MAINS REVISION CLASS

ART & CULTURE - 2020

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LITERATURE @
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 Vedic Literature
• Shruti literature - which has been heard and embody eternal, self-
existent truth realised by rishis in a state of meditation or revealed to
them by God. Ex Vedas

• Smriti literature - which have been remembered

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Vedangas, Puranas, Dharmashastras and .uNitishastras.

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• Vedas - comes from the ancient word means ‘vid’(to know) or knowledge.

• There are 4 Vedas - Rig, Yajur, Sama, Atharva.

• Each Veda has 4 parts - last three blend with each other - Samhitas,
Brahmana, Aryankas, Upanishads.
• Rig Veda: It is the sacred text of Hinduism;oldest text in any Indo-European
language.
• a collection of ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns. The hymns are
known as Suktas which are generally used in rituals.
• The Rigveda is further divided into ten parts known as Mandalas.
• Rigvedic hymns were collected by Paila under the guidance of Vyasa,
• As per the Rig Vedic hymns, the entire universe has originated from Prajapati, (the
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• Indra is the chief deity (King of Kingdom of heaven) cited in the hymns of Rig Veda.
The sky God Varuna, fire God Agni, and the Sun God Surya were some of the other
chief deities mentioned in various hymns of the Rig veda.
• There is a lot of emphasis on lord Shiva but Lord Vishnu who is one of the
Trimurti of Hindu Pantheon of Gods is cited as a minor deity, according to the Rig
Veda.
•
• Sama Veda - arranged according to the needs of musical notation.

• It is also called as the book of prayers or "storehouse of knowledge of chants”.

• It is a mixture of poetry and verse.

• The Samaveda consists of some verses, taken from Rigveda and few verses new.

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•
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Yajur Veda - The Vedic collection of sacrificial prayers (yajus) used by the
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Adhvaryu priest.

• Of the four Vedas, it most reflects the Vedic sacrifice in its ritual character
and full scope.
• The Yajur Veda prescribes the procedures to be adopted at the time of performing
different sacrifices.
• It is a collection of short magic spells used by a certain class of priests at the time
of sacrifices.
Present day relevance
• Atharva Veda
• It is the "knowledge storehouse of atharva as, the procedures for
everyday life”.

• It was a late addition to the Vedas in later Vedic age.

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The Atharva Veda is composed in Vedic Sanskrit.
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It is one of the oldest surviving record of
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the evolutionary practices in
religious medicine and reveals the "earliest forms of folk healing of Indo-
European antiquity”

• It describes the popular beliefs and superstitions of the humble folk.

• It contains charms and spells in verses to ward off diseases and evils.
• The Brahmanas: The Brahmanas explain the hymns of the Vedas. They act
as the appendices to the Vedas. They are written in prose and they elaborately
describe the various sacrifices and rituals, along with their mystic meanings.

• Each Veda has several Brahmanas.

• The two Brahmanas attached to the Rig-Veda are Aitareya Brahmana and
Kausitaki Brahmana. The Sukla Yajurveda is appended with Satapatha
Brahmana which recommends 'one hundred sacred paths' (Satapatha). It
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• The Aranyakas: These are called the forest books mainly written for the
hermits and students living in the jungle.

• They are appendices to Brahmanas.

• They make a bridge between the Karma of Brahmana and Gyana of

Upanishads.

• . They interpret sacrificial rituals in symbolic and philosophical ways.

• The Upanishads: means to sit down near someone and denotes a student sitting near his
guru to learn.

• It criticizes the rituals and lay stresses on the value of right belief and knowledge.

• The language of Upanishads was classical Sanskrit not the vedic Sanskrit.
• It states that goal of the life is to attain salvation which is possible through self
control.

• They contain philosophical ideas about sacrifice, bodygmailand

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They are closely associated with ‘atman’ and ‘brahman’
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• They specify philosophical knowledge and spiritual learning and their main motto is
“Knowledge Awards Salvation”.

• Upanishads are also called Vedanta, because they reveal the final aim of Vedas.
• Oldest Upanishads are Brhadaranyaka and Chandogya. Latest Upanishad is Muktika Upnishad
recorded by Dara Shikoh in 1656.

• The philosophical principles of Sankara, Ramanuja, Ramakrishna Paramahans, Aurobindo

and others are derived from Upanishads.
Present day relevance
• Our nation's motto Satyameva jayate is taken from the Mundakopanishad.
• Smriti Texts

• Vedangas: These refer to six auxiliary disciplines associated with the study and understanding of the
Vedas.

• Shiksha (Phonetics) - Its aim is the teaching of the correct pronunciation of the Vedic hymns and
mantras.

• Kalpa (Ritual Canon) - It contains the sacrificial practice and systematic sutras. There are kinds of
Sutras part of Kalpa: ail.
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Srautasutras, which are based on the Shruti, ay
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sacrifices, requiring three or five sacrificial fires.

