIII~
-------- - - - ---
- -- - ---
- - --
- ---
II I r
~;II:L~1111L- ---- -- -- --- Alert bicyclists
12 and motorists
--- - ----- ==- Favor predominant Bike ~!lliC--
- - - f /======:>
5 = "r - - - - - f ,,---~
_ _ _ turmng
. movemen ts lane Bring aMentian to possible
conflict when turning right
6
1
~
~ !1/: - Protect pedestrians Conllicls~
major intersec-
lions
III LClose
median 1111 access
i l l-:~~-
~illil ~lllilrcr~:~'ng ~:l
7
-
-
- -
--~I ~
- - - Area shadowed
t=-.r
_ _ _
Protecttu~ning .
and crossIng trallic
14
---- ----
Restrict through
trallic
(
I !II ! I :~~~U9h Ira~lc, II !I T~;~ng IntersectIon of two residen·
t1a1 streets traffIc through neighborhood
Figure 1.07.19
Channelization to Improve Intersection Operations
(
194
(
• I , Divisional
island
Yield Stop
Directional island
Divisional island
~ Divisional
island
---
- - - --- -- - - - - - - - -
--------- --
-
, i::::::::a:= -----------
Directional island
lil!l - - Directional island
II
II
I
Merge
I Added Lane
I
I
I
I
e I
f- Q.
~ I
- Directional island
Figure 1.07.20
195
Offset Island Offset
(
H' , i
t
lilt..
'\
Section a-a
0.5 to
1.0 radius - - -
0.5 to 1.0 •
offset 1.0 to 2.0
offset
a
Channelized right-turn \
roadway
large
-----o-f .t-4-- 0.5 to 1.0
offset
I
0.5 to 1.5 <I>
C
radius ~
0.5 to 1.5
radius .1
0.5 to 1.0 --~
offset 1.0 to 2.0
offset
a
0.5 -------.
radius
Intermediate - - f •.•1 ----+- 0.5 to 1.0
offset
Through-traffic lane
0.5 to 1.5
radius
(
<I>
C
~
0.5
radius - - - -
0.5---~
offset
0.5
radius a
Small
• Offset may exceed 1.0 m depending on number of lanes and 0.5 to 1.0
strips, etc.
Figure 1.07.21
Curbed Directional Islands with No Shoulder
(
196
~ Island Shoulder
0.5 to 1.0 ~
radius
a
0.5 to 1.0 "trlj
offset
Channelized right
turn roadway
0.5 radius-....
~.
Large
Through-traffic lane
0.5 to 1.5
radius
0.5 to 1.0
radius------,
0.5 to 1.0 ...
offset
0.5
radius
Intermediate
Through·traffic lane
0.5 to
(
:::
.
A,_.
1.5 radius
Ql
0.5 radius •J C
~
Small
Through-traffic lane
0.5 to 1.0
radius
Figure 1.07,22
197
See Fig. 1.07.12
E
for length ll'>
C":i
-------
Medians 5 m wide
I~
E
~
______ (
------ [QJ...--
) - -
Visibility is poor
- -J -[Q]
(
-----
~
Use striping to paint out
IlDJ I ~ excess area-":::J ~)I c>"~
~ t----,·c::::;::::,.....--__
J
<I «
~- Visibility is better j
Medians wider than 5 m ~
E
ll'>
Figure 1.07.23
700
600 l I ~ J J J ~ J J ~
500
400 c:::
300 IiQ.
~
250
..!.-~ .11s. _
L' ~':::;',
-- 70kE/h L
200 ....:.. _
E 150
fifl ..!.-~ .172
(l)
~ 100
u 90
I
'0 80
I1l
::>
70
I
15 60 I
<Il
a: 50 I
- Ok~
_
(
40 (\J
I 0
o
30
:.!'~h
(l)
25
Ir f 294
20
15
10 1. 1- i i-ll.1-1-J
-0.02 -0.01 000 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 005 006 0.07 0.08
Figure 1.07.24
Roadways
198
~.
A
-- B
-- . -----, -
----
C
o
Tangent highway E
Tapered-turning roadway
A
-- C o
Tapered-turning roadway
8
Curving highway left E F
Tapered-turning roadway
C o
~-f''----
A
B C
Figure 1.07.25
Development of Superelevation
I
\
199
(
I
Delineated ""'
. . •. . . • ~....
$QlaoS':bafYf@ ~.......... R 100
A"~.. "'"
Corner Location
==2
R 100
Midblock Location
WilikOlatlstiavf$Qi· ...
--::-
"'CSidewalk
R 100
•
I
I
I
I
I I
<~ .. '.H )111 I
Island Location
Figure 1.07.26
(
Bus Bays
200
_T. _ _~ , '_ _ ~ .. _~C •. ~, _ .•• ' ,.,-',y....,_' ......
.... , . . . . . _~~"
.~-':. '.~7:'~
( Q)
-""
<tI Q)
E -""
o~
<tI
E
c
~~
c
oE
l
.~ c~
J11 }f i: if
~1?2m :: I~
-----)-~~~~---~~,~-------
- - - - - - - - - ".1 (....._ _---".,,----,--.,..-_
,.. t
~~.<
~.<;,.....
"::!!-"o
""_:J',' '.
Figure 1.07.27
(
\..
201
1.07 H
50 m (min.)
I! (
II
I
I,
I
----
-----
~II~
I I
I I
I I
I I
tl , It:,
I
I
I
I
I
•
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Figure 1.07.28
Spacing of Frontage Road Terminus from Intersections
(
H. Intersection Connections to Roadside De gradually turning curves meeting the require
velopment ments of 2-1.08.
A second group of intersections consists of Along other highways, public and commercial
public and commercial/private side road connections shall meet the tapers, acceleration
connections. The principles of basic intersec and deceleration lanes, and turning radii pre
tion design also apply to these connections for sented under 2-1.07H. The highway shall have
proper sight distance and turning radii. left turn and median acceleration lanes. These
are shown in Figure 1.07.29.
A public connection shall consist of side road
approaches to public buildings, parks, and rest Private road connections shall not be made to
areas. A commercial/private connection shall expressways and high speed multilane
consist of entrances to industrial parks, service arterials. This type of connection shall be per
stations, shopping centers, and small busi mitted on lower speed arterials, collectors, and
nesses. local highways. A private road connection is
shown in Figure 1.07.30.
Along expressways and high-speed multilane
divided arterials (90 km/h or more), public Driveway connections shall be permitted to
connections and commercial connections shall collector and local highways. This type of con
have exits and entrances consisting of adequate
tapers, acceleration and deceleration lanes, and
nection is shown in Figure 1.07.30.
\
202
~. 1_;.,y ....,.>'-~·~~:~:j;-t:~< J'~:-' ~~ _'" '~.'t /~' :~~''1i. L''JllJ!.!f.2>C:t:
I I I
I I
I I
•; , I'I :I II
I I I
I
II I I 1
II I I I
II I I ,
I: : I: I
J
I I I I
I/, I) I
I \'
II I
WI I I I I
I II I, I
,~ I II I
I II II I
I I1 I
I I II III
I
: : : ~I ~ I
, : J/: I _ ~J
• 1:11: -3~i -----~
:
I
JI
-----, I
"" I I
I
I
:
I
"~IUI I I I I
1 '\1 II I
." I I I I I
1 I, I
I II II I I
I II II I I
I I I I I II
II II II II
I I I I I I I I
I,
II I
I II II I:
I \ t
I I I
I I I II II 111
•
I II II
: \:1 : IiI
I I I I
I I I I
I I Multilane divided I I I Two lane
Figure 1.07.29
Public and Commercial Connections
• 203
c-T""
!r I
R=5 m
==f~ m (min.)
Private
I
I
I 1-
V-- Si dewalk (
driveway
~
I
..?
I
I 7
DrivE way
R=10m I
Bituminous
surfacing I
I
j
~[
Private
road
I" Traveled way
I
"I
L 10% max.
•
I
r ::;;
Traveled
way
I
10m I_
4 5 m/(min.)
~
±1.5%
1 -t- , '!""
±1.5%
Curbed Highway
Noncurbed Highway
I
I
I
I
~ [t (
Figure 1.07.30
Private Connections
(
204
-r- '.. , ~.'"'-.r~. __ . _ ~ _
1.07 I
I. Railroad Grade Crossings tance cannot be met, positive controls using
railroad signal and gates with flashing lights
The third group of grade intersections is rail
(
road grade crossings.
conforming to the requirements of the
MUTCD shall be installed.
Railroad grade crossings shall be permitted
No commercial signs or other obstructions
only on local, collector, or arterial highways.
shall be permitted within 100 m of a railroad
At higher volumes of vehicular and train traf
grade crossing. The safety warning devices
fic, railroad grade separated crossings shall be
associated with such crossings shall be clearly
considered. All expressways shall have grade
visible.
separated railroad crossings.
Railroad grade crossings intersection angle Table 1.07.6
shall be between 85 G and 115 G • The full width Required Sight Distance for Rural
By Train at Speed
..
approaching the railroad will be able to stop in Speed, Distance (kmlh) (km/h)
time after seeing a train approaching. To sat (km/h) (m)
30 80 100 150 30 80 100 150
isfy this condition, the two sides of the mini
mum sight triangle shall be as follows:
60 85 65 170 210 320 110 190 230 330
80 140 85 230 280 420 170 270 320 450
1. A distance along the highway measured 100 200 100 270 340 500 230 340 390 540
from the crossing corresponding to the mini
mum stopping distance for the design speed of Notes:
the highway as shown in Table 1.07.6. The following corrections for grade should be made to
"stopping distance:"
205
1.08 A, B, C
ble traffic service consistent with the design usually carried over the main highway.
be as simple as possible.
l. Signing is an important aspect of inter
2. Warrants
changes and its design should be done in
The following are conditions that warrant the conjunction with the geometric design.
a. As part of a highway with access control roadways should not be less than SOG.
t intersection.
d. Topography and nature of surrounding
area.
Design patterns for interchanges vary with
each interchange; a design suitable for one site
is rarely adaptable to the traffic and topo
e. Intersecting traffic volumes. graphic conditions at another site. Uniformity
in design or standardizing interchange layouts
B. Basic Design Features
whenever possible is very desirable. Definite
1. General patterns of interchange designs have evolved
The interchange shall be designed to avoid er that are suitable for use under most conditions.
ratic and unsafe driver behavior and for maxi Common patterns or types are descriptively
mum operational safety for the given traffic. called: diamond, cloverleaf, partial cloverleaf
This can be done with the application of some (parclo), three leg, directional, and rotary.
basic interchange design principles and appro Combinations of turning roadways, commonly
priate signing that is compatible with projected called ramps, that connect two or more legs of
traffic, adjacent land use, and site topography. the intersecting routes form these various in
terchange patterns. The choice of one of these
2. Spacing types for a particular location is dependent on
a. Rural-Normal spacing shall be 8 km. traffic volumes, topography, land use, and cost.
b. Urban-Normal spacing shall be 3 km. 2. Patterns or Types
In special conditions, spacing between suc a. Diamond (Figure 1.08.1)
cessive entrances and exits shall not be less A diamond interchange has four ramps
207
1.08 C
crossroad. This type is adaptable to major sion of the interchange but increased volumes
speed exit and entrance ramp terminals on (a) channelizing the open throats.
the major highway and at-grade intersec (b) installing signals on the minor road (three
tions on the minor highway. By adding stor phase), or
age lanes, channelization, and traffic signals
(c) providing two-lane left turns.
at the ramp crossroad intersections, high
capacity interchanges can be developed. b. Cloverleaf (Figure 1.08.2)
•
for the four right-turn movements.
~rchange.
Figure 1.08.1
Simple Diamond
Advantages
High standard s.ingle exits in advance of the
structure.
High standard single entrances beyond the
~·ructure.
~conomical
costs.
pressway.
the structure.
Disadvantages
Disadvantages
Large property requirements.
Many points of conflict on the minor road in Additional weaving lanes on and under struc
crease the accident potential of the design, un ture increase cost.
(
Insufficient length for deceleration from ex
208
1.08 C
pressway speed to control speed of inner loop. intersections. This type is suitable for loca
Poor safety features. tions where by removing two left-turn
movements from the intersections the re
(
A cloverleaf may include a collector maining left-turn conflicts can be tolerated.
distributor highway (Figure 1.08.3). This
Two loop ramps are provided to remove the
design feature physically separates the
two major left-turn movements.
weaving ramp traffic from the main road
way, thereby minimizing weaving conflicts These ramps will also provide for two right
and signing difficulties. It provides a single turn movements when other ramps are not
exit and entrance from and to the main included in open quadrants of the inter
highway. change. Two outer ramps are provided for
the remaining four turning movements.
Since there will be left-turn conflicts at the
ramp crossroad intersections, it is essential
that maximum sight distance or visibility
between vehicles approaching ramp
intersections be provided.
a.
"
Figure 1.08.3
Advantages
collector-distributor road.
four.
ing. exit terminals in advance of structure.
pressway.
Disadvantages
pansion provided the structure opening is wide
c. Partial Cloverleaf (Parclo) (Figures Stop condition on minor road for left-turn
209
1.08 C
Disadvantages
Points of conflict on the minor highway at the
ramp terminals limit capacity and safety.
Right-turn traffic from the expressway must
come to a stop at the minor highway.
Left-turn storage lane may be required on the
Figure 1.08.4B
minor highway with storage on or under the
Parclo
bridge between the ramp terminals.
High speed traffic must exit from the ex
Advantages pressway directly on to a small radius loop.
t Favors the fast expressway traffic by placing
~xit terminals in advance of structure.
~aving is eliminated.
Single exit feature simplifies signing of ex
pressway.
,f
~
•
Disadvantages
Figure 1.08.4D
Parclo
Advantages
Weaving is eliminated.
Disadvantages
Figure 1.08.4C
terminals.
Parclo
High speed traffic must exit from the ex
Advantages
Weaving is eliminated.
Single exit feature simplifies signing of ex
pressway.
(
210
1.08 C
-
J
Trumpet-(a)
Figure 1.08.4E
Pardo
..0
Advantages
~
Single exit feature simplifies signing of ex
pressway. Trumpet-(b)
streambed, etc.
Trumpet
Disadvantages
Points of conflict on the minor highway at the Advantages
ramp terminals limit capacity and safety. Provides a relatively high speed semidirect
Signals required on minor highway when movement for heavier turning volume of traf
through and turning volumes high. fic.
A single structure is required.
d. Three-Leg (Figure 1.08.5 and Figure
1.08.7(b) ) No weaving.
High capacity as all movements are free flow.
Many three-leg interchanges involve a single
structure. These designs are used primarily e. Directional (Figures 1.08.6 and 1.08.7(a)
for connecting a terminated main highway & (b))
with an expressway.
f'
211
',_., ......~~ .• _~_~''''" .., / ' . • C?~ • . , . "..." -~~'-_ _-"'!'< ..... _
.."".," ....-"-'-"",.~._•••.~._~ • .,; •..-:::_'?~ ._~
1.08 D
Figure 1.08.6
This type of interchange has limited applica
Directional Interchange with Right Hand
bility and shall be used only when other
Exits and Entrances
types are not applicable and the above con
ditions exist. The use of a rotary type inter
change is considered to be a deviation from
the policy set forth in this manual.
.~
Figure 1.08.8
Rotary
Advantages
•
This type provides a relatively simple solution
lor rural intersections with four or more ap
proaches where speed and volumes are not
(a)
high.
pacity.
D. Design Procedures
This section outlines the design procedures
(b)
which have been found most desirable for in
Figure 1.08.7
terchange design. The guides and practices
Directional Interchanges with Right Hand
given in the previous parts of this section shall
Exits and Entr~nces
be applied to assure the most appropriate de
sign. This also assures complete coverage of all
(
212
- - -• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •-• .1Ii-~~... -'~:~:--1:.~~ __
1,08 E
aspects of an interchange design and avoids within the interchange area. Standards pertain
•
needless refinement in the preliminary study ing to 2-1.07, are also used. Essentially, inter
stages. Design for any interchange involves changes are composed of a combination of ele
some, and for most cases, all of the following ments some of which the standards have
steps. already been provided. Only those additional
standards peculiar to interchanges are given
1. Basic Data for Design
here.
a. Obtain and analyze traffic data for all
through and turning movements, includ 2. Design Speed (Ramps)
ing future growth. It is rarely feasible to provide ramp speeds in
the same range as on the through roadway. It
b. Obtain physical data for the site, includ
is desirable that drivers be able to use ramps at
ing maps showing topography and cul
as high a speed as practical so that there will
ture, and maps showing existing land use
be little conscious effort required in a decrease
and that likely to occur in the future.
from or an increase to the speed of through
c. Determine the location, classification, traffic. The design speed of the ramps, there
and general design features of all high fore, shall be related to the design speed of the
ways and other development, both exist intersecting highways. Drivers are willing to
ing and planned, in the area which may accept some speed change if they can still
have a bearing on the design. travel the ramp at a reasonable speed.
