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Forces and motion

Distance and displacement

Distance is how far an object moves. Distance does not involve direction. Distance is a scalar
quantity. Displacement includes both the distance an object moves, measured in a straight line
from the start point to the finish point and the direction of that straight line. Displacement is a
vector quantity.

Speed

Speed does not involve direction. Speed is a scalar quantity. The speed of a moving object is
rarely constant. When people walk, run or travel in a car their speed is constantly changing. The
speed at which a person can walk, run or cycle depends on many factors including: age, terrain,
fitness and distance travelled.

Travel Speed (m/s) Travel Speed (m/s)

Walking 1.5 Motor way driving 30
Running 3.0 Train (high speed) 75
Cycling 6.0 Commercial aircraft 250
City driving 12 Sound 330

It is not only moving objects that have varying speed. The speed of sound and the speed of the
wind also vary. For an object moving at constant speed the distance travelled in a specific time
can be calculated using the equation:

Distance travelled = speed × time (s = v × t)

Distance, s, in metres, m speed, v, in metres per second, m/s time, t, in seconds, s

Q. If a school bus moves 1600 metres at an average speed of 12.5 m/s, how long did the journey
take ?
The distance–time relationship

If an object moves along a straight line, the distance travelled can be represented by a distance–
time graph. The speed of an object can be calculated from the gradient of its distance–time
graph. If an object is accelerating, its speed at any particular time can be determined by drawing
a tangent and measuring the gradient of the distance–time graph at that time.
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Velocity

The velocity of an object is its speed in a given direction. Velocity is a vector quantity.

If the object is moving in a curve path or circle (roundabout of turning around the corner) the
speed can still be constant but the velocity will change, because the direction has changed.

If an object moving in a circle it is constantly changing the direction, so it is constantly changing

the velocity. It is accelerating even if it is travelling at constant speed.

e.g: Planet (There is a force of gravity that causes the acceleration)

The Speed–time and Velocity-time relationship

On speed–time graphs, the speed has only positive values. On velocity–time graphs the velocity
can be negative.
 A positive slope (gradient) means that the speed/velocity is increasing –
accelerating.
 A horizontal line means that the object is travelling at a steady speed or
velocity.
 A negative slope (gradient) means the speed or velocity is decreasing –
negative acceleration (deceleration).
 A curved slope means that the acceleration is changing – the object has non-
uniform acceleration.
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e.g: Graphs for a ball that rolls up a hill with steady speed, slows, stops and rolls back
down, speeding up.

Q. A golf ball is dropped onto a concrete floor and strikes the floor with a speed of 5m/s. It then
rebounds with a speed of 5m/s. What is the change in velocity of the ball?

V = Vinitial - Vfinal

V = 5 – (-5) = 10m/s (-5 because of change of direction)

Q. The graph shows how the velocity of the ball changes with time.

a) Calculate the acceleration for first 15s

b) Calculate the distance travelled up to 120s.
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Acceleration
The average acceleration of an object can be calculated using the equation:

Acceleration, a, in metres per second squared, m/s2 change in velocity, ∆v, in metres per second,
m/s time, t, in seconds, s

An object that slows down is decelerating. The acceleration of an object can be calculated from
the gradient of a velocity–time graph. The distance travelled by an object (or displacement of an
object) can be calculated from the area under a velocity–time graph. On travel graphs, time
always goes on the horizontal axis (because it is the independent variable).
Q. A cyclist increases her speed from 4m/s to 21m/s in 8 seconds. What is her acceleration?

Q. A football moving forwards at a speed of 15.4 m/s, is kicked forwards so that its speed
increases. The acceleration of the ball is 52.0 m/s2 , which lasts for 0.50 s. What’s the final speed
of the ball after this acceleration?
Size of the force
An object will accelerate in the direction of the resultant force. The bigger the force, the greater
the acceleration.
Doubling the size of the (resultant) force doubles the acceleration.
The following equation applies to uniform acceleration:

V2 - U2 = 2as
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Final velocity, v, in metres per second, m/s initial velocity, u, in metres per second, m/s
acceleration, a, in metres per second squared, m/s2 distance, s, in metres, m

Near the Earth’s surface any object falling freely under gravity has an acceleration of about 9.8
m/s2.

Q. A car accelerate from 4 m/s2 to 10 m/s2 over a distance 10m. Calculate the acceleration of the
car.

Terminal velocity
An object falling through a fluid initially accelerates due to the force of gravity. Eventually the
resultant force will be zero and the object will move at its terminal velocity.

The effect of air resistance on a falling object e.g a model parachute.

The graph shows how the vertical velocity of a skydiver changes from the moment the skydiver
jumps from the aircraft until landing on the ground. Using the idea of forces, explain why the
skydiver reaches a terminal velocity and why opening the parachute reduces the terminal
velocity.

On leaving the plane the only force acting is weight (downwards), as skydiver falls air resistance
acts (upwards) and weight greater than air resistance (resultant force downwards) so skydiver
accelerates, as velocity increases so does air resistance, terminal velocity reached when air
resistance = weight

Explanation for second lower terminal velocity

Opening parachute increases surface area and increases air resistance. Air resistance is greater
than weight resultant force acts upwards (opposite direction to motion), skydiver slows down.
This lower velocity means a reduced air resistance, air resistance and weight become equal but at
a lower (terminal) velocity.
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Forces, accelerations and Newton's Laws of motion

Newton’s First Law

If the resultant force acting on an object is zero:

• The object is stationary, the object remains stationary

• The object is moving, the object continues to move at the same speed and in the same direction.

So the object continues to move at the same velocity. So, when a vehicle travels at a steady speed
the resistive forces balance the driving force. So, the velocity (speed and/or direction) of an
object will only change if a resultant force is acting on the object.

The tendency of objects to continue in their state of rest or of uniform motion is called inertia.

Newton’s Second Law

The acceleration of an object is proportional to the resultant force acting on the object, and
inversely proportional to the mass of the object.

Use the symbol for proportionality, ∝

Resultant force = mass × acceleration (F = m × a)

Force, F, in newtons, N mass, m, in kilograms, kg acceleration, a, in metres per second squared,

m/s2

• Inertial mass is a measure of how difficult it is to change the velocity of an object

• Inertial mass is defined as the ratio of force over acceleration.

Q. Calculate the force needed to accelerate a bicycle of mass 22 kg by 6 m/s2.

Newton's Third Law

Whenever two objects interact, the forces they exert on each other are equal and opposite.

Newton’s Third Law of Motion applies in collisions, such as a van crashing into a wall. The van
and wall exert equal and opposite forces on each other in the collision.