• Smartasutras, or rules based on the Smriti or tradition - The Smartasutras have two classes
viz. Grihyasutras, or domestic rules which are basically treating the rites of passage, such
as marriage, birth, namegiving, etc., connected with simple offerings into the domestic fire
and Dharmasutras or customs and social duties.

• The Dharmasutras are the first four texts of the Dharmasastra tradition and they focus on
the idea of dharma, the principal guide by which Hindus strive to live their lives. The
Dharmasutras are written in concise prose, leaving much up to the educated reader to interpret.
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• Vyakaran (Grammar) includes the Aṣhṭadhyayi, of Panini. Most of the work of very early
Indian grammarians ranging to 8th century BC is lost.

• There are 4 parts of Panini‟s Grammar:

• Sivasutra: Contains phonology

• Aṣhṭadhyayi: Contains morphology (construction rules for complexes)

• Dhatupaṭha: Contains list of roots (classes of verbalcoroots)

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Gaṇapaṭha: Contains list of classes of primitive
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• Nirukta (explanation): It is traditionally attributed to Yaska, an ancient Sanskrit

grammarian. It deals with etymology, particularly of obscure words, especially those
occurring in the Veda.

• Chhanda (Vedic meter): It measures and divides Vedic Mantras by number of padas in a
verse. Number of padas divides each verse, hymn, or mantra and number of syllables divides
each pada.

• Jyotisha (Astrology): It describes rules for tracking the motions of the sun and the moon
and the foundation of Vedic Jyotish. Present day relevance
• Epics (Itihasa)

• Ramayana - Created by Maharishi Valmiki. Consists of 24,000

verses in seven books (Kandas) and 500 sargas and tells the story of
Rama.

• Valmiki is also regarded as India's First Poet.

• It inspired Tulsikrita Ramayan “Ram Charit Manas” in 1576 by

Tulsi Das.
Texts we still refer
• Mahabharta : The Mahabharta is attributed to Maharishi
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the tale known as Bharta is a shorter version of 24,000 an

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while the Mahabharta contains 1 Lakh verses and ay1.8 million words
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which makes it 4 times of Ramayana.

• Puranas: They are late descriptions of ancient legends and consist of

history of the universe from creation to destruction, genealogies of
kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, and descriptions of Hindu
cosmology, philosophy, and geography.

• They are colored with superstitions and also represent acorrupt

form of Hindu Philosophy. There are 18 major Puranas.
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Present Day Relevance

 Information
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Present Day
Relevance
 Present Day Relevance

• Upaveda - means applied knowledge and are traditional

literatures which contain the subjects of certain technical
works. They are as follows:

• Ayurveda: Deals in Medicine and associated

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Dhanurveda: Deals in Archery
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Yajurveda

• Gandharvaveda: Deals with Music and Dance and associated

with the Samaveda

• Shastrashastra: Deals with military technology and

associated with the Atharvaveda.
• It has been argued that Geometry and Mathematics had a ritualistic beginning in India
centuries before Greeks or Babylon. In these rituals, Earth was represented by Circular altar
and heavens were represented in Square altar. There were eagle shaped altars also.

• Sulvasutras: It deals with complex fire altars of various shapes constructed with bricks of
specific shapes and area: the total area of the altar must always be carefully respected. This
proves that despite of no existence of algebra, there was an awareness of precise purely
geometrical calculations.
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• Sulva sutras belong to a bigger text Shrauta Sutras

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The four major Sulva Sutras, which are mathematically
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the most significant, are those
composed by Baudhayana, Manava, Apastamba and Katyayana.

• Out of them the oldest belongs to Baudhayana and dates back to 600BC. They discuss the
cases of the Pythagorean Theorem and Pythagorean triples.

• The Baudhayan Sulbasutra 1.48 says: The diagonal of a rectangle produces both areas
produced separately by its two sides. Sulva Sutra also mentions a ritual which included
“Squaring the circle” (and vice-versa), thus geometrically constructing a square having the
same area as a given area.
• Manusmriti It is one of the earliest and most authoritative law texts followed by the
Hindus, covering a wide range of topics such as creation of the world, sacraments
like „Upanayana' and marriage; duties of men and women placed in different strata
of society and stages of life; penitential rites for violation of codes of conduct;
and so on. om
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• Manusmriti remained the standard point of reference for all future Dharmasastras.
It was translated in 1794 by Sir William Jones.
• Manusmriti and the Concept of Varna

• In line with the ancient Indian tradition, Manu distinguished between various human
beings on the basis of their basic tendencies and inclinations.

• The human beings were classified on the basis of the preponderance of a

particular guna. Thus in according to Manusmriti, the Satvik guna preponderates in
Brahmins, Rajas Guna dominates in Kshatriyas and Tamas Guna dominates in the
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• Further, in the ancient texts, the four Varnas

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human body. Thus, Brahmin was represented by mouth; the Kshatriya by arms; the
vaishya by navel and the shudra by feet. This is why Brahmins got the top status. They
used to teach, preach and advise, that is, the functions of higher intellect were their
prerogative. The kshatriyas were the protectors of dharma, while vaishyas performed
trade and agriculture. The shudras used to serve the higher varnas.