2. Preliminary Design
Guide values for ramp design speed in terms of
a. Prepare study sketches for several likely approach roadway design speed are shown in
interchange schemes that are suitable to Table 1.08.1. To cover the wide variety of in
meet traffic needs and are practical for tersection types and site conditions, the ramp
the site and design controls. design speed is shown as a range between de
sirable and minimum values which depends in
b. Analyze alternate schemes and select two part on the corresponding ramp curvature.
or more for further study. Ramp designs shall be based on desirable de
c. Prepare preliminary plans and profiles for sign speeds where feasible. Final determination
alternates selected under b. would depend upon the type of intersecting
highways and the site controls in each quad
3. Determination of Preferred Plan rant.
a. Evaluate each alternative plan with re Table 1.08.1
spect to the highway and the total effect Values for Ramp Design Speed as Related
•
to stage construction, right-or-way re
quired and the effect on the local street Ramp Design
and highway network. Speed
(km/h)
b. Prepare preliminary cost estimates for Desirable 50 60 70 80 80 90 100 100 110
each alternative plan including right-of Minimum 40 40 40 50 50 60 60 70 70
way, construction, maintenance, and Correspondin!
other appropriate items. Horizontal
Curve
c. Analyze steps 3a and 3b together and Radii, (m)
reach conclusions as to the preferred Desirable 90 110 160 190 250 310 340 380 440
plan. Minimum 30 30 50 60 70 90 110 130 160
E. Design Standards
3. Sight Distance
I. General
a. Ramp Proper
The following standards pertain to design ele
• .' I \
1.08 E
(m)
cautions shall be taken where the cross
•
rning maneuver safely before a vehicle on
cal curves and connections to the profiles of
========
3.65
l I I l - - - __
Design
Permit Design Vehicle
Speed of
to Turn Left From Ramp to
Crossroad
Crossroad (m)*
Through
the
Interchange
Design Vehicle Assumed at
Ramp Terminal (
(km/h) P SU WB-50
110 220 320 430
100 200 290 390
90 180 260 350
80 160 230 310
70 140 200 270
60 120 175 235
50 100 145 195
40 80
115 155
*The sight distance is assumed to be measured from a
driver's height of eye of 1.05 m for P design vehicles
and 2.44 m for SU and WB-50 design vehicles to an
object 1.30 m high.
P = Design passenger vehicle; SU = Design single unit,
truck, or bus; WB-50 = Design semitrailer combination
Figure 1.08.9
Sight Distance at Ramp Terminals
(
214
'~~''-''-''''''''"-,,,~ -"1"-' ted"''':'' ·,.--tm-..~~i:t'··~~~M~lt~"_;:W-Fj·-·';~-'~:~;d::L~;:>l~~ __~~"'~~~{~.~;'I.,aet1L~Sllf'J'~~~'''::''!~-'':
1.08 E
the intersection legs. In general, adequate sight sight restrictions that will adversely affect op
distance is more important in design than spe erations. At an exit into a ramp on a descend
( cific gradient control. Principal guides for
ramp grades are as follows:
ing grade, a horizontal curve ahead should not
appear suddenly to a driver. Instead the initial
a. Ramp grades shall be a maximum of 6 crest vertical curve should be made longer,
percent. thus increasing sight distance, so that the di
rection of the horizontal curve is obvious to
b. Where ramp traffic consists of a large per the driver in sufficient time for safe operation.
centage of trucks and buses, maximum At an entrance terminal from a ramp, the por
grades shall be limited to 4 percent. tion of the ramp and terminal intended for
Usually ramp profiles assume the shape of the acceleration should match the through-lane
letter "S", with a sag vertical curve at the profile to permit the entering driver a clear
lower end and a crest vertical curve at the view of the through roadway on his left.
upper end. Additional vertical curves may be The profile of the ramp approaching an inter
necessary on ramps that cross under or over section with the crossroad should be designed
other roadways. to match the pavement gradient on the cross
Profiles of ramp terminals should be designed road. Where vehicles are likely to stop, a flat
in association with horizontal curves to avoid space for at least one vehicle shall be provided.
Table 1.08.3
:a. Minimum Acceleration Lengths for Entrance Terminals with Flat Grades of 2 Percent or Less
Highway
Stop
Condition
Design Speed Entrance Curve Design Speed (km/h)
Speed Reached
(km/h) (km/h) 25 30 40 50 60 70 80
And Initial Speed (kmlh) is
0 23 28~ 35 I 44 ~ 63 70
L = Acceleration Length (m)
50 47 60 - - - - - - -
60 52 90 60 55 30 - - - -
70 63 155 135 130 110 80 - - -
80 70 225 205 200 180 150 90 - -
~)
!I 3.65 m
- - __ 1 ----
--.~-
:
V 14
L
Taper Type
J
3.65 m
- --- ± --
/7
L
.{ Parallel Type
".
"
215
1.08 E
Table 1.08.4
Ratio of Length of Speed-Change Lanes on Grade to Length on Flat
Acceleration or Deceleration Lanes
(
Design Deceleration Lanes
Speed of
Highway Ratio of Length on Grade to Length on Flat (a) for
(km/h)
Acceleration Lanes
•
Design Ratio of Length on Grade to Length on Flat (a) for
Speed of
Highway
(km/h) Design Speed of Turning Roadway Curve (km/h)
30 40 50 60 70 80 All Speeds
3 to 4 Percent Upgrade 3 to 4 Percent Downgrade
(a) Ratio from this table multiplied by length in Table 1.08.3 or 1.08.5 gives length of speed-change lane 011 grade.
The length of this area would depend on the tables, and figures. However, the direct or
type of traffic control at the intersection and straight taper design shall be used unless there
the capacity requirements. are restrictions that would require the parallel
design.
5. Ramp Terminals
Ramp terminal refers to the transition area of a. Entrance Terminals
a roadway between the through lanes of a The length of an acceleration lane is based
highway and the ramp. Exit terminals facili on three factors in combination:
tate traffic moving from a through-lane to a • The speed at which ramp traffic merges
"','~-~., '~''';'""'''--~:''lII.~·:E.:'':~~~~ . _.
1.08 E
~!-- - -------
- --038
- - ~--==-~~------------
~--
.7--~·
~~4.5
1 ------=--~--
- ~Approx. 50:1 Taper 3.65 - - --- ,. .
C':)
Shoulder ()
~
I (if required)
Figure 1.08.10
\,
217
1.08 E
Dimensions shown are in meters.
~1 ~ 03P.~
_ --
C')-=:O.3,",~
• -! -----
--
--- ~~ - ""T'3.65 ---
--~
_ __ - --- ---
~r..:
C')
o (
co)
Transition.
curve
() (if required)
~ 1_ Total length of acceleration lane 25:1 Taper
Figure 1.08.11
• The speed at which drivers enter the A parallel exit begins with a taper fol
deceleration lane (leave the through lowed by a length of added lane. A typical
•
lane). design is shown in Figure 1.08.13.
• The safe speed of the ramp after trav
ersing the deceleration lane. This type of exit design has application in
locations where there is limited right-of
• The manner of decelerating. way adjacent or downstream from the de
(1) Taper Exits sirable location of the exit nose thus re
The taper exit beginning with an outer quiring the necessary deceleration in the
edge alignment break provides a clear in advance added lane.
dication of the point of departure from The length of a parallel deceleration lane
the through lane. The exit taper shall be is measured from the point where the
20: 1. Figure 1.08.12 shows a typical de added lane attains a 3.65 m width to the
sign for a taper exit. point where the alignment of the ramp
The length available for deceleration ex diverges from the alignment of the
tends from a point where the right edge of through lane. A portion of the transition
the tapered wedge is 3.65 m from the length (a long radius curve of about
right edge of the through lane to the point 300 m radius) may be considered as part
controlling the safe speed for the ramp. of the deceleration length. Minimum
Minimum deceleration lengths for various lengths for deceleration are shown in Ta
combinations of design speeds are shown ble 1.08.5 and adjustments for grades are
in Table 1.08.5. Adjustments for grades given in Table 1.08.4. Longer parallel
are shown in Table 1.08.4.
The width of the recovery area or the
lanes are more likely to be used properly,
therefore when they are used, lengths (
should be liberal.
distance between the inner edges of the
diverging roadways at the ramp nose is The taper portion shall be about 25: I to
shown as 6.65 m on Figure 1.08.12. This give the approaching driver a positive in
dication of the added lane.
Dimensions shown are in meters.
~
Shoulder curve
3.6S_~ _ _
~
o
co)
-r..:
C')
- r" -- -- -- ~-- --.l--- -- -- - - -- --
100
Recovery lane
Figure 1.08.12
Expressway Exit Terminal-Taper Type
(Suggested for High Speed, High Volume Exits)
(
218
1.08 E
2.5 Dimensions shown are in meters.
( Shoulder u
u
Total length of deceleration lane Taper 25:1
Figure 1.08.13
~ locate either an exit or entrance terminal on signing. With successive entrances, the
a curve, the full length of the taper should merging maneuver of the first entrance must
be located within the limits of the curve. be complete before the second entrance.
Taper dimensions applicable to terminals lo In the case of an entrance followed by an
cated on tangent alignment with necessary exit terminal, adequate weaving length shall
adjustments for the curvature are suitable be provided.
for use on curves.
The distance between an exit followed by an
On highways and expressways having design entrance terminal shall be adequate to allow
speeds 80 km/h or less, the parallel type a vehicle on a through lane to prepare for
speed change lane shall be used for both exit the merge ahead after passing the exit.
and entrance terminals.
Distances shown in Figure 1.08.14 are mini
d. Ramp Terminal Spacing mum and should be increased whenever
Successive ramp terminals shall be spaced to possible.
II ~I
expressway:
Minimum L=250 m. Minimum L= 150 m.
Minimum L=300 m.
If l.
-l
Figure 1.08.14
Terminals
(
\,
219
1.08 E
Table 1.08.6
Widths under Case II: one-lane, one-way oper
Design Rate of Change in Pavement-Edge
ation with provision for passing a stalled vehi
Elevation for Curves at Intersections
cle, are applicable to all ramps with moderate
to heavy traffic volumes that do not exceed the
25 capacity of a single lane.
Design Speed (km/h) and 40 50 60
30 Widths under Case III: widths are applicable
where two lanes, one-way traffic is needed to
Change in Relative Rate
handle the traffic volume and/or the ramp
Between Centerline and
roadway is longer than about 300 m.
Pavement Edge (7.3 m
•
Pavement) per 30 m Design widths for ramp pavements shown in
'ercent) 0.75 0.71 0.67 0.65 Table 1.08.8 shall be used. Design widths for
shoulders and lateral clearances on ramps are
The cross slope on portions of ramps on tan as follows:
gent are sloped one way at a minimum rate of
a. The sum of one-way ramp pavement
about I percent.
width and paved shoulder shall not exceed
The maximum algebraic difference at the the Case I width for the controlling traffic
crossover crown line at the edge of the through condition and ramp radius plus 3.0 m. The
lane and the ramp terminal pavement is shown paved shoulder width is the same for the full
Table 1.08.7
Curve (km/h)
Traveled Way and
the ramp pavement width includes part of
Turning Roadway (mm)
the shoulder width. A wider paved total
width is unnecessary for passing a stalled
Jp to 30
30 to 50
0.06
0.05
vehicle and is undesirably hazardous as it
encourages two-lane operation.
(
I 50 and Over 0.04
b. For Case III one-way operation, the sum
7. Ramp Width (Pavement, Shoulder, Lateral of the right and left paved shoulder width
Ramp pavement widths are governed by the c. Directional ramps with a design speed of
volume of turning traffic and the types of 60 km/h or more shall have a paved right
vehicles to be accommodated and the radius of shoulder of 2.5 m and a 1.2 m paved left
Table 1.08.8 shows values for three general d. Ramps shall have a lateral clearance on
design traffic conditions defined as follows: both the right and left outside the edge of
Traffic Condition B-Sufficient single unit total ramp pavement plus shoulders shall be
truck vehicles, 5-10 percent of total traffic, carried through and the lateral clearances
Traffic Condition C-Sufficient bus and combi approach ramp pavement plus shoulder (
220
(
Table 1.08.8
,..
9.50
35 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.00 6.50 7.50 8.50 9.30 10.50
45 4.30 4.80 5.30 6.00 6.50 7.30 8.30 9.00 10.00
60 4.30 4.80 5.00 5.80 6.50 7.30 8.30 9.00 9.80
80 4.00 4.80 5.00 5.80 6.30 7.00 8.00 8.80 9.50
100 4.00 4.80 5.00 5.50 6.30 6.80 8.00 8.80 9.30
125 4.00 4.50 4.80 5.30 6.00 6.80 8.00 8.50 9.00
150 3.80 4.50 4.80 5.00 6.00 6.50 7.80 8.50 8.80
Tangent 3.80 4.50 4.50 4.80 5.80 6.50 7.50 8.30 8.30
Notes:
If there is a stabilized shoulder, deduct shoulder width ill Case Il but minimum pavement width should be that for Case
Traffic Condition A: Predominantly passenger car vehicles but some consideration for single unit trucks.
Traffic Condition B: Sufficient single unit vehicles to govern design but some consideration for semitrailer vehicles.
Traffic Condition C: Sufficient semitrailer. bus. or combination type vehicles to govern design.
221
'~·_~·~'GJ'··Z"7-"~mm~:i~'C~~'rri:i?~'It')i'it¢''''''48;fi'Sjt**~~~r:r "T 1m is =, ~ft¥"~~~"
...~-~~~.r"?~~~-;,:~~'~~:.: __'
1.09 A, B
•
Nonexpressways--5 cm asphalt concrete
~
......
"
223
_ _ _ _ ~ ._ _ ~., - • • _ _ ~-'.... _ .~_ "U~~ -".'-,,...,,,__ ,,-~~. "-'• .,..-.,·- _ _ - ..... · _. .' " ' - . . : ...,..'"-c·,.._--... ~_" <O'....,.__ ~" ~ •. ".-.... , '-...,..",... ... "
~ • _ ""~ .... _. _..... ~._
' ..
";': .,,"-...... ... " . ,-_....
' ~ ~
1.09 B
number of years from the completion of tain the ADT estimated percentages of
pavement construction and application of passenger cars, buses, single unit and
traffic until the first major maintenance multiunit trucks that are expected during
(usualIy overlay or resurfacing) is required.
A design period of 20 years shall be used for
alI pavement designs.
the design period.
d. Distribution of Traffic (directional and
f
lane)
b. ADT for Both the Beginning and Ending The design lane is the traffic lane which is
Years of the Initial Design Period expected to receive the greatest number of
The average daily traffic over the initial pe 8-ton EAL during the design period. Since
riod shalI be estimated from detailed traffic the number of EAL's is greatly influenced by
analysis that considers local economic the number of heavily loaded trucks, when
growth and user patterns. One procedure to user travel patterns indicate a primary
determine ADT is to use the estimated an loaded truck haul direction, the outside lane
nual growth and the growth factors given in of the haul direction shalI be designated the
Table 1.09.1. These factors multiplied by the design lane. The percentage of trucks and
initial ADT estimate (see HDM-I-2.08) will axle weights in the design lane should be
give the ADT expected during the last year individualIy analyzed. In other cases with
of the design period, ADT (20). the absence of specific data, Table 1.09.2
may be used for determining the relative
Table 1.09.1 proportion of trucks to be expected for the
ADT (20) Growth Factors
design lane.
( 1 +AG)
20
Table 1.09.2
Annual
In Design Lane
Growth 0 2 4 5 6 7 8 10
Number of Traffic Lanes Percentage of Trucks
(AG) %
(two directions) In Design Lane
Growth 2 50
Factor 1.00 1.49 2.19 2.65 3.21 3.87 4.66 6.93 4 45
(GF) 6 or more 40
c. Percentage of Truck Traffic e. Amount and Distribution of Axle Loads
The amount and type of vehicles that will Within the Truck Traffic
use the pavement facility are critical to de The number and distribution of axle loads
termining pavement thickness requirements. within the truck traffic is needed to accu-
A localized traffic analysis is needed to ob-
Table 1.09.3
Typical *
Truck
Class
Type
SAL-Single Axle
TAL-Tandem Axle
Single Unit
Percentage
Total Trucks
Truck Class and Weight
Distributions
Percent of ADT
In Design Lane
•• Gross Vehicle
Weight (Ton)
Typical
Axle Loads (Tons)
EAL Per Axle
2.5 9.5
EAL Per
Vehicle
•
"Based upon 1977 Truck Study by Italconsult and a survey by ItalconsultlRiolDarHandash. Ministry of Communica
tion 1981.
""Based upon Truck Volume = 50% ADT and 45% Truck in Design Lane.
224
• :
.~,
"
1.0
rately determine EAL. These data are ob 8-ton EAL Loads
tained through traffic studies that include
Single axle 8-ton load equivalency (EAL)
( user vehicle configurations and actual vehi
factors for various axle loads and types may
cle weights for specified time periods. Table
be obtained from Figures 1.09.2 and 1.09.3.
1.09.3 presents average and typical ranges
The total effect of vehicles on the pavement
for type of truck and axle distributions. The
performance is the sum of all EAL. An ex
Engineer must assure himself of the applica
ample of the procedure to be used in esti
bility of this table to the roadway under de
mating the total 8-ton, single-axle loads
sign.
(EAL) for pavement thickness determina
f. Load Equivalency Factors to Convert tion follows.
Both Single- and Tandem-Axle Loads to
rrr-JH-n .,
:r'
n~n=
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co
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c-
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11. i t- r:,.\
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~~+-J.V--4:~=~-~+li;t:41::..j= +~~-+l-irt+-+'=e=d,,*--t-B±fE,h-tt ',i'" I'"
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~~-'- i-L-i---·- .- '-~--i -i i--,
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-f ~"-·~----'--t--T+--;
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~--+--c- i·.., ~=~,-1il-rt~.'-i
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'+-U '_1!t'4+-+
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--r_---J-i-+-t-, i - . . , I I J.-Tf, ..I':;-.'+~-C lt1± ~1J=t-:
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~ ~ -->--~-----f-
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Ti -+-·t---r .+--- -----+-i-i-j--, -+ ---
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Figure 1.09.3
Eight-Ton, Single-Axle Load Equivalency (EAL) Factors
, ...
1.09 B
Problem Statement: A four-lane (two lanes and upon approval of the MOC under provi
each direction) rural roadway is proposed. De sions of HDM-l-1.06BI3, the following equa
termine the total EAL for pavement design.
tion shall be used to determine the total num
(
Given
ber of equivalent 8-ton loads.
I-
Multiunit ples of this material must be collected and
Three Axle 11 x 1.16 1·2.28 tested in the laboratory or in place. A mini
Four Axle 10 x 0.53 65.30 mum depth of 1.0 m below the top of the
Total EAL/100 Trucks = 148.88 subgrade surface should be considered when
I Individual values should be oblailled from derailed lruck
selecting representative samples. Testing must
lraffic and truck weighl sludy and analysis. only be performed on samples that are in a
condition that accurately represents the after
Procedure
construction condition of the soil directly be
For single unit (two axle) average GVW is 12 neath the pavement structure. Therefore, den
ton with 2.5 ton (20.8%) on front axle and 9.5 sity and moisture controls that are required
ton (79.2%) on rear axle. From figures 1.09.2 during construction must also apply to
and 1.09.3 EAL's are 0.01 and 1.81 respec remolded samples that are used for strength
tively. determinations.
EAL/truck is 1.82. The same procedure is The soil strength input value should be deter
then used again to determine the EAL for each mined by either using the California Bearing
of the other travel unit categories, i.e. single Ratio (CBR) MRDTM 213 or the Resilient
unit 3 axle, multiunit 3 and 4 axles. Modulus (see Asphalt Institute Manual MS-I).
Average Trucks Per Day = The soil support value used in the pavement
design shall be equal to the 90th percentile of
(3,000 + 5,000) x 50 = 2000 T
( 2 100'
k /D
ruc s ay
Average Daily Trucks in Design Lane =
the representative samples of either the natu
rally occurring soil below the subgrade or the
material proposed for subgrade construction.
(2,000) (.45) = 900 Trucks/Day (45% Table The lower of these 90th percentile values shall
1.09.2) be selected as the soil strength for pavement
Total Trucks in Design Lane for Design Period design. An example illustrating the determina
= (900 Trucks/Day) (365 Days/Year) (20 tion of the soil strength value is given below.
Years) = 6,570,000 Trucks The soil strength value may vary between sec
Total EAL for Pavement Design = tions within a project dependent upon eco
(6.570 X 106 Trucks) (148.88 EAL/100 nomic analysis of the entire pavement struc
Trucks) = 9.781 X 106 EAL ture, subgrade, and naturally occurring in situ
material.
Where detailed traffic analysis is not available
227
1.09 B
.'
Percent of Tests 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Greater Than or
iqual to
CBR Value
90th Percentile Values:
Borrow Material CBR = 20
On-Site Material CBR = 10.5
Soil Strength of CBR = 10 is Used for
Design
228
•
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r o ~ ~ ~ ~~
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90
........
80
70
60 I I, '''''',''''
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50
!
30
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20
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10 L...-...~,~ . .1
10' 5 6 7 8 910' 5 6 7 89
10' 5 6 7 8 910' 5 6 7 8 910' 5 6 7 8 910.
See Figure 1096 for Mr Equivalent 8- Ton, Single-Axle Loads (EAL)
Figure 1.09.4
For Expressways
'0
N
V.J
0
100 ~
90 ~
80 B
70 1
60
50
40
30 ro
D..
::2
20 ~
vi
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6 E
(f) C
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10'10' 2 3
Figure 1.09.5
Asphalt Concrete Base Course Thickness Requirements
For Roads Other Than Expressways
r'
~
• r'"
10 2
9
4If ~! 4
3
D..
co
..~~·····1·t~·······
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. . ~ . Additional asphalt I I
---i--
concrete base
Figure 1 0 required
++
'lJ]Uft'
see
~ _IJJ I . j.fR
2
1 10'10' ,.
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. -HI' Itt
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Figure 1.09.6
For Expressways
10'
9
8
7
6
5
4
2
co
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9 f==+=~~~~~~d==t:=gj:4~
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6 1! ;1 '.l/K'I'\lrKI ~ ~
5
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Figure 1.09.7
Crushed Aggregate Base Requirements
.... '~,
For Roads Other Than Expressways
231
1.09 B
Example of Base Thickness Determination quirements. The total pavement section shall
Problem Statement: Minimum structural consist of the following:
thickness requirements are needed for a pro
posed expressway that is to carry 2.25 X 106
• 5 cm asphalt surface course
• 15 cm asphalt concrete base
(
8-ton EAL with a design soil strength CBR • 22 cm crushed aggregate base
value of 10.
4. Use of Alternative Materials
Procedure: On Figure 1.09.4, the intersection In addition to asphalt concrete base and
of the design soil strength value and the esti crushed aggregate base, a wide variety of mate
mated traffic falls to the left of the 15 cm as rials may be used to construct pavement struc
phalt thickness curve. Therefore, the minimum tures. Table 1.09.4 provides substitution ratios
asphalt concrete thickness is required. Since for determining thickness of other materials to
only a minimum asphalt concrete thickness is provide structurally equivalent pavement sec
required, determination of the minimum ag tions. These ratios may be used for that por
gregate base thickness is needed. On Figure tion of the pavement structure that exceeds the
1.09.6, the intersection of the soil strength and minimum structure thickness given in
EAL falls to the right of the 10 cm curve and 2-1.09A2. The total thickness of material
to the left of the 15 cm curve. Therefore, 15 cm above the soil layer must be equal to or greater
of crushed aggregate base is required. From than thickness values obtained from Figure
Figure 1.09.8, cover requirement is 42 cm. 1.09.8. An example of the use of substitution
Therefore, a minimum of crushed aggregate
•
ratios for alternative pavement structure de
~ is increased to 22 cm to meet cover re-
signs follows table 1.09.4.
Inrr-nTTITII, ,-
°r---r----'-----iTTT II I I I
I 50 CSR
10
40
I
r--.. 2~1
E
~
20
r---r- - _ r--r-- N2,
C
Ql
E r--r- r- i"[-H-l
r---~:12 .~r-
I
~
5 I ,--
1
I
-
0" 30
Ql
a: 1'--.... r------,.-.... r--r- r
.c
C. ~ r----- r-..
' r-- r-c- r- ~ ! r---,-... r-
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Ql ::.
o ..,
0 1'--,-.......,.. 10.
-----r- (
E ~
~ i"- r-- N5
r- r-
~ 5
I" I ~I'
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•
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r--~ I------r--
r-,
'
~ I~r--
6 1~3 ~ I~~~
'[" 1"'- I'-r- "
~
t---r-~,,~~ I" ~ I ~ 1 1 ~r--
10'
I '"", 4
1
5 6 7 8910' 345678910'
I N
2 3456789 0'
Figure 1.09.8
Cover Requirements
"
232
1.09 B
(
Substitution
Ratio i
TA X SR B
SR A
_
-
T
B
Base Course
1 where TA = Thickness of Material A
Asphalt Concrete (Plant Mix)
SRA = Substitution Ratio of Material A
Asphalt Concrete (Road Mix) 1.75
TB = Thickness of Material B
Untreated Aggregates
2.5 SR B = Substitution Ratio of Material B
Crushed Aggregate
Natural Gravels 3 The thickness of lime-treated aggregates re
Treated Aggregate quired for 22 cm of CAB is
Bituminous-Treated (22 cm) (2) _ T
Aggregates 2 (2.5) - LTA
Lime-Treated Aggregates 2
Cement-Treated Aggregates 2 T LTA = 17.6 cm, use 18 cm
..
i.\1i11ime/ers of material needed /0 replace olle millimeter The amount of lime-treated soil required to
of /he asphalt concrete pavemell/.
replace 30 cm of borrow soil is
Example of Alternative Pavement Designs (30 cm) (3.5) _ T
Problem Statement: Determine the most cost 5 - LTS
233
1.09 B
5
15
18
21
~rnative
cm
cm
cm
cm
E
AC surface
AC base
LTA base
LTS
.6525
1.9875
2.4444
2.9337
m'
m'
m'
m'
160
150
110
80
Total
104.40
298.13
268.88
234.70
--
906.11
•
In this case Alternate "A" is the least costly • Lowest unit cost.
the most appropriate pavement section shall • Routine maintenance requirements and
234
(
Estimate
Single-Axle Loads
Step 3
L
Obtain~
In Situ Soil and
Borrow Source Soil.
Strength and Properties
l I
C
~ Step 4 I Determine
Soil Strength
For Design
-J
Step 5 L 1=
Establish
Highway Classification
I Expresswaysl I Nonexpressw~
.--- J J
I ~--------,
Step 6
Determine I Determine
{ Step 7
c:
Determine
Crushed Aggregate
Crushed Aggregate
;~1~
Determine
Determine
I
Step 9
Select
Most Economical
Payement Design
L Select
Most Economical
Pavement Design
Figure 1.09.9
Design and Pavement Structure Selection
235
1.10 A, B
(
A. General
Hydraulic design is an important aspect of
also used. rj~ arch and elliptical shapes are
generally used Tii--lleu of circular pipe where
there IS IiITiited cover Of overfill. Arch culverts
highway engineering. Whenever water enters
have--appliciiiori-inolocations where less ob
or crosses the highway right-of-way, it be
struction to a waterway is a desirable feature,
comes necessary to estimate the flow and pro
and where foundations are adequate for struc
vide a means to safely convey that water. The
tural support. Box culverts can be designed to
structure required may be a small roadside
pass large flows and to fit nearly any site condi
ditch or a large bridge.
tion. A box or rectangular culvert lends itself
Estimating the flow rates is one of the more more readily than other shapes to low allowa
difficult problems. Guidelines for estimating ble headwater situations since the height may
the flow are provided in HDM-I-2.07. The be decreased and the total span increased to
hydrologic study must be completed before the satisfy the location requirement.
hydraulic design can be accomplished.
The material selected for a culvert is depen
The hydraulic design process consists of estab dent upon several factors such as durability,
lishing criteria, developing and evaluating al structural strength, roughness, bedding condi
ternatives, and selecting the alternative which tions, abrasion and corrosion resistance, and
best satisfies the established design criteria. water tightness. The more common culvert
Possible damages to the highway, the channel, materials used are concrete and steel (smooth
and surrounding properties must be considered and corrugated).
in the analysis.
Another factor that significantly affects the
Drainage structures of adequate capacity must performance of a culvert is the culvert inlet
be provided in order to minimize damages. In configuration. The culvert inlet may consist of
analyzing a structure the channel both up a culvert barrel projecting from the roadway
stream and downstream must be examined. A fill or ~ d to the embankment slope. Other
drainage structure which is too small may re inlets have headwalls, wingwalls, and apron
sult in backwater problems with flooding of slabs or standard end sections of concrete or
upstream property or damage to the highway. metal.
!L the chann~lj~__erQdible, the designer must 2. Design Considerations
sttidy=s~_()~r _in the vicinity of the brIdge or
culvert. The channel must be analyzed to de The hydraulic design of a culvert consists of an
fermiiie if a lining is necessary. analysis of the performance of the culvert in
conveying flow from one side of the roadway
The following subsections provide design crite to the other. The designer shall select a <k~gn
ria and procedures for culvert design, open -flood frequ~nJ;;Y, estimate the .designdi!?~bJ!rge
channel flow analysis, stream crossing design, for that frequency, and set an allowable
and channel stabilization. The hydraulic de headwater elevation based on the selected de
OJ
~'
sign of any drainage structure shall be docu
mented.
B. Culvert Design
sign flood and headwater considerations. The
culvert size and type can be selected after the
design discharge, controlling design head
water, tailwater, and allowable outlet velocity
1. Introduction have been determined.
>. ,-_. .... _-------
~
Culverts shall be designed to pass floods If the outlet velocity of a culvert is believed
greater than those noted above where war to be detrimental, it may be reduced by
ranted by potential damage to adjacent
property, to human life, or heavy financial
changing the barrel roughness or adjusting
the barrel slope. If this does not give satis (
loss because of flooding. factory reduction it may be necessary to use
some type of outlet protection or energy
b. Headwater
dissipation device.
Culverts generally constrict the natural
Variation in shape and size of a culvert sel
depth. In selecting the design headwater ele There are two major types of culvert flow: (1)
vation, the designer should consider the fol flow with inlet control and (2) flow with outlet
lowing: control.
• Upstream property damage.
For each type of control, a different combina
• Damage to the culvert and the roadway. tion of factors is used to determine the hy
• Traffic interruption.
draulic capacity of a culvert. The determina
•
Hazard to human life.
tion of actual flow conditions can be difficult,
• Headwaterlculvert depth (HW/D). therefore, the designer shall check for both
• Low point in the roadway grade line. types of control and design for the most ad
verse condition.
• Roadway elevation above the structure.
a. Inlet Control
of shoulder elevation. The designer should the flow capacity is controlled at the en
verify that the watershed divides are higher trance by the following factors:
238
1.10 B
///1/
tors: 3.0
(Wa~i I
/ //
1/
I£,r-
H~ ~B ""'S l.~:
~
A
o_
o 1.0 2.0 3.0
Discharge (0) m 3 /sec
4.0 5.0
·f
Figure 1.10.3
~/ "'
£L----------~---,~~---- C\\\vhhWY4I\I\'
I -=---=--;;
/ _
Hydraulic grade line •
--
H
-L
........ _".-
~
=--~ ~ l~--
-;JW- -
S H
Figure 1.10.2
Outlet Control
239
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia ,
Ministry of Communications --X
Headwater Computation Form (
Project: _ Designer: _
Date: _
z_~
AHW = m
So=--
L= m
A+ ~TW_
EL ! So=
L=
_
_
EL 1T
Headwater Computation OJ
. 1'0'" c~ ~~~ -c
Culvert S
'6~
~u I
•
Description 0,11" Cootcol HW H + h, - LS, Cost Comments
Fw
Q -0
(Entrance
6~
-E0 I
Type) Size
K. H de dc;D TW ho I LS o HW U I I
Figure 1.10.4A
(,
240
~
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Ministry of Communications
Headwater Computation Form
Project: Designer:
Date:
AHW =
So =
L=
m
m
J~~L j - ~ ~
TW
EL ! So=
L= EL / T
Headwater Computation Cl
Culvert .!: Q).~
Description
Q Size
Inlet ConI. Outlet Control HW = H + ho - LS o ~::: ~.Q Cost Comments
~.
(Entrance -E0 I
Type) HW de+D TW O~
HW K. H de ho LS o HW
u
D 2
"tl
CII
c:::
.~,
Ul
iii
'':::
It)
0
,..
,..
Ul
~IO ,..
X
0
,..
,..
CII
,..
0
0
~
,..
N
0
,..
~
-=
CII
E
>
CII
~
C.J
~I~
-81
~
CII
Q.
en
en
..J
I
0
-
"0 ~
0U
Ul
:s ~ ~ 0 CII 0
-
CII 0 -:;:
X s::.
- -
c( ~ 0 0 C.J Cl ~
,.. s::.
51
u:::
~
~
~ <1!
,..
0
,..
0
l'll
s::. Cl
+ ~
u :I: 0
~ or: I-
== 5:
-
~ Ul ~
0
C.J
Ul
CII
a
~
CII
a
~
0
I
0
~
-
..J II g
CII
-g -
CII iii
CII :I:
== C
-
Cl
u::: u::: l'll iii ~
Q. iii
0
en ..J
~
~
<: Q. ~
0 C.J l'll
~
Ll. C.J >
~
Cl
~
l'll
..J
('
Figure 1.IOAB
Headwater Computation Form-Example
l~
241
1.10 B
vert invert at the entrance to the water sur top of the culvert at the outlet, find
face elevation permissible in the headwater headwater HW by the above equation except
culvert.
• Allowable velocities in natural stream. h o = de 1
D or TW, whichever is the
• Type of culvert for first trial selection, in greater.
cluding barrel material, barrel cross where de = Critical depth in meters (Note:
•
'y trial size is too large in dimension because D = Height of culvert opening in
vI limited height of embankment, or availabil
meters.
ity of size, multiple culverts may be used by • Compare the headwaters found in Step
dividing the discharge equally between the 3(a) and Step 3(b), (inlet control and out
number of barrels used. Raising the embank let control). The higher headwater gov
ment height or the use of pipe arch and box erns and indicates the flow control exist
culverts with width greater than height should ing under the given conditions for the trial
Step 3-Find headwater depth for trial size higher than is acceptable, select a larger
inlet control before computing HW for out flow in the culvert barrel at the
242
and economic justification. Data can be com
"
1.10 B
4.00
70
3.50 ~ 60
50 (1 ) (2) (3)
8 6- 10 Example
3.00 40 7 8
6
7 a 1.2 m x 1.2 m box
30 7 0=4.8m 3 /s 0/B=4.0 m 3 /s/m
6
5 Inlet HW HW
6
2.50 5 D
(1) 1.83 2.2
20 4 r 5
(2) 2.0
t 4
(3) 2.16
2.4
2.6
•
4
3 t
t- 2 00
.
f- 10
3
....
3
- ----- - ---
6 2
1.50 1-5
.0 E
'0 0.90
.S:
~ ~
E iii'
...... 1 .S: f- 0.9 f-- 0.9
0.8
OJ
Q. .r::.
'Q)
I 0.80 .r::.
0.80 a.
Q)
~ f-
::r=
0.7
.~
0.60 tv ~
0.70 E «i f-
0.50 ~
Q) '0 I- 0.7 0.7
)! ~0.60
~
'"
.r::.