• Though the possession of quality and not the accident of birth was said to determine
one's varna; but in actual fact this salutary advice was followed more in breach than
in observance.
CONTRIBUTION OF VEDIC LITERATURE IN MODERN DAY CONTEXT

Medicine:
• Atharvaveda contains chapters relating to medicine, surgery.
• Ayurveda focusing on usage of natural herbs.

Science & Mathematics:

• Sulva sutra dealing with geometry. Ex: Baudhayana sutras mentions Pythagoras theorem
• Notation of decimal system and use of zero was known to Indians as mentioned in atharvaveda
• Upavedas are regarded as basis for modern science. Ex: Dhanurveda- military science.Geography:
• Gives detail about physical features like rivers Indus, Saraswati, Ganga;.commountain systems like Himalayas,
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• Information on agriculture and animals domesticated. d ay
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• Presence of settlements along river tributaries gave insightredthat civilizations flourished along river valley.

PRESENT DAY RELEVANCE:

• Continuity with Present Day - Many verses of the Rig Veda are still being used as a very significant part of Hindu prayers and
rituals.
• It contains the famous Purushasukta that explains that the four varnas (Castes) (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra)
were born from the mouth, arms, belly and the legs of the Creator This was the origin of the caste system which is still
practiced in modern Hindu society with some modifications.
• In today’s world, binary system which is very backbone of software computer application are fundamentally resting on the
concept of zero found in Vedic literature.
Buddhist Literature
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• Dipavamsa - The meaning of Dipavamsa is "Chronicle of Island". It is the oldest historical record
of Sri Lanka. a il.c
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• It is believed to have been compiled around 3rd or 4th

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in Sri Lanka during the reign of King Dhatusena of ySri
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• Dipavamsa is one of the most important works in Pali Literature.
• It details the tooth relic and Bodhi Tree's arrival in Sri Lanka.
• It also deals with the arrival of Buddha's teaching and preachers in Sri Lanka.
• It mentions that Buddha visited Kelaniya and Dighavapi in Sri Lanka.
• Mahavamsa - Mahavamsa means "Great Chronicle".
• Mahavamsa is the most important Pali epic poem which deals about the Kings of Sri Lanka
• The Mahavamsa, Dipavamsa, Culavamsa (small chronicle) all together are sometimes known as
Mahavamsa. It deals with the royal dynasties of not only Sri Lanka but the whole Indian
subcontinent and is known as world's longest unbroken historical accounts. The consecration of
Asoka and details of Selucus and Alexander have been detailed in it.
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• Buddhist Scholars
• Moggaliputta Tissa:
• The most important turning point in the expansion of Buddhism in India was the emergence and conversion
of Asoka the Great (304–232 BC). He embraced Buddhism after 8 years of his coronation; he became a
Buddhist and made it his state religion in 260 BC.
• He convened the third Buddhist council, which was held in Pataliputra in the presidency of Moggaliputta
Tissa.

• Asvaghosa:

• Asvaghosa is the greatest Indian Poet Prior to Kalidasa. mail.com

• He is known as first Sanskrit Dramatist of the world. aykiran
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• His epics rivalled the contemporary Ramayana. red

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• He wrote Buddhist texts in Classical Sanskrit.

• He was the court writer and religious advisor of Kushana king Kanishka. His main works are
Buddhacharita (deals with Buddha’s life), Mahalankara (Book of Glory) and Saundaranandakavya (details
the life of Nanda).
• Nagarjuna:
• Nagarjuna founded the Madhyamika school of Mahayan Buddhism.

• He was contemporary of Satavahana King Gautamiputra.

• Most important work is Mulamadhyamakakarika , which means Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way.
• His theory is also known as Shunyavad “emptiness".
Jain Literature
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• The canonical literature of Jainism is claimed to have started from Adinatha, the first
tirthankara. It is said that these teachings were forgotten and revived by the
Tirthankaras from time to time.

• The teachings of the Tirthankaras before Mahavira are known as Purva.

• There were total 14 Purvas which were memorized and passed on through the ages,
but later lost into oblivion. m
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Some Jain traditions say that Jain Scholar Bhadrabahu, d a y kir
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(one who can recite all sutras), could reciteredthe
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14 Purvas.

• Bhadrabahu is considered to be the last expert of fourteen Purvas. He later migrated

to South India, where he would later become guru of Chandragupta Maurya.

• Jain Literature is called Jain Agamas. They are canonical texts of Jainism based on
Mahavira‟s teachings.
• Jain Religious Canon -

• Upanga Agams: Upanga Agamas are explanations to Angas

• Chedasutras: These are texts related to behavior of Monks and Nuns.

• Mulasutras: These are texts which provideg a base in the earlier

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• Prakirnaka sutras: These are texts on Independent or miscellaneous

subjects

• Culikasutras: These are texts which further enhance or decorate the

meaning of Angas.
• Acharang Sutra (Acaranga Sutra)
• It is the first of the eleven (or 12) Anga Agamas. It is the first
text that was studied by the Jain monks.
• This agam describes the conduct and behaviour of ascetic life
and the description of the penance of Lord Mahavir. This is the
oldest agam from a linguistic point of view.
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• It was written in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit.