0.40
I
'"
Q)
0.6
f-
()
en Angle of
wingwall _
:a 0.30
flare
=-0.6 f-- 0.6
'0
0
0.5
~ C-
~
0.50 0.20
0.06
To use scale (2) or (3) project horl
0.05 0.35 0.35 zontally to scale (1), then use
0.30 0.3 straight line through D and O/B
0.04 scales.
Figure 1.10.5
Headwater Depth for Box Culverts with Inlet Control
('
"i:'
~c
243
(
---
B=1.2 m D=1.2 m
3 04.8 m 3 /s 0/B=4.0m 3 /s/m
15 Inlet HW HW
•
.S 9.0 1:: ~ 2
...---... 8.0
Cl
'iii
::r:
al~
I:. 7.0 .c
.£
0
~ 1.5
- .c
:2
:=
6.0
5.0
___ -
_ - --- -
2
0
-.::.
E
Vl
.E
Cl
'iii
.c
'0
1.5
1.5 Face
Bevel Angle
50G For d = 0.042D
3704G For d = 0.083DL
(ij
.0
'0 ____ ____
-------
--- --- -ta .
.S
.c
i5. 2
Vl
E
Height D in meters
.E ---- Q)
.0
Q)
"0 .£
.~ .c Face
::r: '0 2III i5. Bevel Angle
50 G For b = 0.0428
2Q) ~III
Q)
"0 3704G For b = 0.083B
E iii f-1.0
Q)
::r: a;
iii
a.
1.5 := 0.9
1.0 ~ I- 09
Q)
Q)
~ ::r: Face dimensions band d of bevels
III
0.9 .c
u
1.0 o8 are each related to the opening di
Vl 0.9 0.8 . mension at right angles to the
is 0.8
edge.
08
0.7
0.7
0.6 0.7
0.7 0.5
004
0.6 r
O6
.
-0.6 0.3
0.5
L
0.5
(
0.2
Figure 1.10.6
Headwater Depth for Inlet Control
(Rectangular Box Culverts 100 G Headwall)
244
(1 ) (2) (3)
~
6 Example
r-u
1--5 I D=0.90m 0=2.0 m3 /s
.-6 ~5 HW
Inlet HW
l I- 0
1--4
~5 1--4 (1 ) 2.15 1.94
(2) 1.60 1.62
1.==4 1.65
1--3 (3) 1.63
1--3
~3
-
1--2
2
....1 - - - -
.-/'"1--2
//
I-- 1.5 1-1.5
~9,e//
~
//
~~
---
rn
ID
Q)
I-- 1.5
I-
E I
ell
'6
.S 1--1 1--1
.r:::
a.
OJ 1--1 l
"C
I-- 0.9 I-- 0.9
ID
co ~0.9
it
"C
ell
OJ
0.7
F'0.7 HW Scale Entrance
~0.7
0 Type
(1) Square edge
with headwall
(2) Groove end
~ 0.6 with headwall
I-- 0.6
~06
(3) Groove end
projecting
l-
I-
0.30
Figure 1.10.7
Headwater Depth for Concrete Pipe Culverts
245
·~-·---·""'"'''''''''''_·''''''-''·''-''--~~'''-'.'''''·~.-_~·'~d·~'.\J&..'1i:f...-.e~~ a.. ::H- 'it1i.~.~ ....
4.50
4.00
A B
100 Q)
b a c d Entrance
80
.5
~I I- 3.6 f- 3.0 D 5 5 D ---,=ype
c 0.042 0.063 0.042 0.083 A
3.00 I- 60 ·2
::;1 I- 3.0 0.083 0.125 0.042 0.125 B
I
40
Beveled Ring
Minimum 333 G
30 I I ~2.0
//1- ~::
20 d
2.00 ~ I- 1.5
10
/
/ -- "
~
~ 6
*
1.50 5
E 4
/ Vl
/' Qj
.c 0Q)
Qi
0 Vl
3/
......... E
til
I--- 1.0
~ L1.0
t: E
/2
Q)
> .c.
"3 .c:
u /0 a.
'0
Qj 1.~ / ia; 1
-8 ~ 0.9
Qj
f-0.9
Qi .c: 10
E
til ~.90 u
rn 0.80 ~
is is
0.60 i
I
~0.8 I- 0.8
0.80 0.50
0.40
0.70 L 0.30
I LO.7
~0.7
0.60 ~ 020
~06 L
•
Example
0.6 D=0.90m Q=20m 3 /s
I Inlet HW HW
~ 0.10
0.50 D
0.08
A 1.92 1.73 .,;'"
006 B 1.72 1.55
I LO.52 L 0.52
0.05
0.40 t- 0.04
0.03
0.30
Figure 1.10.8
Headwater Depth for Circular Pipe Culverts
1: ..
246
(
200
~W-r=-[---~ [" _
1_ -- h.
40 0.10
30 3.5 x 35 12
10
3.0 x 3.0
20 8 0.20
2.5 x 2.5
6
0.30
5 -t-t;l
~o ~
2.0 x 2.0 I k; '2"
t
10 4 fl~O DAD
u
OJ
8
3
-t-t;l
~Q,>
·S
~ 050
E
VJ
......
6 E 1.5 x 1.5
.S '"E
I ~
c:
060
.S 5 x
o
2
£
i- I=- 0.80
-- - --
OJ \<.e""o.2 ,,<0<:>
OJ
tll
1:' 3 ::;) I
--
tll 1
.s::
u
g 1.0 x 1.0 Co
VJ '0 "3
o 2 c: 0.80
en
c: -,':3
!:) H~2.2m _
o tll
.~ 0.8 x 0.8 13
OJ 0.60 ~
E '0
o 0.50 tll
3
~
DAD <t: 4
0.6 x 0.6
0.80 5
0.30
0.5 x 0.5 6
0.60
0.50 8
(' DAD
~
Q)
~ 0.30
0>
c
'1:
:;
f-
0.20
0.10
Figure 1.10.9
247
80
60 -
•
50
Slope So--- 0.1
HW=H+ho-LSo
3.0 0.2
20
0.4
8
~ 0.5
'j,\)
0.6
,,<:> ((9
1.5
bo\) ~
,,\)
.,\) ~
.S: 0.8
l'?
(Il
'j,~
,,\) e:> ~. I
~?,.
3 ~ c;)
l>'
co\)
"0
~
ell
rn
O""'3.0 --....
~ .S: ____ :::.------
L==80 -<a5 Ql
I
~ ---- 1<..",,1).2
~
2(Il
~ [080
--- ----
---.....
H:O: 3'2rn
-----.::: ---- <§l
,<01)
2
----\---.....
----
0.70
3
0.80 0.60
4
050 5
Figure 1.10.10
248
•
-I ,
I '
. I
.. i
t j o
1.0
.!- -
_I_+ +-+-I-+-+-+-l--1--+-+-+---i
I
t -+-+-+-+--+--+-+-+--+--I
_.. r . f--l--I
. _.I---I--f-
I,
I,·,
I',
•
Ii.'
i ; ;
t I
i
;
i
t
11
r!·1 oC")
i, j t Ll
1t : ~.
; ~, !:' J !j I,i I ' r; t ++ j. ..
; i i i i j I ; , ., ." I I, I I '·,'1 -1 .I-.j .. -~- .. f-
: '. Itt, I j!;" , i I Iii - ... f-
m
1 : . if·1 : j \ \i I :' j t I ! I' . j : I !- 1-
m
a I f L i j t i f. l , ; j j I ~' I . ; i; I I I! j t,·· +-- a
t t l f, t '/' 'I' Ii 'I It,' ',' t i I - I h . '-i- --1--
I ,IiiI t
I , :1 I i
I
j
r
j j
1,
i t i l ;
Ii j
-I, i
I I : t\. i!:
;
'I
I
j
j
I
~
I'
+I
I r
't
... t
/1
j .. -
-I- - f-
~-- -
-·./il..... -
;+'~
j : ;,
tic
I[ i
-t
j
.-i
f;
i
~ I
til' :, l'
,: II 1I ' I '; 'I·', 1\, t I
I " itt
JI '
I
i I' i ~I i I -' . --- - t
H-
f LI I
, I : I
Iii I
I
I
,
I 1
i I
I '
~
j j ~",L
II II
f-~ .- 1- .1-- !-
II
i
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I :
I ; i ,!
I
1
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I II
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i
-
"t'- .....
f.-t- ! - - - f-
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t
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i
i
f :
1\
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+t "'" i'oo..
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.....
-
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1.0 o 0 0 o 0 ~
6 t.ri -.i M N
SJ8\8W UI 'p SJ8\8W UI 'p
)
0.75 I I i i i I I i i i I i i i I I i
'J)
Qi
~ 0.5 I iii I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I : ~:oJ,.1""f"1 I i I I I I II I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I r
.!:
u
~
~
E
~
~
~~ o.~ .
U , .
i I
r .
, I ...
o I ! I !! [I t I I ! ! ! , ! I I! I I ! ! I
•
1.5 I i i i i i i I i i i • i I
I I
~
E
~
~
~
E::
.!:
u
1.0 I I i I I I I I I I I i I I I I I I I I I I i I I I I I I I I I I Li--1-f'1= I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
.l--'
;j;;;iii
•
,g 0.5 I I I I I I I .><r....l4 I I I I I I I I I I I : I I I I I I I I I I I I I-r FTlT FTTT rT I-I TF I I I I I I I I I I
(5
o 2 4 6
Discharge (0) in m3 /sec
Figure 1.10.12
Critical Depth Circular Pipe
250
1.10 D
Table 1.10.1.
*Note: "End Section conforming to fill slope." made of
Entrance Loss Coefficients, Outlet Control,
either metal or concrete. are the sections commonly avail·
able from manufacturers. From limited hydraulic tests
( Full or Partly Full
V2
Entrance head loss He = k e 2g
they are equivalent in operation to a headwall in both
inlet and outlet contro/. Some end sections. incorporating
a closed taper in their design have a superior hydraulic
performance.
Type of Structure and Design of
Entrance Coefficient k. 6. Protection
Pipe, Concrete a. Debris Control
Projecting from fill, socket Accumulation of debris at a culvert inlet can
end (groove end) 0.2 result in the culvert not performing as de
Projecting from fill, square signed. The consequences may be damages
cut end 0.5 from inundation of the road and upstream
Headwall or headwall and property. The designer has three options for
wingwalls coping with the debris problem: (1) retain
Socket end of pipe the debris upstream of the culvert, (2) at
(groove end) 0.2 tempt to pass debris through the culvert, (3)
Square edge 0.5 or use a bridge.
Rounded (radius = /2 D) 0.2 If the debris is to be retained by an upstream
Mitered to conform to fill structure or at the culvert inlet, frequent
maintenance may be required. If debris is to
Ie slope
*End Section conforming to
fill slope
Beveled edges, 37 G or 50G
0.7
0.5
0.2
be passed through the structure or retained
at the inlet, a relief opening should be con
sidered either in the form of a vertical riser
Side-or slope-tapered inlet 0.2 or a relief culvert placed higher in the em
bankment. It is often more economical to
Pipe, or Pipe-Arch, Corrugated Metal construct debris control structures after
Projecting from fill (no problems develop, since debris problems do
headwall) 0.9 not occur at all suspected locations.
Headwall or headwall and
wingwalls square edge 0.5 The design of the debris control structure
Mitered to conform to fill must be preceded by a thorough study of the
slope, paved or unpaved debris problem. Among the factors the de
slope 0.7 signer must consider are the following:
*End Section conforming to • Type of debris.
fill slope 0.5 • Quantity of debris.
Beveled edges, 37 G or 50G 0.2 • Expected changes in type and quantity of
Side-or slope-tapered inlet 0.2 debris due to future land use.
Box, Reinforced Concrete • Stream flow velocity in the vicinity of cul
Headwall parallel to embank vert entrance.
{ ment (no wingwalls)
Square edged on 3 edges 0.5
• Maintenance access requirements.
• Availability of storage area.
Rounded on 3 edges to
• Standard plan maintenance for debris re
1
radius of 12 barrel moval.
• Assessment of damage due to debris clog
dimension, or beveled
ging, if protection is not provided.
edges on 3 sides 0.2
Wingwalls at 33 G to 83 G to barrel b. Buoyancy
Square edged at crown 0.4 The forces acting on a culvert inlet during
Crown edge rounded to high flows are variable and highly indeter
radius of /2 barrel minate. Vortexes and eddy currents cause
scour which can undermine the culvert inlet,
dimension, or beveled erode the embankment slope, and make the
top edge 0.2 inlet vulnerable to failure. Flow is usually
Wingwalls at lOG to 28 G to barrel constricted at the inlet and inlet damage or
Square edged at crown 0.5 lodged drift can accentuate this constriction.
Wingwalls parallel (extension The large unequal pressures resulting from
of sides) this constriction are in effect buoyant forces
Square edged at crown 0.7 which can cause entrance failures, particu
Side-or slope-tapered inlet 0.2 larly on corrugated metal pipe with mitered,
251
1.10 C
the height of the fill. surface. Open channels are the primary facili
ties for conveying surface runoff. Open channel
Anchorage at the culvert entrance helps to hydraulics is of particular importance to high
protect against these failures by increasing way design, because of the interrelationship of
the dead load on the end,ofthe culvert, pro channels to all highway hydraulic structures.
tecting against bending damage, and by pro
tecting the fill slope from the scouring action The hydraulic design process consists of estab
of the flow. The following two general ap lishing criteria, developing and evaluating al
proaches are recommended to prevent fail ternatives, and selecting the alternative which
ure caused by buoyancy: best satisfies the established criteria. Capital
investment and probable future costs including
• Provide a standard concrete headwall or
maintenance and flood damages to properties,
end wall to counteract the hydrostatic up
lift. traffic service requirements, and the stream
must be considered in the design process. The
• Provide a concrete anchor block, strapped detail in which risks are considered should be
to the inlet end of the culvert, to counter commensurate with the flood hazard at the
act the buoyancy forces. site, economics, and current engineering prac
Sedimentation
I
Sediment may be deposited within the culvert
barrels. This deposition usually occurs at flow
rates smaller than the design flow. The deposits
may be removed during larger floods depen
dent upon the relative transport capacity of
tices.
Highway related channel work is generally lo
cal in nature and should not be associated with
extensive modifications referred to as channeli
zation projects. The hydraulic engineering as
pects of open channels are discussed in this
•
flow in the stream and in the culvert compac subsection. Channels along, across, approach
tion and composition of the deposits, flow du ing, and leaving the highway are included.
ration, ponding depth above the culvert, and
2. Criteria
other factors.
Channels involved with highway location, de
Culvert location in both plan and profile is of sign, and construction range in size from road
particular importance to the maintenance of side ditches to rivers. Design criteria must con
sediment-free culvert barrels. Deposition oc sider the type of channel as well as the class
curs in culverts because the sediment transport and type of road system.
(~
,ection is larger than that of the stream, thus estimated runoff from a IO-year frequency
the flow depth and sediment transport ca storm. The estimated runoff for the 2-year
pacity is reduced. frequency storm is to be used for determin
ing the needs, type, and dimensions of spe
b. Point bars form on the inside of stream cial channel linings for erosion control.
bends and culvert inlets placed at bends in
the stream will be subjected to deposition in b. Drainage Channels
the same manner. This effect is most pro Drainage channels are defined as those man
nounced in multiple-barrel culverts with the made channels other than standard roadside
barrel on the inside of the curve often be channels which may convey live streams
coming almost totally plugged with sedi and/or surface runoff. These channels are
ment deposits. usually trapezoidal sections and may be
c. Abrupt changes to a flatter grade in the natural or lined.
culvert or in the channel adjacent to the The hydraulic capacity of these channels
culvert will induce sedimentation. Gravel shall be sufficient to contain at minimum the
and cobble deposits are common down IO-year frequency storm runoff. For drain
stream from the break in grade because of age channels that cross the roadway, the
the reduced transport capacity in the flatter hydraulic capacity shall be sufficient to con
section. tain the 25-year frequency storm for local
252
1.10 C
roads, and the 50-year frequency storm for nonuniform unsteady flow, most hydraulic
arterials and collectors, and the lOO-year computations are made with certain simpli
/ frequency storm for expressways. The needs, fied assumptions which allow the applica
(
\ type, and dimensions of lining shall be based tion of steadY, uniform, or gradually varied
on the appropriate frequency storm. flow principles and methods of analysis.
c. Wadi Modification Use of steady flow methods assumes that the
Modification of existing wadis shall be mini discharge at a point does not change with
mized to the fullest extent practical. If modi time; and the use of uniform flow methods
fication is unavoidable, a detailed evaluation assumes that there is no change in velocity,
shall be made and documented with consid magnitude, or direction with distance along
eration of the environmental, hydraulic, a stream line. Steady uniform flow is thus
legal, and geomorphic aspects involved. characterized by constant velocity and flow
rate at each section along the channel.
Modified and/or relocated natural channels
shall duplicate the existing stream charac Steady uniform flow is an idealized concept
teristics as nearly as possible. These charac of open channel flow which seldom occurs
teristics shall include the stream width, in natural channels. However, for most prac
depth, slope, bank cover, side slopes, and tical highway applications the flow is consid
flow and velocity distribution. ered steady and changes in width, depth, or
direction are sufficiently small that flow can
The hydraulic analysis shall include a range be considered uniform. The changes in
of flood discharges for the average daily flow channel characteristics occur over a long
~
or mean annual flood, up to and including
the lOO-year frequency flood. A rating curve
distance such that flow is gradually varied.
For these reasons, use of uniform flow the
for the existing condition shall be prepared ory is usually within acceptable degrees of
and used as the basis of comparison for the accuracy.
proposed design.
In open channel flow, critical depth is that
3. Hydraulics of Open Channels flow depth in which the specific energy is a
The major objectives of open channel hydrau minimum. Specific energy in a cross section
lic analysis are as follows: relative to the channel bed is expressed as:
• Documentation of existing conditions. V2
• Analysis and documentation of the effects HE = d +
2g
alternate designs will have on existing condi
where HE = Specific energy in meters
tions. d = Depth of flow in meters
• The design of a proposed facility. V = Velocity of flow in meters per
Water surface profiles, and velocity and flow second
g = Acceleration of gravity in me
distribution are of primary concern in achiev ters per second squared
ing these objectives.
By plotting specific energy head against
a. Types of Flow
:(
depth of flow for a constant discharge, a
....
Open channel flow is usually classified as
uniform or nonuniform; steady or unsteady;
specific energy diagram as illustrated in Fig
ure 1.10.13 is obtained. When specific en
and subcritical, critical, or supercritical. Of ergy is a minimum, the corresponding depth
these, nonuniform, unsteady, subcritical is critical depth. Flow depths less than criti
flow is the most common type of flow in cal are termed supercritical flow, and depths
open channels. Due to the complexity and greater than the critical depth are termed
difficulty involved in the analysis of subcritical flow.
253
1.10 C
3 I I I I I I ~
Ho = Specific head m
d = Depth of flow m
de = Critical depth m
V = Velocity - m/sec
(
21 I I I b/ I I
Subcritical flow
mild slopes
d
de
Critical depth
•
o 2 3
Ho
de
Figure 1.10.13
Specific Energy Diagram
(
The distinction between subcritical and ence of some upstream control.
Fr = -
with flow depths less than critical depth, y!gd
V =IR2/3 S1I2
while supercritical flow is under the influ n
(,
254
1.10 C
Energy Equation: The conveyance equation is a convenient
VZ VZ method for analyzing the flow velocity and
/ dl + Zl + ~
2g
= d z + Zz + -2-
2g
+ HL distribution where the cross section consists
(
\ of multiple subdivisions as in Figure 1.1 0.14,
Continuity Equation: each with a different n value or geometric
Q= AV character. The continuity equation and the
Manning equation are used to compute
Conveyance Equation:
channel discharges directly for a given or
Q= KS~!2 assumed depth of flow.
where Q = Discharge in cubic meters Flood Stage
per second
A = Cross section of flow area in
square meters
R = Hydraulic radius = ':p
WP = Wetted perimeter of flow
area in meters
V = Mean velocity in meters per
second Figure 1.10.14
~. n
meters per meter
= Mannings roughness coeffi
cient
When analyzing open channel flow, sev
eral factors should be considered:
d = Depth of flow at a point in • Stage and depth.
meters • Channel roughness, geometry, and align
Z = Elevation or height above ment.
some datum in meters • Waterway area.
HL = Energy head loss in meters
• Conveyance.
K = Conveyance factor = -1 AR2!3 • Energy grade line and water surface
n
slopes.
There is no exact method for selecting n • Discharge.
values in Manning's equation as this coeffi • Velocity.
cient expresses the resistance of flow which
consists of many variables. The factors af • Flow distribution.
fecting Manning's (n) include the following: • Drift and debris.
• Surface roughness. The stage-discharge relationship shall be de
• Vegetation. veloped during the analysis and design. The
discharge of the stream is computed for vari
• Channel irregularity.
ous depths. The depth versus discharge is
(- •
•
Channel alignment.
Scour and sedimentation.
then plotted in graphic form (sometimes
termed a rating curve) giving the designer a
• Obstructions. visual display of the relationship. A stage
• Size and shape of channel. discharge curve is shown in Figure 1.10.15.
• Flow depth and discharge. The designer can use the stage discharge re
lationship to evaluate a range of conditions.
• Seasonal changes in vegetation.
Reasonable estimates of velocity and flow
Table 2.07.1 ofHDM-I-2.07 contains values
distribution are usually made by using basic
of n for various channel types.
hydraulic principles. The analysis of open
The Manning equation is used for open channels having irregular or compound sec
channel analysis where uniform flow exists tions is best accomplished by dividing the
or can be reasonably assumed. Nonuniform cross section into subsections of reasonably
or varied flow requires the use of methods uniform or average vegetal and geometric
other than or in addition to the Manning characteristics (Figure 1.10.16). The mean
equation. The energy equation is used to an velocity of each subsection may be com
alyze flow where changes in the flow resist puted by use of the Manning equation, and
ance, size, shape, or slope of channel occur the total discharge computed by a summa
(gradually varied flow). The energy balance tion of the discharge in each subsection
concept of the energy equation is especially computed by use of the continuity equation.
useful for computing water surface profiles. The total discharge may also be computed
255
1.10 C
by use of the conveyance equation from plain, and for design of slope protection and
which the sum of discharges in each channel geometry. The results of this proce
subsection is obtained. dure are also useful in selecting bridge loca
The subsection velocity and discharge values
tion and length, and for verifying the need
for such structures as relief bridges and spur
(
can be used for estimating scour potential
dikes.
within the stream channel and on the flood
62.0 I i ! I i I
I
I
, r
I
1-++ f-L W-
I I i -t- -t-- +~i-+>---j-
'-+--!, 1->--+ +t
I I I II r
I I i I
I • I
I I ! !
I i , ' I ! I , I I
, , i I I I
61.5 , i , I ::;;;
I I I :,...
I : , , , i--'
! i I I
-'....
I
I ,
I I ; I I
II i I i I , ~ I
! I I !~ i
, r I I , I
I I I l.A"" , , I I
,
i ! I
"...-1' I I' T i
~ ,
E ~ I I 1,..-,
•
! : I I
, .Y , 1
I I
I r
.;l 61.0 ~ : ,
I I I
'"
U5 I I
-+-
I I b I
I
I
I
i I 1
r I
r r
i
I
'"
-
r ,
I Vi I r
~! : ,
~ I I
'./( i I
~--i-----t-
-;----~
I /, I I I
/' -~ 1-------, ---+
I •
i
I
I /' I I I I
-< A , ! I
60.5 /r ,
: I I
, I I
/ 1'- ,
----r- ~--i-'
I
/ I , i
---i-~ ~_~--i- -~";',-
I i
~ ,
/
I
/ I
- --+- ,
i
i
!
~~- --'----t--
, '
--- f---t-'~-
+---o------"~
I
r--+-~
- - - ----+-- ~-+--+-
~--,~-~- ------+-~
I
•._-<--
I
,
60.0
o 10 20 30 40 50
Discharge (m 3 /s)
(
So = 0.02
n = 0.035
Elevation = 60m
I.. 4m • J
Figure 1.10.15
Stage-Discharge Curve
256
~iJSiiFHSO/W7fjjf55i"..t·-5~-lf*¥;:i.?i?~~.;'.f "" .. r--;;;.:,/ - ,~i'':~~j:!''''~"K''''''-''''-·'-:sK".,.~",;~~·~o_",.-,,- ~"'-~~1":~ •..:.rY'~:?;~:-;;:':.~~~~l>~'"1(;:--f",,~:::;~_.~~i~tW~:·<c':::=:,-,io~~~;'~>_~:;J..""":.'f:;,-~:~,'"=-__-,~- 1
1.10 D
Flow Distribution, Percent crease flood damage to properties up
'.
o ~ 100 stream of crossing. The amount of back
I , ,!, I, ! I I
water permissible will vary with the site,
depending upon the flood conditions ex
u isting at the specific site and the damages
.....5l to upstream properties. The designer shall
-of:
Ql use the I percent (IOO-year) flood on
ilia>"
"3~ expressways, 2 percent (50-year) flood on
E'"
::>.e: arterials and collectors and the 4 percent
UU
~B (25-year) flood on local roadways with
backwater limited to 0.3 m as an aid in
selecting the waterway opening and
crossing profile.
• Velocity through the structure that will
Figure 1.10.16
not damage either the highway facility or
Flow Distribution Diagram
increase damages to downstream prop
erty. The acceptable average velocity
4. Channel Stabilization should be based on the characteristics of
the individual site. These characteristics
Channels of appropriate size and type must be include the following:
designed to convey the runoff. These channels
must be stable so that excessive erosion and/or (1) Natural stream velocity.
<,'Ii"'
\~ scour does not occur along the channel bottom (2) Bed materials.
or channel banks. Stabilization of the channel (3) Soil types.
may require protecting the channel with some (4) Foundation materials.
form of lining. Rock riprap, concrete, and veg (5) Risk considerations from backwater
etation may be used as means for permanent
and scour.
stabilization and protection. Subsection F dis
• Maintain existing flow distribution to the
cusses the design of channels.
extent practicable. This will help mini
D. Bridge Waterways mize damage to property by either ex
cessive backwater or high local velocities
1. General and will avoid concentrating flow in areas
a. The hydraulic requirements of stream which were not subjected to concentrated
crossings must be recognized and considered flow prior to construction.
in the analysis and design of bridges. Several • Piers and abutments designed to minimize
features are important to the hydraulic per flow disruption and potential scour. The
formance of a bridge: number of piers in major channels should
• The approach fill alignment, skew, and be minimized and piers should not be lo
•
ance computations. Photographs (ground or
_iected. aerial) of the channel and flood plains and
a. Bridges have the following advantages: descriptions are necessary for use in the
analysis. A site inspection by the designer
• Less susceptible to clogging with drift and
shall be made to insure a good estimate of
debris. roughness coefficients. General character
• Waterway increases with rising water sur istics helpful in making design decisions
face until water begins to submerge super shall be noted. These include soil types in
structure. the stream bed, banks, and over bank areas
• Scour increases waterway opening. and stream bed material gradation if possi
• Widening does not usually affect hydrau ble. Evidence of drift and debris (size and
lic capacity. volume), bank caving, headcuts, and other
conditions which would affect abutment and
b. Culverts have the following advantages:
pier location, orientation, and type, shall be
• Requires less structural maintenance than recorded. Photographs of the channel and
bridges. stream bed can be a valuable aid to the de
• Capacity increases with stage. signer and can serve as excellent documenta
• Capacity can sometimes be increased by tion of existing conditions.
installing improved inlets. c. Water surface elevations of the stream at
• Usually easier and quicker to build than the crossing, must be made and a stage dis
bridges.
• Scour is localized, more predictable, and
charge curve developed showing how the
normal water surface elevation of the stream
(
easier to control. varies with the discharge. Stage discharge
• Storage can be used to reduce peak dis relationships shall be established for a range
charge. of flood magnitudes, usually the mean an
• Grade raises and widening projects some nual flood through the I percent (lOa-year
times can be accommodated by extending flood) or flood of record, whichever is larger.
culvert ends. Stage discharge relationships are commonly
5. Hydraulic Analysis estimated either by water surface profile
computations or by single section analysis.
The hydraulic design of a stream crossing is a Single section analysis assumes:
trial and error process in which alternative wa
terway opening designs are tried for each high • Steady uniform flow in the streams.
way gradient alternative. There is a variety of • Cross section, slope, and "n" values used
information required and steps to be taken in are reasonably representative of the
the hydraulic analysis. stream characteristics for the channel
reach under study.
a. Cross sections of the stream channel and
A more reliable method of establishing stage
flood plains are required to establish the
discharge relationships is by water surface
stage discharge relationships and convey
ance. Sufficient cross sections should be ob
profile computations which account for vari
\
258
I.lO D
ations in cross section roughness and chan • Determine the stage of the stream at the
nel flow. bridge site for the design discharge (2
I( The stage discharge relationship is usually 1.1OC).
\ presented in a stage discharge curve. From • Plot a representative cross section of the
this curve the designer can determine the stream for the design discharge. If the
elevation of the water surface for various stream channel is essentially straight and
flood discharges. Figure 1.10.15 shows an the cross section substantially uniform in
example of a stage discharge curve. the vicinity of the bridge, the natural
cross section of the stream at the bridge
d. The flow distribution shall be analyzed.
site may be used for this purpose.
Flow distribution refers to the proportion of
the total flow in the stream that is conveyed • Subdivide the cross section plotted above
by each of the various subsections of the according to marked changes in depth of
cross section. The analysis of flow distribu flow and changes in channel roughness.
tion will reveal sections where the flow rates Assign values of Manning's roughness co
are relatively high and sections which are efficient, n, to each subsection.
relatively ineffective in conveying flow. This • Compute conveyance and then discharge
information is necessary to properly locate in each subsection.
bridges or other openings on the flood • Using cumulative conveyance and dis
plains, determine bridge lengths, locate charge, compute slope of the stream.
overflow sections, and approach roadways, Should the computed slope vary more
and evaluate the need for and location of than 25 percent from the actual slope, the
~
spur dikes and other protective features to
be incorporated in the design.
roughness values shall be reassigned and
the conveyance recomputed.
Flow distributions usually will vary with • Plot the natural cross section under the
stage and discharge and should be deter proposed bridge, based on normal water
mined for the various flow rates of interest surface, for the design discharge. Com
in the design of the crossing. The results pute the gross water area including the
should be carefully examined and when area occupied by the piers.
possible compared with observed flows to • Compute backwater upstream from a
determine whether the computed flow distri bridge constricting the flow using the for
bution is reasonable. mula:
e. Proposed structure alternatives should be hf=K*0:2 V~2 +0:, [(An2)2_(An2)2]V~2
analyzed. In cooperation with the Bridge 2g A4 Al 2g
Engineer, the Hydraulics Engineer helps se where hi =Total backwater in meters
lect span lengths, pier type and size, abut K* = Total backwater coefficient
ment type, and roadway profile. The loca 0: 1& 0: 2 =Kinetic energy coefficients at
tion and orientation of piers and abutments section 1 and section 2
must also be selected. If a proposed design Figure 1.10.17A shows the loca
does not satisfy the criteria as outlined or tions of the cross sections 1
the existing conditions are adversely af through 4.
'C'
fected, another alternative shall be analyzed. A n2 =Gross water area in constriction
measured below normal stage in
f. Backwater calculations shall be made for
square meters
a range of discharges and for each profile Vn2 =Average velocity in constriction
and structure alternative. Backwater esti in meters per second
mates are an aid in selecting the waterway A4 =Water area at section 4 where
opening and crossing profile. normal state is re-established in
There are several methods currently used to square meters
calculate backwater at bridge constrictions. Al =Total water area at section 1, in
Most of these methods have been written cluding that produced by the
into computer programs since the equations backwater in square meters
used are complex and often require trial and To compute backwater, the following steps
error solutions. are required:
The following is a brief step-by-step outline • Estimate the approximate value of hI from
for determining the backwater produced by the formula below.
a bridge constriction:
h *1-- K* 0: 2 2g
Vti2
259
1.10 D
Q V2 nl
area of bridge waterway below normal water
surface at section 2 (J = ApiA n2 ). (
• Obtain incremental coefficient, D,. K p from
where q = Qk
Figure 1.1 0.19.
Ki
• If eccentricity is severe (e > 0.8), compute
value of e and obtain incremental coeffi
v ~ =
a cient, D,. K e from Figure 1.10.20.
Q = Total discharge in cubic meters
per second. e = 1- g: where Qc < Qa
Vni = Normal velocity at section 1.
K i = Conveyance at section 1.
k = Conveyance at each subsection.
e = 1- g: where Qa < Qc
Qb
Qb
Q
= Discharge
in portion of chan
nel within projected length of
bridge at section 1 (Figure
K * = K b + D,. K p + D, K e + D,. K s
• Estimate 0:: 2 from Figure 1.10.22.
• Compute backwater from expression given
previously.
• Determine distance upstream to maximum
backwater from Figure 1.10.23.
•
1.10.17B).
• Obtain value of K b, backwater coefficient, • Convert backwater to water surface eleva
from base curve on Figure 1.10.18. tion at section 1 if computations are based
on normal stage at bridge.
260
~~'-'''''!""~~'.... ..::,. 4~,:-~_. __-~..-;i __ ~ __'-"';'._, -~-__ .--....-..-- ~.,";;~.J.;:.. '~~7"'-' "'llr "~_' '-C'.~_~-.4i~... ~:.:~~ ....... - fiii'-i;-.,
J,LCX:' (~; ) 2 3
hT
h;
iYl
Flow_ h*3
Actual W.S. on <t
Y4
So
1= ---L'--2- -----:i:- L -
23
.14 L -4
3
.1
Profile on Stream ¢.
B
14 W
• Section 1
Q-
Y-<,-.)~'/2<'"- c
I~--
1-
r----- b Normal
Qb
-
w:s:=:""
~ ,Q.
-+ -
--~ >d7/-"
I... b .1
W.S. with backwater
-+-~/:~('-070tffj;jjj;;"
~%&W~A~
Section 2 "
~
1-.-t~.l~'~
Sect.
Q
c
I I
0
I~
W
I
_g:-_ _~------;::::-----l
~Qbj - ~ 'I
I
* - -.\
I I I •
L l -2
I
Sect.
~
2 o
u::
Sect.
3 ..
1- L2-3 I;:t=±i
j
Plan at bridge
Figure 1.10.17
.....
261
(
3.0
IIIIII1 ; ~?otii I
~-
2.8
f\. ~ IIIII,~~G~
2.6
2.4
'\ III11I11111111
100G Wingwall
- I--
IIIIIIIIII~
j
2.2 I"" ",-' "
2.0
~ y-100 G WW sOG Wingwall
"~,K I
1.8 V:-33 G WW IIIII/IIIIIIIIII?
~
For lengths up to 60m ~~
" y
-:t 1.6 --
1.4
" ~~ r--....