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• Kalpa Sutra
• It was written by Bhadrabahu.
• It contains the biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras, most
notably Parshvanath and Mahavira, including the latter's Nirvana.
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KAVIRAJAMARGA - It was inspired by or written in part by the famous Rashtrakuta King Amoghavarsha I,
and some historians claim it is based partly on the Sanskrit text Kavyadarsha. Some historians believe
Kavirajamarga may have been co-authored by a poet in the king's court, the Kannada language theorist Sri
Vijaya.
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Krishnadevaraya was not only an accomplished scholar himself, but was a great patron of learning
and literature. - UPSC 2016
Krishnadevaraya - a great patron of learning and literature

• Krishnadevaraya ruled the Vijayanagar empire from 1509 to 1526 A.D.

• He was an able scholar himself and promoted Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Sanskrit literature during his rule.
• His reign was called as the Golden Period of Telugu Literature.
• Some of his famous works include books such as Amukta Malyada (in Telugu), Jambavati Kalyana (in Sanskrit) and
Krishnadevaraya Dinachari (in Kannada). He was also called as Abhinava Bhoga.
• He had eight Telugu poets in his court called as Ashtadiggajas. il.co
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He wrote several works in Telugu, Kannada and Sanskrit language, but as of today only three works are available :

a) Amukta Malyada : a poem written in Telugu language which describes the wedding of Lord Vishnu and Andal.

b) Jambavati Kalyana - a DRAMA in Sanskrit

c) Krishnadevaraya Dinachari - written in Kannada, it was like a PERSONAL DIARY maintained by him.

Apart from Jambavati Kalyana, his other works in Sanskrit were :

• Madalasa Charita,
• Satyavadu Parinaya,
• Rasamanjari
Ashtadiggajas
• The Vijayanagara period was known as the Golden age of Telugu Literature
• Krishnadevaraya extended his patronage to Telugu, Kannada and Tamil Poets alike.
• The eight Telugu literature luminaries, popularly known as Ashtadiggajas adorned his court.
• Among them, Allasani Peddana, the author of Manuchitram was the greatest. He was known
as Andhra Kavita Pitamaha.

The Ashtadiggajas of Krishnadevaraya's court were :

1. Allasani Peddana - wrote Manuchitram

2. Nandi Timmara - wrote Parijathapaharanam
3. Madayagiri Mallana co
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5. Ramaraja Bhushana, kira
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6. Pingali Surana, y.ud
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7. Tenali Ramakrishna,
8. Ayyalaraju Rambhara

Some of the Kannada poets patronized by him were :

• Mallanarya,
• Chatu Vittal anatha
• Timmanna Kavi.

Krishnadevaraya was thus a great patron of learning and literature and hence was called as Abhinava
Bhoga.
 Kakatiyas - Sanskrit & Telugu Literature

• In the field of literature, both Sanskrit and Telugu were given due patronage.
• Andhra under the Kakatiyas witnessed considerable literary activity. Sanskrit occupied the place of pride and was
the language of the educated few. Many epigraphs of this period are written in Kavya-style of Sanskrit. The
noted poets who were the authors of the epigraphs of this age are Nandi, Acchitendra Antantasuri and
Iswarasuri.

• The greatest Sanskrit poets of this age were Vidyanadha and Jayapasenani. Vidyanatha wrote
Parataparudrayasobhushana. Jayapasenani was the author of Nrityaratnauali and Gitaratnavali.

• Kakati Rudra wrote the ”Nitisara” on the basis of the sanskrit text ”neetisaara”(same name) .

• Vidyanath , most popular poet in the court of Prataparudra wrote ”Prataparudra

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• Agastya wrote ”balabhratam” and ”nalakeerthikaumudi”.

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• In the telugu literature, Desa Kavitha movement started with Palkuriki Somana. He wrote ”vipadhakavyas”
like ‘panditarajya charitra’ and ‘basavapuranam’. He also contributed for the ‘sataka literature’ with his
”vrishadeepa satakam”.

• Kethana wrote ”dashakumara charite”, the first khandhkavya in telugu literature.

• Bodhena enriched the telugu literature with his ”sumati satakam”.

• The art of wrtiting plays was perfected by Tripurantaka who wrote the street play ”Premabhiramama”. On the
basis of this text Vinukonda Vallaba raya wrote ”kreedabiramam” .

• Tikkana Somayaji, who adorned the court of the Telugu Chola ruler Manumasiddhi II, wrote the last 15 cantos of
the Mahabharata which was lying unfinished. Sanskrit, which could not find a place in the Muslim-occupied
north, received encouragement at the hands of the Kakatiyas. Prataparudra was himself a writer and he
encouraged other literature.

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• Sangam Literature - source for understanding history of that period

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UPSC - 2013 Question ra n7
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Q. Though not very useful from the point of view of a connectedrepolitical history of South India,
the Sangam literature portrays the social and economic conditions of its time with remarkable vividness.
Comment.
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• Kalidasa's works in numerous Indian and Foreign Languages have spread his fame all of the word and now he ranks among the top
poets of all times. Works of Kalidasa

• Malavikagnimitram is the Sanskrit play, which depicts Agnimitra as its hero. Malvika is a maid servant whom Agnimitra falls in love.
This was known to his chief queen, who imprisons her. Later it was known that Malvika was of a royal birth and she was accepted as
queen of Agnimitra. Malavikagnimitram gives account of Rajsuya Yajna of Pushyamitra Shunga, father of Agnimitra.

• Abhijñanasakuntalam is a Sanskrit play which depicts the story of Dushyanta, king of Hastinapur, and Shakuntala, daughter of the
sage Vishwamitra and the apsara Menaka.

• Vikramorvasiyam is a Sanskrit Drama which depicts the love story of Puruvas a Vedic King and Urvashi. Puruvas is chosen to reflect
the qualitites of Chandragupta Vikramaditya.
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Raghuvamsa is a Sanskrit epic poem that is a long (19 Sargas) narration of genealogy
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King Dileep up to Agnivarna. da
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• Kumarasambhava is an epic poem which has 17 sirgs, out of which only 8 are accepted as his authorship. Kumara or prince is Kartikeya
and it refers to birth of Kartikeya, son of shiva and Parvati after a lot of Tapasya to win Shiva who had already won Kamdeva (God of
Love). Kartikeya later killed Tarakasur demon who was blessed that he would not be killed by any other than son os Shiva and Parvati.

• Ritusamhara is a mini epic poem in Sanskrit which has 6 Sargas. These Sargas refer to 6 seaosns (Ritu) viz, Grisma (Summer) ,
varsha (Rains), Sharad (Autumn), Hemanta (Cool), Sisira (Winter) and Vasantha (Spring). It mentions the feelings, emotions and
experiences of lovers in 6 seasons. Ritusamhara is considered to be the earliest work of Kalidasa.

• Meghaduta means a messenger of Clouds. It‟s a poem with 11 stanzas. The theme of Meghaduta is a Yaksha, who is subject of Lord
Kubera (King of Wealth). His wife is waiting for him at Mount Kalidasa. Kubera at some place in central India exiled the Yaksha and he
wishes to send his message to his wife. For that, he convinces a cloud to take his message and pass it on to his wife. The poem narrates
about the beautiful sights and visual perceptions he would come across while going northwards to take this message to his wife.
• Asvaghoṣa (Circa. 80 – 150 AD) is considered to be the first Sanskrit Dramatist of the world. He was a born Brahmin,
but later turned into a Buddhist Monk. He was the court poet of the Kushana king Kanishka. Asvaghosha wrote in
Classical Sanskrit.

• His work, Buddha Charita is an epic style Sanskrit work. It mainly deals with Buddha's Life.

• Asvaghosa also wrote a Sanskrit Drama “Sariputra Prakaran” which deals about Sariputta or Sariputra the disciple
of Buddha.

• Asvaghosha also wrote the Saundaranandakavya, a kavya poem with the theme of conversion of Nanda,
Buddha‟s half-brother, so that he might reach salvation.
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Abhiras were contemporary and vassals of the Satavahans. a n
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Sudraka has become immortal in the form of three Sanskrit Plays ascribed to him viz. Mricchakatika (The Little
Clay Cart), Vinavasavadatta, and a bhana (short one-act monologue), Padmaprabhritaka.

• Bhasa - He is most probably senior to Kalidasa and is one of the earliest and most celebrated Indian playwrights.

• His most important works are Swapnavasavadattam (This play is around the Vatsa king Udayana and his queen
Vasavadatta, the daughter of Pradyota, the ruler of Avanti), Panch-ratra, Madhyama-vyayoga,
DutaGhattotkacha, Duta-Vakya, Urubhanga, Karna-bhara and Bal Charita.
600 A.D-1200C A.D

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• Q. The significance of Sanskrit language is evident from its use in the fields of epic
poetry and drama in the Indian Culture. Elaborate.

• Sanskrit Language has been the most important medium in lending continuity to Indian
civilization. Sanskrit is one of our classical languages and considered as mother of all
languages.

• In Indian culture, it has been widely used in the Kavyas (epic poetry), the Nataka
(drama), lyric poetry, popular tales, didactic fables, scientific literature on grammar,
medicine, law, astronomy, mathematics, etc.
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• The main purpose of Kavya or Nataka (drama) is toykiraoffer
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the reader or spectator diversion
or entertainment, (Lokaranjana), and also stimulate his feelings, and ultimately give him a
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perspective to illuminate his vision of life.

• Epic poetry/Kavyas: In the Kavya tradition, more care is bestowed on the form, such as
the style, figure of speech, descriptions, etc., and the story-theme is pushed to the
background. Following are the important Kavyas written in Sanskrit language.