1.2
All spill-through
or SOG and 67 G WW
"..../'" ~
'"~~t'-...
1'-.' I'-.
111111111111lll\'
Spill-Through
•
abutments over "
60m in length
0.8
~~
0.6
~~
............ :-......
~~
-
0.4
0.2
R ~
~~
o
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Figure 1.10.18
Backwater Coefficient Base Curves (Subcritical Flow)
262
(
"
N
Width of pier normal to flow-meters
Number of piers
Normal Crossing Ap INWp h n2 = total projected area of piers normal
to flow-square meters
skew crossing)
J
Ap
An2
Note:
~
Sway bracing should be included in width of pile bents.
0.4
0.3
:>:::"
<l
0.2
('.. M
.20 .40 .60 .80 1.0
1.0 I I I I I ,
0.71 I ,"II:hSV I I I I
0.6
6K p l= 61<0 I 0.5' , ~ , , , , , I
0....... I I I I I I
Figure 1.10.19
"
263
(
I~ Q. .,
I I I I
III I I I I I I I I I I I ) " I I
e = (1- g:)
Where Q c < Q. or
e = (1- g:)
Where Q. < Qc
0.20
0.16
e 1.0
r--
~ ....
•
.........
0.12 ~
~
I
e = 0.95
-
~
~
<J
0.08
r--- r--- ...... ~"\
~
r--.... I\.
-- ""
e = 0.90
0.04
~ \
e = 0.85
I
r-- i-- l\
e
I
0.80 0 ::::..~
(
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
M
Figure 1.10.20
Incremental Backwater Coefficient for Eccentricity
</>=0
o
-0.1 1"""""""= I
~
<J
-0.6 Ie I I I I
0.2 I I I I
0.1
-0.1
-0.2 I j' ./
~
<J
-0.3 I / I
t -0.4 I /1 I
-0.5 I' I I I , , I I I
-0.6 0.3
I I , I , I I
' I I I , I I ~
0.4 0.5 0.6
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
B
M
Figure 1.10.21
Incremental Backwater Coefficient for Skew
265
3.4
3.0
(
1.4
Figure 1.10.22
Aid for Estimating a:
•
2
1.2
1.0
~I.c
Figure 1.10.23
Distance to Maximum Backwater
266
1.10 D
waterway opening.
i. Estimates of scour depth at the piers shall D. Group of cylinders
be made. Pier shape and pier orientation
shall be considered when computing scour.
The equation to be used for estimating scour
at piers is
Y s _ 2 2 (~)0.65 F
YI - . YI r1
0.43
where Y s =the estimated scour depth (m)
Y =thej upstream flow depth (m)
F rJ = the upstream Froude number E. Sharp nose
a = the width of pier (m)
The scour depth can be reduced for pier shapes Figure 1.10.24
C'
in Table 1.10.3 shall be used as multiplying
factors when piers are skewed to the flow.
For Equal Projected Widths of Pier
Table 1.10.3
1
4
I .1 Multiplying Factors for Scour Depths
Ta
Angle of Skew
In Grads {/a=4 {/a=8 {/a=12
L A. Square nose
0
16
1.0
1.5
1.0
2.0
1.0
2.5
33 2.0 2.5 3.5
50 2.3 3.3 4.3
\
\
100 2.5 3.9 5.0
267
j. Investigate need for spur dikes. Spur dikes To determine the length of spur dike recom
are used to align flow from the flood plain with mended, obtain the discharge ratio Qr/Qloo,
the waterway opening and to minimize scour where Qr = Lateral or flood plain flow (Qa
at the abutment by moving the turbulence
causing scour upstream to the end of the spur
or Qc) measured at section 1 in
cubic meters per second
(
dike. Spur dikes are usually smooth extensions Q100 = Discharge in 30 m of stream
of the spill slope on the upstream side and are adjacent to abutment, meas
V 1./
l/v V V
v V VI' I..--'
10.0 ..... V /v ........1..--' ......
/v
•
o
B,O .... 1/
,v / ./ ......
7.0 I'N" I~ 1./ 1/
..... "l' 1./ 1/
6.0 1/ W ' n V ... 1/
1/ -..If"Y' ~ .... ...... V ./
5.0
/ V IIc:i v'" n../ ......... ...... ........ ./
/: I~ -?'.i' V V ...... V i.oo'"
V /' . ,~ ~~ y;. ......... V ./ .......""
4.0 '"... I.-'"
Y Lv V
)/I'
V V~ V
V v
/v ~
ty'
l/ I....... l~
'"
~
lr...... ,~
v
Do P.L/ . /I-"" I..--'
3.0 ~ V ~ I <'l V
V ~ 1./ ~ P v, ~ V V ... I..--' v
J 1/ V l/ 1/ ~ .d Lv -?'. ...V
,; ~ ,;
~ ~.~ I~ ~ '"'!> .V
V l/ " ./ / V /
0
2.0
J
V ~
./
1/
/
/
V
""
j
~
1/
~
1/
V
~
~ \~ ~ .
-..l ~ lIe:;; V
~
~<:l '7
/
1./
../
l/
~V
a..... J V V V V l/ l./ ~
Ili"
l\~ V '2.. V
u. 1/
V v V V 17 f;> V l?
0 ./ / / ./ ~ oJ \~
1.0
/ V/ V ,/ / V ~
/
~
l/
/'
... ~
J.9
0.8
0.7
7
I
1/
/
/
1/
'7 ./
,.....
/ // (
1/ / '/ ./
0.6 J 1/ V
I 1/ / ,/ 1/ For dikes on 50 G skew bridges, increase
L. by at least 50% on obtuse angle of
0.5
/ V l/ ~
approach, as shown above. For angles
il I 1/ / .J under 50 G increase L. proportionately.
1/ J / .J
0.4
rJ 1/ j /
0.3
I J 1/ /v
77 ::::::::tiR'\- !..
/ I - OF
0.2
V l
J 1/
rl ) , , , I I
1/
0.1
~
15 30 45 60 75 90
L.-Length of spur dike (m)
Figure 1.10.25
268 Spur Dike Length
1.10 D
( X2
--+
Y2
1
\
Ls2 (0.4 LS)2
Protection l .
~
..··0 .
0'.·'
o··~
.o·:c:.
L. ·0·
-,let , , , , , , , , ,
-
B = 0.4 Ls
~. ~ I i i I 1 1 ! 1 1 1 1 1
Figure 1.10.26
Plan and Cross Section of Spur Dike
k. Investigate need for rock riprap slope pro the abutment face in meters
tection. Riprap at the abutment is usually k = Representative particle size
placed on the slopes under the structure end of the riprap in meters. Use
and around the corners under the embankment the size of which 65 percent
to guard against progressive erosion of the em of the riprap is smaller than
bankment. To = Critical shear on the abut
ment slope in kg/m 2
The median size of riprap for use as slope pro
Ss = Specific gravity of the riprap
tection can be estimated from the following
with respect to water
formulas:
"y = Specific weight of water in
V2
c
.~
To=
[5.75
P
log (12.27~o)] 2 1]
A
kg/m 3
= Stability number
Streamline angle as flow
=
1]
21 To passes over the riprap.
Measured from the horizon
(Ss - I) "y k
tal in grads
() = Side slope angle of the riprap
f3 = arctan [ 2 Sill
. cos
()
A ]
in grads
1] tan cP + sin A cP = Angle of repose of the riprap
in grads
hl= h- ( I + Sin (A+,8)) f3 = Angle measured from the
2 normal of the abutment slope
S.P. = cos () tan cP to the direction of particle
1]1 tan () + sin () cosf3 movemnt in grads
1]1 = Stability number for the rip
where V = Average channel velocity rap on the embankment
through the construction in S.P. = Safety Factor. Failure can oc
mls cur if this value is less than
p = Density of the water III one
kg-sec 2 D so = Particle size of riprap grada
m4 tion, of which 50 percent, of
Yo = Average depth of flow past the mixture is finer
269
1.10 E
To use these equations, an estimation of a used in arriving at the selected design. This
riprap size Uk" is used to determine the cor should include the results of studies of alterna
responding safety factor. If the safety factor tives and reasons for rejection, as well as:
is less than one, a larger riprap size or flatter
slope is required. A final safety factor of 1.3
• Copies of all pertinent correspondence. (
• Topography of site.
shall be required.
• Drainage area map used.
Tables 1.10.4 (side slope of 2:1) and 1.10.5 • Structure plans.
(side slope of 3: 1) may be used as a guide for • Stream profile and cross section.
the selection of the mean size of rock riprap
necessary for slope protection. These tables • Historical high water documentation.
are based on stone density of 2650 kg/m 3 , an • Information on existing structures in the
angle of repose of 45 G, and a streamline an vicinity.
gle of 5G• • Hydrologic design computations.
• Hydraulic design calculations.
Table 1.10.4
• Scour investigation.
Minimum D so for Rock Riprap Slope
• Riprap investigation.
Protection (Side Slope 2:1) in Meters
4.0 .15 .15 .30 .45 .60 >.90 which minimizes the flooding of adjacent
5.0 .15 .15 .15 .30 .45 >.90 lands.
6.0 .15 .15 .15 .30 .45 .90
d. Low water crossings include the follow
7.0 .15 .15 .15 .30 .45 .75
Ing:
8.0 .15 .15 .15 .30 .45 .75
9.0 .15 .15 .15 .30 .45 .60 • Irish Crossing (or dips)-formed by low
10.0 .15 .15 .15 .30 .45 .60 ering the highway grade to the streambed
level from bank to bank. Commonly used
Note:
across dry drainages or where the day to
Ss = 2.65 A ~ 5G
day steam flow is low. Figure 1.10.27.
e= 30 G cf> = 45 G
• Vented Irish crossing (or dips with
culverts)-formed by partially lowering
6. Design Documentation the highway grade for floods and provid
Design data should be assembled in an orderly ing culverts to handle the day to day flow.
fashion and retained for future reference. The Commonly used when day to day flow
permanent record shall include all material exceeds a fordable depth. Figure 1.10.28.
270
-_ __""4 __....._" ......... ,.,,,,, _ ,"". ~~"'-;'.'~~~...;"'-"':::'_'';''''''''"._.', ._~ ;;:':~"'-::.~_._
. ~:_... c;:-<":""'::_:,~-':·' ...
~:"-: "'~-}~ -::,._",~~.,_. ,:",-o.ti :-..~- ·_-;'~l"..~""illIill~,(.£~iJ'~"':;:MII"3·II'~!llt _ _... .... _
1.10 F
(a) Irish crossing on natural streambed. • Design low water crossings for the mean
I.. Roadway • II Roadway guide
posts
annual storm.
(
("J
--- Streambed
Flow
• Design structure to prevent failure for the
25-year storm.
3. Irish Crossings
a. Irish crossings may consist of an
unsurfaced crossing on the natural bed of
(b) Irish crossing with downstream boulders. the stream or the ford may be surfaced with
Roadway guide concrete asphalt or gabion. Irish crossings
Roadway _I I.
posts placed on the natural bed of the stream are
Loose or
grouted ' commonly leveled for the width of the road
boulders way. This is accomplished by placing a row
.::~. of boulders along the downstream roadway
Streambed
edge and filling behind the boulders with
gravel. Another method may be to use
gabions along the downstream edge.
(c) Irish crossing with downstream gabion.
Roadway guide b. After the stream gradient has been
;.
..
~~
Culvert with end sections 1. Introduction
Roadside ditches and small drainage channels
~% are an important part of the drainage system.
Precautions must be taken to insure that these
channels have adequate capacity to carry the
Figure 1.10.28
design flow and are stable enough to resist se
Vented Irish Crossing
vere erosion or scour. Erosion, should it occur,
can cause unsightly and unsafe conditions.
2. Design Criteria In order to reduce the amount of erosion oc
The designer shall use the following criteria for curring, the channel must be protected with a
stable lining. There are a wide variety of chan
investigating and designing low water cross
,:
ings: nel linings that may be used to stabilize the
channel. Vegetation, rock riprap, and concrete
~
271
1.10 F
lined channels are often used as a means for side slopes and the bottom width, is easily
permanent protection and stabilization. constructed.
This section will outline design criteria recom
mended for design of small drainage channels
V-shaped channels are susceptible to erosion
and have low hydraulic capacities. The
(
as well as discuss some of the advantages and natural process of erosion and siltation will
disadvantages of the various linings. Design usually shape an unlined trapezoidal chan
procedures and appropriate design charts are nel to an approximate parabolic shape.
also included. Local soil conditions, grade (slope) and flow
2. Design Considerations depths within the channel are usually the
a. There are many factors that must be con primary consideration in channel design;
sidered in design of a drainage channel. A however, terrain and safety considerations
design frequency must be selected for the will have considerable influence. Unlined
channel lining. The frequency will vary for channels are seldom constructed with side
the class of road and the type of channel slopes steeper than two horizontal to one
(roadside ditch, small drainage channel, vertical. A rectangular shape is the most ec
etc.). In addition the grade, channel align onomical to build, but the use of this shape
ment, channel shape, and freeboard are im is normally limited to areas with limited
portant considerations. right-of-way or in areas outside the clear
recovery zone (see 2-1.15) where safety
• Grade hazards can be minimized.
The grade or vertical alignment of the ditch
must be considered. The grade affects both
the size of the channel required to carry the
flow and the velocity at which the flow oc
curs. The vertical alignment of a new chan
nel should be as consistent as possible with
• Design Frequency
Roadway ditches shall be designed for a 10
year frequency storm. Small channels and
stream realignments shall be designed for a
100-year frequency on expressways, a 50
year frequency on arterials and collectors
•
the profile of the existing channel. If the
and a 25-year frequency on local roadways.
grade is changed considerably, erosion or
deposition may occur. Erosion will occur • Freeboard
when the new channel is steepened from a Freeboard is the vertical distance between
flat approach grade and deposition will oc the level of the water surface at design flow
cur when the grade is flattened from a steep and the top of the channel. For roadside
approach grade. The grade will vary with ditches 0.2 meter of freeboard shall be pro
the roadway profile. However, the minimum vided. For small channels 0.3 meter of free
flowing water and offers less opportunity for hydraulic roughness, cost, and appearance.
the water to pick up a large amount of Linings may be classified as rigid, such as
bedload material for deposition further concrete; or flexible, such as rock riprap.
where water quality considerations are of seeding. Sod is generally more expensive
major concern. Runoff contaminates may be than seeding, but it has the advantage of
r; transported to the receding waters whereas providing immediate protection. Some type
vegetative or flexible lining may filter the of temporary lining is often required to pre
"
contaminates from the runoff. vent the seed and channel from eroding until
vegetation is established.
Flexible linings are less expensive to con
struct, have self-healing qualities which re In order to determine if a channel lining will
duce maintenance costs, permit infiltration be necessary, the capacity of an unlined
and exfiltration, and present a more natural channel shall be made. Figures 1.10.29 and
appearance and safer roadside. Flexible 1.10.30 allow the designer to calculate the
linings are limited in the depth of flow which channel capacity. The procedure for deter
they can accommodate without erosion oc mining capacity is outlined in the section
curring, and thus have limited capacity. below. A guide for determining the soil
erodibility is as follows:
However, the required capacity can gener
ally be obtained by a minor adjustment in • Sandy, noncohesive soils tend to be very
the channel geometry. Various species of erodible.
grass may be used as permanent flexible • Large grained gravel-clay-silt mixtures are
channel linings, if flow depths and soil types erosion resistant.
..
are within acceptable limits for vegetation. • Mixtures of sand, clay, and colloids are
The turf may be established by sodding or moderately erodible.
I'"
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.. ",:1::::j::
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'1
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.
'"
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""Q"
~
.
11=
g-
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'j'
.
.~t-..."
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.... .... "~~9;
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"'1
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I.r"' ~~ ..
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Figure 1.10.29
273
1.10 F
3.0
a. Perform hydrologic computations.
/ b. Select design flow for lining material.
2.5
Cha nel lope, So
V
/' c. Estimate soil erodibility.
d. Define channel shape, slope, and maxi
('
>
E
1.5
/ /' ./ slope, and soil erodibility from Figure
1.10.31.
~
'0
0
/ V ./
V g. Determine hydraulic radius, R, and area,
Qi V V V A, for the selected channel geometry and
> / ./
1.0 d max .
V/ ~ ,/'
h. Determine velocity from R and slope, So,
/,i j from the Figure 1.10.32.
0.5 i. Determine the allowable discharge, Q =
!II AY.
f j. If the allowable Q is much greater than the
.0
o design Q, the channel is overdesigned. If Q
o 0.06 0.12 0.18 0.24 0.30
is less than the design Q, the lining is inade
Hydraulic Radius, R (m) quate. In either case, select another channel
size and return to step (e) or select another
Figure 1.10.30
lining material and return to step (t). Also,
Flow Velocity for Unlined Channels
consider the feasibility of additional inlets to
reduce the flow in the channel.
3. Flexible Lining Design
The computation sheet, shown in Figure
The design procedure for flexible channel 1.10.33, has been developed to facilitate the
linings and the design procedures for providing above design procedure.
protection are outlined in the following steps:
to
( ','
"
274
.05
.02
.01
\
:[
"0
E
.005
J::.
a.