• Kalidasa wrote two great epics, Kumarasambhava (the birth of Kumar), and
Raghuvamsa (the dynasty of the Raghus)

• Bharavi wrote Kiratarjuniyam (Kirat and Arjun)

• Magha wrote Sishupalavadha (the killing of Shishupal)

• Drama/Nataka is stylized and is packed with poetry and descriptive prose.
The symbolism of Sanskrit drama reveals that man’s journey is complete when
he moves from attachment to non-attachment, from temporality to eternity. It
is achieved in Sanskrit drama by arousing Rasa (theatrical experience or
aesthetic sentiment) in the minds of the spectators.

• Following are the important Dramas written in Sanskrit language.

• Kalidasa wrote the three plays Malavikagnimitra (Malavika and

Agnimitra), Vikramorvasiya (Vikram and Urvasi) and m
Abhigyana Shakuntala
o
(the recognition of Shakuntala). The rules and @
gmprescriptions regarding
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performance, the theatre hall, acting, gestures,
.ud
a y kir Rasa, stage direction, are
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all given in the first book of dramaturgy, Natyashastra, by Bharata

d
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• The Mricchakatika (the clay-cart) by Sudraka presents a remarkable

social drama with touches of grim reality.

• The 13 plays of Bhasa which were discovered at the beginning of the

20th century, are accepted as the most stagable plays of Sanskrit theatre.
The most popular being Swapnavasavadatta (Vasavadatta in dream)

• Bhavabhuti is well known for his play Uttara-Ramacharitam (the later

life of Rama), which contains a play within it in the last act of a love of
exquisite tenderness.
• Sanskrit Literature in Science and Technology

• Aryabhatta was the legendary mathematician of the Gupta Era.

• He wrote Aryabhattiya and later, Arya-Siddhanta.

• He worked on the approximation for pi to 3.1416.

• Aryabhata is the author Aryabhatiyam which sketches his mathematical, planetary,

and cosmic theories. This book is divided into four chapters:
.co
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• The astronomical constants and the sine table
.ud
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• Mathematics required for computations,

• Division of time and rules for computing the longitudes of planets using eccentrics

• The armillary sphere, rules relating to problems of trigonometry and the

computation of eclipses.

• That Aryabhata was aware of the relativity of motion is clear from this passage in his
book “Just as a man in a boat sees the trees on the bank move in the opposite
direction, so an observer on the equator sees the stationary stars as moving precisely
toward the west."
• Varahamihira - lived in Ujjain and was one of the nine jewels (Navaratnas) of the
court of Chandragupta II.

• He wrote Panchasiddhantaka, the five treatises on astronomy (NOT astrology).

It summarises five earlier astronomical treatises, namely the Surya Siddhanta,
Romaka Siddhanta, Paulisa Siddhanta, Vasishtha Siddhanta and Paitamaha
Siddhantas

• Bhaskaracharya was one of the prominent Indian mathematician and astronomer,

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• In his book he has documented valuable ancient literature and given the
references of many of the instruments used by the astronomers before him.

• Similarly he has documented the various methods for the use of these
instruments.

• Pingala (circa. 5th-2nd century BC) used binary numbers in the form of short and
long syllables (the latter equal in length to two short syllables). This was very much
similar to today's Morse code. Binary repersentation has now become the basis of
information storage in terms of sequences of 0s and 1s in modern-day computers.
• Bhaskara (born 1114), who was from the Karnataka region, was an outstanding
mathematician and astronomer. Amongst his mathematical contributions is the concept of
differentials.

• He was the author of Siddhanta Shiromani, a book in four parts:

• Lilavati on arithmetic
• Bijaganita on algebra
• Ganitadhyaya on astronomy m
co
• Goladhyaya on astronomy
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Bhaskara's epicyclic eccentric theories of planetary motions are more developed than
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in the earlier siddhantas.

• Madhava(c. 1340-1425) developed a procedure to determine the positions of the moon

every 36 minutes.