QJ
0
~
0
u::
E
::J
E
x .002
co
~
.001
-r .0005
Figure 1.10.31
Maximum Permissible Depth of Flow
For Channels Lined with Rock Riprap
275
')
n =
0 50 1/6
0.04817 0 50 1/6
I I I I I 7
/ I I
)
-;;;
E
> 3
.i
'0
o
Qi
>
o
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Figure 1.10.32
-)
276
Project Date:
Drainage Area = ha
Hydrologic Computations:
Design Flow: Q = m3 /s
Channel Slope: So =
Channel Description:
~
(
'"
Figure 1.10.33
277
1.10 F
Riprap is graded stone placed on a prepared of the high velocity flow at the channel outlet
may be used not only in small drainage chan sion might occur at the channel outlet, result
nels but also larger streams. Riprap is flexible ing in damage to embankment slopes or under
and will adjust itself to uneven settlement or mining the channel outlet.
minor erosion of the bed material. The appear As was pointed out earlier, concrete-lined
ance of the channel is natural and vegetation channels are also susceptible to damage by
may grow through the rocks, adding some hydrostatic uplift, undercutting, and erosion
flowing water depends upon many factors. The shall be anchored to the subgrade by cutoff
most important is that of depth of flow for the walls at both the upper and lower ends of the
design discharge. The steepness and soil type channel. The cutoff wall also minimizes ero
of the slope are also important. Other factors sion underneath the lining. The absence of a
that are important include the weight, size, cutoff wall at the outlet often results in the loss
•
"R iprapis designed by determining the mean channels for the velocities normally encoun
'ne size, 0\0, of the gradation, Figure tered in drainage, permissible depth of flow is
1.10.31. 0\0 is the particle diameter of which not the major parameter used in design. The
50 percent of the mixture is finer by weight depth and velocity of flow for a given dis
5. Concrete-Lined Channels
The figure is entered with this value, and the
Concrete-lined channels are the most com
dlb value is read from the appropriate side
monly used rigid linings. Concrete linings are slope curve. If the resulting design is not satis
''1erally used for protection against erosion factory, the bottom width is adjusted and the
_.1 steep slopes; however, they are sometimes
used on very flat slopes to increase the velocity
design repeated.
Many times in highway drainage design
(
of flow to a nonsilting velocity or to reduce the
size of channel to carry the design discharge. trapezoidal channels with different side slopes
Although these channels have some advan are used. By averaging the side slopes and in
tages, they are very susceptible to failure. terpreting between the side slope curves, a very
Therefore, use of concrete-lined channels is not close approximation to the correct dlb ratio
recommended where flexible linings will work. can be obtained.
278
1.10 F
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279
1.10 F
Energy dissipator design is not a series or pro sion hazard and to serve as input criterion
gressive design. One cannot try a particular for determining energy dissipator needs.
dissipator, and if it doesn't work, try another
one, and so on until one is found that does
This scour prediction method was derived
from model tests conducted by the United
(
work. Chances are, any number of dissipators
States Army Corps of Engineers. Empirical
are going to work at a particular site. What
equations defining the relationship between
must be done is to design all of the dissipators
the culvert outlet, Froude number, time, cul
that meet the applicable design conditions, and
vert size, and the length, width, depth, and
determine their performance characteristics.
volume of a scour hole are presented.
The selection is then based on the dissipator
that is most efficient, cheapest, and best fits the The investigation indicated that scour hole
channel geometry. geometry vaired with tailwater conditions.
All conditions could be adequately de
a. Natural Scour Hole
scribed using two categories-tailwater less
This method will determine the size of a than half the culvert diameter or minimum
natural scour hole which will form at the tailwater conditions; and tailwater equal to
outlet of drainage structures assuming a or greater than one-half the culvert diameter
downstream sand-bed channel. This infor or maximum tail water condition. (Figures
mation is intended to serve as a measure 1.10.35 and 1.10.36).
ment for comparison with the potential ero-
0.2
0.4
Flow
- ,.,/ Original ground line
•
h s 0.6
hsm
0.8
1.0
1.2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Ls
Dimensionless Centerline Profile Lsm
0
m / Original ground line
0.2 (
0.4
h s 0.6
hsm
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Ws
Dimensionless Cross Section at 0.4 L. m Wsm
Figure 1.10.35
280
1.10 F
Flow
1-- Original ground line
0
(
0.2
0.4
~ 0.6
hom
0.8
1.0
1.2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 1.0
L.
Dimensionless Centerline Profile Lsm
~ Culvert ~
~
I
Ws
Dimensionless Cross Section at 0.4 Lam Wsm
Figure 1.10.36
Dimensionless Scour Hole Geometry for Maximum Tailwater
Ws = Predicted scour width 1.10.6 provides the coefficients for use in the
Wsm = Measured scour width equation.
The general expression for determining The time variable is estimated based on
scour geometry for a pipe flowing full is knowledge of peak flood duration. Lacking
Scour geometry = ex (3.28 D)'Y (1.81 ~)
this knowledge, it is recommended that a
13f O maximum time of 30 minutes be used in the
equation. The tests indicated that approxi
Where D is the diameter or width of culvert mately 2/3 of the 24-hour scour occurred in
in meters and t is the time in minutes. Re the first 30 minutes of flow duration. It
placing the diameter, D, by an equivalent should be remembered that the time repre
depth Ye = ( ~ )112, an area where the width sents the duration of the peak discharge, i.e.,
a constant discharge, equal to the peak,
is twice the depth of flow, makes the predic flowing for that time period.
tion procedure applicable to any shape of
Example Problem
conduit.
Ye = ( ~ fl2 = ( 7T~1 r
2 Determine the scour geometry (maximum
length, width, depth, and volume of scour)
for aIm square box culvert discharging
"
281
1.10 F
•
Volume (V s)
Width of scour: TW < 0.5D 0.0082 2.0 0.375 3.0
Ws = 0.17 [3.28(0.579) ]l'o TW > 0.5D 0.0068 2.0 0.375 3.0
[(1.81 (2. 5~1 0.915 (30)0.15 Note: Maximum duration of peak discharge (t) is 1,440
5/2 minutes (24 hours).
[ 0.579 ]
Ws = 7.47 m
b. Rigid Boundary Basin
Length of scour:
A rigid boundary basin uses staggered rows
Ls = 0.51 [3.28(0.579) ]l'o of roughness elements to slow down the ve
locity of the flow before it is released back
[(1.81(2.5)1 0.71 (30)0.125
into the natural channel.
[ 0.579 5/2 ]
Ls = 11.4 m The following formulas are used in the design
of the basin (see below):
Volume of scour:
Vs =0.0082 [3.28(0.579) )3.0
[(1.81(2.5)1 (30)°·375
[ 0.579 5/2 ]
Vs = 63.3 m 3
(
Formulas Used in Design of Basin
2 2
1 V Q+C ( Yo ) W = CBArN p VA + V Q + 'YQ2
. P o p 'Y 2 0 2 P B 2V B2W B
2
2 C p 'YYo W o + V Q+ (. e)= C BA rNpV A2 + 'YQ2 + V Q
. 2 P o w SIn 2 2V 2W
B B
P B
Q
3. 2WoSo + YA +
(0.25)\WAYA
2g = Yo + 0.25 ( ~;2 )
where W A = W 0 (3F~+ 1)
B (I-WA)]
5.u e 4 (1O)~
=:;+ --=;- W o (
1.10 F
Where Cp= The momentum correction ,:-oef e) ue-Divergence
ficient for the pressure at th-.' cul f) CB-Basin drag
vert outlet (Figure 1.10.42)
( 'Y & p = Unit weight and density or wa
ter, respectively
g) At = Wlh-Element frontal area
h) Cp-From Figure 1.10.42
Yo, Yo, i) L B = 2(W o) + LN r
and W o = Depth, velocity, and culvert
width, respectively, at culvert (5) Compute Y B.
outlet a) If the downstream channel width is
VA = The approach velocity at two approximately equal to W 0, compute
culvert widths downstream of
CBAtN from equation (1) or (2).
the culvert outlet
VB& W B =Exit velocity and basin width Use (I) if the channel slope is less than
just downstream of the last row 10 percent and (2) for slopes greater
of roughness elements than 10 percent.
N = Total number of roughness ele
ments in the basin Also compute CBAtN from values in
At = Frontal area of one full r\)ugh Step 4. If the latter value is equal to or
ness element greater than the value from (1) or (2),
CB = Basin drag coefficient design is satisfactory. If less, return to
Q = Design flow Step 2 and select new design.
e = Arc tan of the channel sl0l'c. So
Nr = Number of rows of roughness b) If channel width is greater than WB,
elements compute VB from equation (1) or (2) and
~. L = Longitudinal spacing bt.'lween
rows of elements
compare with downstream flow to deter
mine controlling VB. Compute YB and
YA = Approach depth of flow al two compare with TW. If TW > YB, TW
culvert widths downstream from controls.
the culvert outlet
w = Weight of water within tht' l'asin (6) Sketch the basin.
WA = Width of the basin at two cIII\'ert a) Elements are symmetrical about
widths downstream from the
culvert outlet centerline
Ue = Flair divergence b) Lateral spacing approximately equal
to element width
Fr
TW
= Froude number(?
= Tailwater depth gy
V
1.1 0.38, 1.10.39, 1.10.40, and 1.1 0..+ 1 for Assume N = 0.013, computed critical
W
B depth (Yc) = 3.0 m, normal depth = 1.8 m.
4%< --<8%.
Wo Natural Channel: Width = 12.5 m, Q =
B 40 m l Is, TW = 1.0 m.
For slopes> 10% use equation (3) tn find the velocity to approximately the down
c) WB-Basin width
b) V o = V n = Q
YnWB (1.8)(2.5)
d) WI-Element width = element spac = 8.9 mls
ing
283
1.10 F
2
c) F-~ VQ + C p Y Y0 W 2 = CBAtN p VA2
r -( )1/2
gyo P 0 2 2
8.9
[(9.8)(1.8) ]1/2
= 2.1 + p VBQ + ---..Y....Q:
2V 2W B B (
(2) Select basin configuration from Figure g=L
p
1.10.37. Channel width/culvert width = Dividing entire equation by p results
12.5 = 5 with:
2.5 2
V Q + CpgYo2Wo = CBArNVA + V Q + ~
. ratio,
. - W= B 5,WI - = 063 o 2 2 B 2V B2W B
T ry expansIOn . ,
Wo Wo
h L (8.9)40 + (0.7)(9.8)(1.8)2 2.5 = CBAtN (9.1)2 + (3.2)40 +
Nr = 4 N = 15 - = 071 -= 6 2 -2
, 'YA" h
(9.8)40 2
(3) Flow conditions at beginning of
2(3.2)212.5
roughness field; 2Wo or 2 X 2.5 = 5 m
from culvert exit. CBArN = 4.70
From Step 4
a) VA = 1.02 from Figure 1.10.38
C B = 0.42, N = 15, A r = 0.72
Vo
•
Yo
Try 5 rows with same h and return to
VA = 8.9(1.02) = 9.1 mls
Step 4. YA
YA = 1.8(0.35) = 0.63 m
(4) Repeated.
(4) Determine dissipator parameters.
a) h = 0.45 m
h L =
a) - = 0.71; h = 0.71(0.63) = 0.45 m b) 2.7 m
YA c) WB= 12.5 m
h
e) Ue - 2
WB
c) - = 5; W B = 5(2.5) = 12.5 m
f) C B = 0.38
Wo
g) At = 0.72 m 2
d) WI = 0.63; WI = 0.63(2.5) =
h) C p = 0.7
Wo
i) L B = 2(2.5) + 5(2.7) = 18.5 m
284
(
6
5
4
3 3
2 2
1
2Wo
~
---1 Wo f
~ We/W o
W,/W o
2 to 4
.57
5
.63
6
.6
7
.58
8
.62
No. rows (N,) 4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6 5 6 6
No. Elements (N 14 17 21 15 19 23 17 22 27 24 30 30
h/Y A L/h Ce for Roughness Element Dissipators
m 0.91 6 0.32 0.24 0.28 0.32 0.28 0.24 0.31 0.27 0.23 0.26 0.22 0.22
"3
0.71 6 0.44 0.40 0.37 0.42 0.38 0.35 0.40 0.36 0.33 0.34 0.31 0.29
'"
c
m
r; 0.48 12 0.60 0.55 0.51 0.56 0.51 0.47 0.53 0.48 0.43 0.46 0.39 0.35
a:'" 0.37 12 0.68 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.62 0.60 0.62 0.68 0.55 0.54 0.50 0.45
0.91 6 0.21 0.20 0.48 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.18 0.16
m 0.71 6 0.29 0.27 0.40 0.27 0.25 0.23 0.25 0.23 0.22 0.22 0.20
"3
~ 0.31 6 0.38 0.36 0.34 0.36 0.34 0.32 0.34 0.32 0.30 0.30 0.28
U 0.48 12 0.45 0.42 0.25 0.40 0.38 0.36 0.36 0.34 0.32 0.30 0.28
0.37 12 0.52 0.50 0.18 0.48 0.46 0.44 0.44 0.42 0.40 0.38 0.36
Figure 1.10.37
Design Values for Roughness Element Dissipators
'(
....:
..
-
285
(
I
1.8~
~ Note:
This chart is
1.6)~ ....... only good for
l- I'--. L:C; 3B
I'--.
1.4
1.2
I
..........
~ ,
VA 1.0)
I-
~ ~ ,.......",.
•
Vo
0.8
0.6i
~ -
I-
0.4
I-
0.2
I-
t J I I I I I I I I I I I
o 0.5 1.0 1.5
2.0 2.5 3.0
Vo
F,= ~
(
~Lj
=
)?=tv. t I
Yo YA
Figure 1.10.38
~
286
(
--,
r
1.8
- Note: .
This chart IS
1.6 I ' only good for -
.........
L:O; 3D
1.4
r-
r".
..........
~
r
1.2
VA 1.0
-
" r'-....
-
"'" /'r".
Vo
0.8 ~
~ 0.6
I
~ .........
~
"'" "
r
0.4 "; = 1.65-0.45 ( )
-
0.2
0
I i I 1 I I I 1 I I I i l I i ...L
0.5 1.0 1.5
Q 2.0 2.5 3.0
F, = vQ55
~Lj
)f-- Yo
f
YA
I
Figure 1.10.39
287
(~
1.0
--
I I I I I i i
."", ....
'"
0.8 I I I I" I I >' I
0.6
YA
Yo
•
0.21 ~ I I I
0.0 I ! ! I ! I I , ! ! I I ,
Vo
F,= ~
~
(
B = Width of culvert
Yo = Brink depth
~ll
)=1= * Yo YA
I
Figure 1.10.40
(
288
· - 5 '....,.. °-4i~:,.Tili..i"~~_. - ".' ~jfflj,"C_';'.»':'" ';:;'...-:.\ .-,.;~~;.J6:"i,;." 'c~: ·;";;··'::;j.:~::"··''-~;-''-;;:-;:':~'':~l~~~'2::~':''''';·',£.;..~::~'';:':''~.~.':''
•.. . : :. .... ;T-~._,_.'_<:'~_';',"---_J' ,....,.~ ..-:.
1.0
,. ,. ,."
~
"
0.8
0.6
•
VA
Vo
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Vo
F, = v9Yo
o = Diameter of culvert
L = Distance to desired depth
measured in multiples of (D)
Vo = Brink depth
VA = Average depth of flow
~L1
)=1= t Vo VA
J
Figure 1.10.41
L
.~
Average Depth for Abrupt Expansion Below Circular Culvert Outlet
{
~
289
1.10 F
Eo = C.V o + a oV2 0
2.5m
29
1.1
Mo -- CpyyoA
2
o + ~opQVo
(
•0
1.0
.., ao
~
0 /30
<:Q.
ii
0 ~ 0
0.9
"c:
ell i
Q
C. 0
.;
~ " • •
o •
-1
~
0.8
cJ 0
0
0.7
• • 0
Co
0
• • •
----17::~T -
0.6 I I I I I I I 1 I 1 I 1
I 18.5 m
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4
- - -
o
Fo = - -
V
~
A. Rectangular Culverts
1.2
1.1
1.0
ao
/30
"it ~ f-.. In _
1 ,...
- I
-
I• I o~~dgat)()~O
0.9
0.8
Cy Ib 12.5m
~D~~~OO~
<:I6 Q "Jm,d Riprap
":JOp<)O '::>Clo~
<:Q.
0
0.7
~ ~. 0
o~9DI)
.go",
" ~
ii
0
• • Figure 1.10.43
-g 0.6 Co
ell Rigid Boundary Basin
J 0.5
cJ 0.4
~ 0
0
~} ~ 0
• •
0
0.3 Watts The St. Anthony Falls or SAF stilling basin
0.2
•• is a generalized design that uses a hydraulic
o
draulic Laboratory of the University of Min
o 2 3 4
1.8
5
(---.9.-)
6 7 8 9 10
nesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.
(
0 0
5/2 The design provides special appurtenances,
B. Circular Culverts
chute blocks, baffle or floor blocks, and an
Figure 1.10.42
(
290
1.10 F
end sill, which allow the basin to be shorter Wingwalls should be equal in height and
than free hydraulic jump basins. It is recom length to the stilling basin sidewalls. The top
(
mended for use at small structures such as
spillways, outlet works, and canals where F r
of the wingwall should have a 1: 1 slope.
Flaring wingwalls are preferred to perpen
= 1.7 to 17. F r is the Froude number at the dicular or parallel wingwalls. The best over
dissipator entrance. The reduction in basin all conditions are obtained if the triangular
length achieved through the use of wingwalls are located at an angle of 50G to
appurtenances is about 80 percent of the free the outlet centerline.
hydraulic jump length.
The stilling basin sidewalks may be parallel
At the design flow, the SAF stilling basin (rectangular stilling basin) or diverge as an
provides an economical method of dissipat extension of the transition sidewalks (flared
ing energy and preventing dangerous stilling basin). The height of the sidewall
streambed erosion. above the maximum tailwater depth to be
expected during the life of the structure is
• Design Recommendations
The width W B of the stilling basin is equal to given by 1.i.