• He also provided methods to estimate the motions of the planets. He gave power series
expansions for trigonometric functions, and for pi correct to eleven decimal places.
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 Apabhraṃśa in Sanskrit literally means
"corrupt" or "non-grammatical language",
that which deviates from the norm of
Sanskrit grammar.
Apabhraṃśa literature is a valuable
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da It s a term used by vyākaraṇin (native
d y.u
re d grammarians) since Patañjali to refer to
languages spoken in North India before
the rise of the modern languages. In
Indology, it is used as an umbrella term
for the dialects forming the transition
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• Fa-Hien's account on the Gupta
administration provides useful information. He
characterises the Gupta administration as
mild and benevolent. There were no
restrictions on people’s movements and they
enjoyed a large degree of personal freedom.
There was no state interference in the
individual’s life.
• Punishments were not severe. Imposing a fine
was a common punishment.
• There was no spy system. The administration
was so efficient that the roads were kept safe
for travelers, and there was no fear of
thieves.
• He mentioned that people were generally
prosperous and the crimes were negligible.
• Fa-Hien had also appreciated the efficiency of
the Gupta administration as he was able to
travel without any fear throughout the Gangetic
valley.
• On the whole, the administration was more
liberal than that of the Mauryas.
• Hiuen Tsang who travelled in India between 628 A.D.and 645 A.D. during the
reign of Harshavardhana, the last great Hindu Emperor of North India (A.D.
606-647). om
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• Hiuen Tsang gave many gprominent m accounts on administration and society of that
7 @
time: an
kir
◦ The socio-cultural a y life of North India was also characterized by downhill trends.
y .ud
Harsha’s d age was marked by great rigidity in social life. The social
red
mobility had disappeared. The status of women declined sharply during
this period due to the popularity of child marriage and prohibition of
widow remarriage.
◦ He described that the kingdom was well-governed; it was- free from revolts;
there were a few cases of law-breaking; offenders were given physical
punishments and tortured as well to extract the truth from them while the
traitors were given death sentence or turned out of the kingdom.
◦ The burden of taxation was not heavy on the subjects; they were free
from the oppression of the government servants and were, thus, happy. The
state used to record its every activity. He, however, described that travelling
was not very much safe at that time.
◦ The main source of income of the state was land-revenue.
◦ He took note of untouchables as scavengers, executioners etc. According
to him, they lived outside the villages and consumed garlic and onion. The
Untouchables announced their entry into the town or village by shouting loudly,
so that the people might keep away from them.
•
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 INDIAN
LANGUAGES
IN DANGER
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Architecture
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Temple Architecture
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 Temple Architecture
The Nagara Temple Style – Northern India ( Dashavtara temple,
Deogarh, Lakshmana Temple, Khajuraho, etc
In North India it is common for an entire temple to be built on a
stone platform with steps leading up to it.
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Ø Further, unlike in South India it does not usually have elaborate
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boundary walls or gateways. redd
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Ø The garbhagriha is always located directly under the tallest tower.

Ø There are many subdivisions of nagara temples depending on the
shape of the shikhara.

Copyright © 2016 by Vision IAS.

[www.visionias.in] Subject, Topic & Expert
 The most common name for the simple shikhara which is square at the
base and whose walls curve or slope inward to a point on top is called
the 'latina' or the rekha-prasada type of shikara.

Ø The second major type of architectural form in the nagara order is the
phamsana. Phamsana buildings tend to be broader and shorter than latina
ones. Their roofs are composed of several slabs that gently rise to a
single point over the centre of the building. Phamsana roofs do not curve
inward, instead they slope upwards on a straight incline. Ø Mostly the
phamsana design is used for the mandapas while the main garbhagriha a il.c
om is
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housed in a latina building. 7@
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Ø The third main sub-type of the nagara building is what
red
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.
is generally
called the valabhi type. These are rectangular buildings with a roof that
rises into a vaulted chamber

Copyright © 2016 by Vision IAS.

[www.visionias.in] Subject, Topic & Expert
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HINDU TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

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DIFFERENCES - NAGARA AND DRAVIDA TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

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Pallavas

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• The images of deer, monkey, cat, mouse and other animals are beautifully
carved on this huge rock.
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Vijayanagar Temple Architecture

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DONEC QUIS NUNC

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DONEC QUIS NUNC

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DONEC QUIS NUNC

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• Kalinga temple style is broadly classified into three main categories,
namely Rekha, Pidha and Khakhara.

• Rekha-deul (temple) is distinguished with its square plan topped with a curvilinear tower.

• A Pidha-deul, also referred as Bhadra deul, also has a square plan topped with a pyramidal
tower composed of horizontal tiers arranged in receding manner.
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• A Khakhara deul is surmounted with a barrel-shaped (vault-shape)
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• Most of the Kalinga temples fall under the Rekha category. Very few temples depict Khakhara
style, usually these temples are dedicated to a form of Devi. Pidha-style is usually used for
jagamohanas but not for the main deul.
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 Chalukayas of Badami (Vatapi) ruled Karnataka region around 7th century AD. They were
followed by Western Chalukyas (Kalyani Chalukyas) by around 11th century AD.
The Chalukya temples are noticeable for three basic plans. They are :
1. Design of the floor
2. Projection of architectural articulation
3. Sculpture.

Design of the floor

It indicates the plan of salla, subsidiary shrines, their plan, design of pradakshina path. The structure
and architecture of a temple depends on these plans.
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Various designs like miniature towers, projection of pilasters come under this head. The temple
surfaces follow a distinctive architectural design with projections and recesses. The walls portrays
 frequent projections and recesses that reflect a very magical beauty in the eyes of the viewers. The
articulation of pillars and mantapas are beyond description.

The noticeable aspect is that though ornamentation of Chalukya temples bears elements of Nagara
and Dravidian tradition but they have combined the elements in so prudent way that they become
unique and distinctive feature of their own.
The Vesara style also called the Chalukyan type possessed the Dravidian vimana and the Nagara- type faceted
walls.

Influence of Nagara tradition

1. The plan of shrine, subsidiary shrine, panchayatan style bears similarity to Nagara school.
2. The plan of vestibule joining the sanctum to mantapa bears resemblance to orissan temples.
3. The most of the temple pillars in Karnataka region bears similarity to sekhari and bhumija type of pillars in northern india.
4. The stepped diamond plan that is a plan of design arrangement as seen in Chalukya temples is from northern region.
5. The most of the temples in kalyani portrays Nagara articulation projecting stepped diamond or stellate plan.

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The Dravida influence is mainly visible in vimana of the Chalukya temples
n 7 @ in first part of the Chalukya rule.
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Combination of Nagara and Dravida style re

1. Vesara sikhar or kadamba sikhara: It is a shikhara of Chalukya temple showing northern shikhara shikhara and
southern vimana features.
2. Ornamentation: Miniature decorative towers and ornamentation of walls in Chalukya temples show combination of both
Nagara and Dravida style.

Special departure from Nagara and Dravida tradition: In case of entrance hall to shrine Chalukya temple bears special
uniqueness. It has two or more than two entrances while
• There is a small closed mantapa to the shrine in Nagara temples.
• There is an enlarged, open and closed mantapa in Dravida temples.
 Own distinctive features
Ornamentation : In case of ornamentation of temple walls and pillars, Chalukya
temple shows indigenous quality.

Transformation of Dravida tower : The Chalukya builders modified the Dravida

towers by minimizing the height of each storey and arranging them in
descending order of height from base to top with much ornamentation in each
storey.

Transformation of Nagara tower : Instead of inclined storey here modification

is seen in the vertical shape of the tower.
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Two special features of Chalukya temples
re – Mantapa and Pillars : 

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Mantapa : The mantapa has two types of roof – domical ceilings (the
dome like ceilings standing on four pillars are very attractive) or  Square
ceilings (these are vigorously ornamented with mythological pictures).

Pillars : As mentioned earlier, the miniature decorative pillars of

Chalukya temples stands with its own artistic value.
Characteristics of temple architecture of Chalukya
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1. The pillars of Chalukya temple are monolithic shaft whose height determines the height of mantapa
and temples.
2. Chalukya architects did not use mortar. It allows ventilation of light to the innermost part of the
temples.
3. The vestibules were ornamented with artificial lights which eliminated darkness as well as added some
kind of mystic feelings.
4. The doorway panels of Chalukya temples are highly decorated that consist of pilaster, moulded
lintel, cornice top.
5. Arabesque is a muslim art design bearing linear artistic decoration with pattern of flower, leaves,
branches or twisted branches. This design is seen in triangular aspaces om of domicile ceilings.
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6. Chhajja, a double curved projective eave, is generally seen 7 @ in Chalukyan temples. Muktesvara
an
temple is an example of it. y kir
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7. Cornice is used in Chalukya temple for downward movement
red of rainwater or to save from scorching
heat.
8. Use of soapstone for projection in walls carvings is common feature in Chalukya temples.
9. The Chalukya temples are mainly dedicated to different hindu deities like durga, shiva, vishnu etc.
10.Chalukya architecture has both cave temples design and structured temple design.
11.Chalukya architects used stellate plan or northern stepped diamond plan for architectural design.
12.The decorative pillars with its intricate design of western Chalukya architecture is also known to
gadag style of architecture.
13.The Karnata Dravida tradition of architecture initiated by Chalukya of Badami get matured under the
hand of Hoysala. The broken ornamentation of walls with projection and recesses was followed by
Hoysala artist. Chalukya architecture is also called the precursor of Hoysala art.
Hoysalas Temple Architecture

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DONEC QUIS NUNC

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• Lessons for contemporary water concerns:
• Exclusive construction of canals/waterways for flood season like done during Indus
Valley civilisation.
• Prevention of clogging of water during monsoons and need for efficient sewerage
system esp in cities as in Indus Valley civilisation.
• Diversion of water into fields in villages from water surplus areas to dry agricultural
patches: The Veda mentions well-style irrigation, where Kupa and avata wells once
dug are stated to be always full of water, from which varatra (rope m
strap)
o
and cakra (wheel) pull kosa(pails) of water. This water was, state the Vedas, led
c
ail.
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into surmi susira(broad channels) and from there ay
k i ran into khanitrima (diverting
.ud
channels) into fields. red
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• Recharge of water in hilly areas and where ground water is receding eg Zing, Zabo,
tank irrigation systems.
• Serve as economical and viable systems eg Johads, talabs/pokhariyan.
• In Tamil Nadu, the Grand Anicut (canal) across the Kaveri river was implemented in
the 3rd century CE, and the basic design is still used today.
•
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DONEC QUIS NUNC

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DONEC QUIS NUNC

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JAINA ARCHITECTURE

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JAIN TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

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BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE

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MEGALITH CULTURE

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 il.co
m INDO-ISLAMIC
ma

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ARCHITECTURE
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 ARABESQUE

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 NEO-CLASSICAL

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NEO-GOTHIC
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THANKS

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