3.
the culvert width W o' For circular conduits,
A cut-off wall of adequate depth should be
W B is the larger of Do or W B = 0.54 (~) used at the end of the stilling basin to pre
vent undermining. The depth of the cut-off
The basin can be flared to fit an existing wall must be greater than the maximum
channel as indicated on Figure 1.10.44. The depth of anticipated erosion at the end of the
sidewall flare dimension "Z" should not be stilling basin.
smaller than 2, i.e., 2:1, 3:1, or flatter.
• Design Steps
The length L B of the stilling basin for
(1) Choose basin configuration and flare di
Froude numbers between F r = 1.7 and F r =
mension, Z.
17 is proportional to the theoretical sequent
depth Yi found from the hydraulic jump (2) Determine if sufficient tailwater is pre
equation Yi = Y1 tv 1 + 8Fr /
sent for the basin to operate properly.
Compute Yi using YI = Yo
2
(VI + 8Frl2 - I)
and L B --~
F O.76
Yi = YJ 2
the theoretical sequent depth corresponding Calculate YI by using the following equation:
to YI'
Q = y IWB [2g(Zo - ZI + Yo - YI) + Vo2]O.5
The depth of tailwater Y2 above the stilling where Zo = elevation of culvert outlet in
basin floor is vert
(1.1-Fr / )
Fr = 1.7 to 5.5, Y2 = 120 Yi (i) Calculate VI =~
y1W B
Fr = 5.5 to 11, Y2 = 0.85Yi (ii)
Fn =-~-
VI
(1.0-F rI 2) (Ylg)O.5
Fr = 11 to 17, Y2 = 800 Yi (iii)
291
1.10 F
LT = Zo - ZI
0.76
FT}
3 x 2 m box culvert
Q = 10 mJ/sec
So = 6.5 percent
c.
ST Elevation of outlet invert, Zo = 30.5 m
V o = 8.5 mls
Z3 = Zo - (LT + ~: - Z2 ) So Yo = 0.5 m
Downstream channel is a 3m bottom
~ + I trapezoidal channel with 2: I sideslopes
Ss Vn = 5 mls
Note: Z2 = ZI if basin is level
Yn = 0.6 m = TW
Find
This last expression is valid only if Z\ is less
than or equal to Z3' Dimensions for an SAF Basin
If Z2 + Y2 is greater than Z3 + TW, the Solution
basin must be lowered and the trial and er (l) Use a rectangular basin with no flare.
ror process repeated until sufficient tailwater (2) Yi=YI CVI+8Fn 2-1)
exists to force the jump. 2
YI = Yo F r1 = 3.84
Yi = 0.5[(1 + 8(3.84 2))]°.5 = I
•
(5) Calculate L s = Z3 - Z2
Ss
ZO-Z3 2
L = L T + L B + Ls = - = 2.48 m
So (1.1 - F n 2 )
Y2 = 120 Yi (i)
(6) Determine radius to use between culvert
and transition from Figure 1.10.46. 2
(1.1 - 3.82 )
= 2.48
(7) Design Chute blocks. 120
Height; hi = Yl = 2.43 m
Width; W = 0.75 YI
j (3) Since Y2 is greater than TW, 2.43 is
Spacing; W 2 = W \ greater than 0.6. Therefore we need to drop
W the basin.
Number; N c = - B rounded to
2W I whole number (4) Try ZI = 28.0 m
B WB = 3 m
Adjust width as necessary WI = W
2N c ST = Ss = 0.5, 2:1
(8) Design baffle blocks. Calculate YI
10 = 3YI[2(9.8)(30.5-28.0+0.5-YI)+8'y]0.5
Height; H = Yl
j
-f-= - --
Basin elevation; ZI = 28 m
basin
Basin length; L B = 2.8 m • half-plan
Total length; L = 11.4 m Equation
*' --
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) number
Incoming depth; YI = 0.30 m
:Q-Jilll
Incoming F r ; F rJ = 6.5
W, = 0.75Yl = 0.25 m = W 4
Basin Width; W B2 = W B + 2L B = 3 m
3z (1) We = Basin width upstream
W B2 3 (2) n Blocks at ~ Y, ::t
N B = - - = - - = 6 blocks 4
2W3 2(.25) (3) 0.40W e2 ::; Aggregate block width::; 0.55 We2
+ 2L e
We
3 (5) W e2 = We
3,
This gives 6 blocks, 5 spaces, and a half (6) W e3 = We + 2i e
space at each wall. Distance from chute
block = 2.8/3 = 0.93 m Figure 1.10.44
(9) End Sill SAF Stilling Basin
h 4 = 0.07Yj = 0.07(2.6) = 0.18 m
(10) Side wall
.
HeIght = Yz + -Yj3 = 2 .2 + -2.6
3 = 31m
.
i
\\"
293
""';._ ....::- ...... -,....
, ~
113__
min.
Wo w, (
----"""-
20
2, 22 23
I..
I..
LT .1..
L
Ls .. /... Ls_1
• I
Datum
{[
Figure 1.10.45
Definition Sketch Basin Transition
10.0
'--T'III-l--r----r-·~-- I
:
I
I
r
1.5
I
F'I'og, 11+',/ '
1
8.0
1
I
'\
_.u
Fr I
\
~
(
4.0
~____ I
1- """
----
I
2.0
:----.-~
oI
~-----!,;-±--------!I---±-~l-111
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
VoIr
0.25 0.30 0.35 0040 0045
Figure 1.10.46
\,
294
~ - - - - - - - -.-------,.... -...~........ ~" -:-~:-~ ..:-~~~-u<'~ ... r~'~~~~.J.o,.":O-:...,.."'2..q:, .. --1tf{'.'¥itl!Ji~"''' . "~ 'ir-43Sf'F~~:;:-'r:;. .
1.10 F
30.5 m
-----
5 t
28.0m
28.0m
~t~.3_.6_mj
t= m ... 11.4 m _2_.8_ _m •• Datum
Figure 1.10.47
I ,;"
two or more basins may be constructed side To provide structural support and aid in
by side. priming the device, a short support should
be placed under the center of the baffle wall.
The effectiveness of the basin is best illus
trated by comparing the energy losses within • Design Procedures
(
the structure to those in a natural hydraulic Use of the basin is limited to installations
jump, Figure 1.10.50. The energy loss was where the velocity at the entrance to the
computed based on depth and velocity stilling basin does not exceed 15 mls and
measurements made in the approach pipe discharge is less than 11 m 3/s. This dissipa
and also in the downstream channel with no tor is not recommended where debris or ice
tailwater. Compared with the natural hy buildup may cause substantial clogging.
draulic jump, the impact basin shows a
greater capacity for dissipating energy. 1. From the maximum discharge and veloc
ity, compute the flow area at the end of the
Although tailwater is not necessary for suc approach pipe. Compute Ye for a rectangular
cessful operation, a moderate depth of section of equivalent area twice as wide as
tailwater will improve the performance. For
best performance set the basin so that maxi the depth of flow, Ye = ( ~ ) 1/2
mum tailwater does not exceed h 3 + ~2 2. Compute the Froude number, Fr, and the
(See Figure 1.10.48.) energy at the end of the pipe, H o . Enter the
curve on Figure 1.10.49 and determine the
•
- -"e basin should be constructed horizontal required width of basin, W.
.Jr all entrance conduits with slopes greater
than 17G , a horizontal section of at least four 3. With W known, obtain the remaining di
conduit widths long should be provided im mensions of the dissipator structure from
mediately upstream of the dissipator. Al Table 1.10.7.
1. Compute Ye
~or erosion reduction and better basin oper
ation, use the alternative end sill and 50G
wingwall design as shown in Figure 1.10.48.
Ye = (~ r/2
(
For protection against undermining, a cutoff
A =Q =~ = 0.7 m 2
Yo 12.2
wall should be added at the end of the basin. 07)1/2
Its depth will depend on the type of soil Ye = ( 2 = 0.6 m
present. 2. Compute Fr and H o and find W
Riprap should be placed downstream of the F = Yo = 12.2 = 5.0
basin for a length of at least four conduit r (gYe)1/2 (9.8)(0.6)1/2
widths. For riprap size recommendations see V 2 12 22
2-1.IOF. Ho = Ye 2; = 0.6 + 2(9'.8) = 8.2 m
The sill should be set as low as possible to From Figure 1.10.49, H o = 1.68
prevent degradation downstream. For best W
performance, the downstream channel W = 8.2 = 4.88 m
should be at the same elevation as the top of 1.68
the sill. A slot should be placed in the end
sill to provide for drainage during periods of
low flow.
(
296
1.10 F
r
¥l
r -- - -- -- -- I'_- ,r~~~A========Tt11-"-1
Ir-- II
1:1
II
II
II
II --j~
h3/2r-:~ , ~
II II
.
:,3h 3 /.
>;> ;;:::
I---T"'l~
SOG ::
.-! A ---- ;~ h
c
: ::
II II- -.:..t.. ,¥
3
t
II II ....::r.:·; ::.(;:t:.;.;.:,-;:,:,',
- - (I
Sec. A-A
II Ir ---r h3
II II I.
>----,-,:.nIII II
II
W1 M'n.
-. II II
ts---t H-3 ??
T --II W W1
1
II 11:1 t s
20cm II 11 4
. . _
II ~
:onm
.1. __ I
. ~ I I I I I I ~ ISOG
L----r -
;
I L------.....1.-_....J.L ! \
+
L
Plan
Plan
I I
I I
~ t--- 20 em (Max)
I I
I I--4 Dia. (Min.)
I I
I I
( ~
2
h1
t s
,..
'
.
... ,'.
I. "... , .. : .. :',•....•...
y./~:
"
~ .:~: ': :: :~ ~.: :. ~.:.. :~ ~ '.~ ,:~'.':~. :...•~.:.~.. ~:~. ~ :.~.: :..,.~: /:~. .: '0'" • . ' . ' 0'. ' ••.
Section Section
Stilling basin design Alternate end sill
Figure 1.10.48
Baffle Wall Energy Dissipator
297
o
en
o
a:i
~
"
"'"~
'\
\ o
C')
\ Cl
C\J
o
'"
o
N M
°H
\ o
(
90
80I
70I
./
~
V
A... 60I
V ./
~ 50
baSin-y
V
/
V
'0
/
'"
.3'"
40I
J
~
30I
/ /
Hydraulic jump
horizontal floor
20I
(
10
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Vo
Fr = V9Y.
Figure 1.10.50
Energy Loss, Impact Basin, Hydraulic Jump
299
(
Table 1.10.7
Baffle Wall Dissipator
Dimensions of Basin in Centimeters
W hi L h2 hJ L, L2 h. W, W2 tJ t2 t, t. t,
122 94 165 46 20 71 94 51 10 33 15 15 15 15 8
152 117 203 58 25 89 117 64 13 43 15 15 15 15 8
183 140 244 69 30 104 140 76 15 51 15 15 15 15 8
213 165 287 79 36 122 165 89 15 58 15 15 15 15 8
244 188 325 91 41 140 188 102 18 66 18 18 15 15 8
274 211 366 104 46 157 211 114 20 76 20 18 18 18 8
305 234 409 114 51 175 234 127 23 84 23 20 20 20 8
335 257 445 127 56 193 257 140 25 91 23 23 20 20 10
366 279 488 137 61 208 279 152 28 91 25 25 20 23 10
10
.'
(l) The design procedure for a riprap basin the equivalent depth of flow, Yeo
300
(
v _ Design discharge-Q
ave - Wetted area at brink of culvert
d so = The median size of rock
by weight. 'Rounded rock
or angular rock.
Ye = Equivalent brink depth
Brink depth for box culvert
( ~)V2
2
For non-rectangular
sections
3
I
<t Section
NOTE: 2 ~
h,
~ 4
. d so "J
".
~
I-,
Tw > 0.75
IF
Yo 0%_
I-,
Riprap may be required
2
on banks and channel
bottom downstream ".
from basin
-I •
.c>
Q)
<5
.c
~
o
()
en '"
o·
VI
'0
.c
a.
Q)
bo/:::"•
"0
V/
Q)
.~ o·
«i
W
c:::
(
01 I ( "1" L I I I I
2 3
Vave
Froude Number (F,) = V(9.81)(Y ej
Figure 1.10.51
/
~,
301
Note A
If exit velocity of basin is specified. extend basin as required to obtain
sufficient cross-sectional area at Section A-A such that Ode.r(Cross
section area at Sec. A-A) = specified exit velocity.
Note B
Warp basin 10 conform 10 natural stream channel. Top of riprap in
(
floor of basin should be al Ihe same elevalion or lower Ihan natural
D·ISSlpa
. t
or poo
I Apron
5 h. or W min.
E 10 D. or 3W min. Note A
;:)
-{, d- Ve Tw . \ I I
~ <-., h
S
I Hon
zontal
3 d so • OR 2 dMAx
1.5' MIN 2 dso OR
1.5 dMAx Thickened or sloping
toe optional-conslruct
If downtream channel
<t Section degradation is anlicipated.
~
Note B
Note:
•
W = Diameter for
pipe culvert
Apron W = Barrel width
for box culvert
W = Span of pipe-arch
culvert
Horizontal
r-:. Symm Aboul
_ _ _ _.L...I _..i5-.,.--
~ ~ t!
Half Plan
..... 2 d so OR
\ 1.5 dMAx ~
. ,.·.:·;:·:::···~:;:':Z:~
"
/
"\
~
!....L.L Berm as required Berm as required
to support riprap 10 support riprap
I
~. 2dsoOR1.5dMAx 2 d so OR 1,5 d max
~ r Excavate to Ihis line. Sec. D-D
Backfill wilh riprap.
Figure 1.10.52
Details of Riprapped Culvert Energy Basin
(
302
...- •• -,.~ .. , -.-,,-,--."-,. -.._'-..--.""..... _-,,_.-_~_. ,,w..;..__=-,,,-_'_"~:..~~_., .~.~
1.10 G
(
Storm sewer systems are designed to carry the
is 100 m approximately.
i. Minimum Clearance
surface water of urban highways and city
streets in a closed system into an available Minimum clearance of 15 em is to be used
outfall. The design policy and criteria de between top of pipe and bottom of base ma
scribed in this section is to be used as a guid terial provided that the minimum depth of
ance to those engaged in the design of storm pipe and the external loading on the buried
sewers for the Ministry of Communications. pipelines corresponds to the class of pipe
b. Runoff Curves
Trunk sewers should be located outside the
2.07 (Hydrology), Volume I of the HDM. due to utility conflicts, the trunk sewers can
Ordinary drainage systems are designed for width of flow on the pavement criteria and
the entire drainage area. However, this is not at low points, superelevation rollovers, flat
justified economically for urban highways areas and upstream of intersections and
(I) The maximum grade will be one that not exceed half a lane or the full parking
(I) Minimum pipe size of 15 em is to be are the maximum tolerable flow of water to
used between inlet and main sewer pipe. approach the inlet during storm rainfall and
(2) Minimum pipe size of 30 em is to be the efficiency of the inlet when dealing with
f
for the design of inlet spacings.
l'.
1.10 G
(I) The water flow at the edge of a curbed ing the total area of surface contributing
road can be calculated from the empirical to the flow in a length of pipe.
formula due to Manning.
Q = 1134 W8/3 C5/3 Sl/2
(3) Estimate the weighted runoff co
efficient "c" (
n AICI + A 2 C 2 + ...
h
were C = IA
where Q = flow (m 3/hr)
n = roughness coefficient see tables 2.07.4 and 2.07.5 in Volume 1.
W = width of flow (m) (4) A pipe size is assumed and the pipe
C = crossfall (m/m) full velocity of flow in that pipe is found
S = longitudinal gradient (m/m) based· on the gradient and size of paper.
(2) The drainage area contributing the (5) The time of concentration is the total
water drained by the inlet can then be time of flow up to and including the
calculated from length under consideration plus the time
of entry. A minimum time of concentra
A = 10 EQ tion is taken as 10 minutes.
I (6) The rate of rainfall corresponding to
where A = drained area (m 2) the time of concentration is found from
E = gully efficiency (%) the 5-year return period rainfall intensity
Q = flow (mJ/hr) curve.
I = rainfall intensity (mm/hr)
•
(7) The expected peak rate of flow in the
, ) Finally the inlet spacing can be obtained pipe is then given by the rational formula
by dividing the drained area by the width of Q (m3/sec) = C I A as described in
the road, thereby defining the areas contrib 360
uting to each storm sewer. HDM-I-2.07
efficient
adopted using Figure 1.10.54 to tabulate the to see if it can carry the expected peak
sewers required and to ensure workability quate to cope with the flow the velocity
of the system, keeping in mind the road can be obtained by using the proportional
way profiles to achieve minimum depths discharge and velocity tables. When the
of excavation.
(2) Outline the complete drainage area
computed velocity falls outside permissi
and adding in the contributions from the of the pipe should be revised and the com
304
Stations
1,000
(
1·0
1,100
(
2·0 1 .1
2·1
( 1,200
1.2 3·0
3·1
~ ( 1,300
"
1.3 3·2
1 ·4
q 1,400
1·5
5.0
4·2 4.1
~
1,500
1·6
5.1
( 5·2 5·3
1,600
1·7
1,700
1.8
(
1,800
Outfall
Figure 1.10.53
(
Showing Branch Numbers
305
-
The Kingdom Of Saudi Arabia Date
Ministry of Communications Sheet No. __
Project No.
Storm Sewer Design Computations Computed By
Design Storm
"n"
Figure 1.10.54
~" ~
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