INSIDE THE CITY

The structure (erected), patterns (outline), and spatial (space) interactions of

systems of cities make up only half the story of urban settlements. The other half
involves the distinctive cultural landscapes that are the cities themselves. An
Understanding of the nature of the cities is incomplete without knowledge of their
internal characteristics. So far, we have explored the location, size, and growth and
decline tendencies of cities within hierarchical urban systems. Now we look into the
city itself in order to better understand how land uses are distributed, how social
areas are formed, and how institutional controls, such as zoning regulations, affect
its structure. This discussion will primarily relate to cities in the U.S., although most
cities of the world have been formed in a somewhat similar manner.

It is common observation that a recurring pattern of land-use arrangements

and population densities exists within urban areas. There is certain sameness to the
way cities are internally organized, especially within one particular culture sphere like
North America or Western Europe. The major variables responsible for shaping
internal-land use patterns are: accessibility, controls on the market in land, and the
transportation technologies available during the periods of urban growth. These
variables will be discussed together in the following sections.

Institutional Control - means a legal or administrative action or requirement

imposed on the Property to minimize the potential for human exposure to
Contamination or to protect the integrity of Remediation. Examples include deed
notices, deed restrictions, and long-term site monitoring or site security
requirements.

THE COMPETITIVE BIDDING FOR LAND

For its effective operation, the city requires close spatial association of its
functions and people. As long as these functions were few and the population small,
pedestrian movement and pack-animal haulage were sufficient for the effective
integration of the urban community. With the addition of large – scale
manufacturing and the accelerated urbanization of the economy during the 19 th
century, however, functions and populations – and therefore city area-grew beyond
the interaction capabilities of pedestrian movement alone. Increasingly efficient and
costly, mass –transit systems were installed. Even with their introduction, however,
only land within walking distance of mass –transit routes or terminals could
successfully be incorporated into the expanding urban structure.

Usable land, therefore, was a scarce commodity, and by its scarcity, it

assumed high market value and demanded intensive, high – density utilization.
Because of its limited supply of usable land, the industrial city of the mass –transit
era was compact, was characterized by high residential and structural densities, and
showed a sharp break on its margins, between urban and nonurban uses. The older
central cities of, particularly, the northeastern US and southeastern Canada were of
that vintage (classic) and pattern.

Within the city, parcels of land were allocated among alternate potential users
on the basis of the relative ability of those users to outbid their competitors for a
chosen site. There was, in gross generalization, a continuous open auction in land in
which users would locate, relocate, or be displaced in accordance with “rent-paying”
ability. The attractiveness of a parcel, and therefore the price that it could command,
was a function of its accessibility. Ideally, the most desirable and efficient location
for all of the functions and the people of a city would be at a single point at which
the maximum possible interchange could be achieved. Such total coalescence
(union, combination) of activity is obviously impossible.

Because uses must therefore arrange themselves spatially, the attractiveness

of a parcel is rated by its relative accessibility to all other Land uses of the city. Store
owners wish to locate where they can easily be reached by potential customers;
factories need a convenient assembly of their workers and materials; residents
desire easy connection with the jobs, stores, and schools; and so forth. Within the
older central city, the radiating mass-transit lines established the elements of the
urban land use structure by freezing in the landscape a clear cut pattern of
differential accessibility. The convergence of that system on the city core gave that
location the highest accessibility, the highest desirability, and hence, the highest
land values of the entire built up area. Similarly, transit junction points were more
accessible to larger segments of the city than locations along single traffic routes.
The latter were more desirable than parcels lying between the radiating lines (figure
12. 18)
Society deems certain functions desirable without regard to their economic
competitiveness. Schools, parks, and public buildings are assigned space without
being participants in the auction for land. Other uses, through the process of that
auction, are assigned spaces by market forces. The merchants with the highest-
order goods and the largest threshold requirements bid most for, and occupy,
parcels within the central business district (CBD), which is localized at the
convergence of mass-transit lines. The successful bidders for slightly less accessible
CBD parcels are developers of the tall office buildings (skyscrapers) of major cities,
the principal hotels, and similar land uses that help to produce the skyline of the
commercial city. Table 12.3 lists of the world’s tallest office buildings. Comparable,
but lower-order, commercial aggregations develop at the outlying intersections –
transfer points – of the mass transit system. Industry takes control of parcels
adjacent to essential cargo routes: rail lines, waterfronts, rivers, or canals. Strings of
stores, light industries, and high – density apartment structures can afford and
benefit from location along high-volume transit routes. The accessible locations
within the city are left for the least-competitive users: low density residencies. A
diagrammatic summary of this repetitive allocation of space among competitors for
urban sites is shown in figure 12.19. Compare it to the generalized land- use map of
Calgary, Alberta, Canada (figure 12.20)
LAND VALUES AND POPULATION DENSITY

The open land auction (sale by bidding) should yield two separate although
related, distance-decay patterns, one related to land values and the other to
population density ( as distance increases away from the CBD, population density
decreases). If one views the land value surface of the central city as a topographic
map (12.21), with hills representing high valuation and depressions showing low
prices, a series of peaks (mountain top), ridges (a long narrow hill top) and valleys
(low lying land along river) would reflect the differentials in accessibility marked by
the pattern of mass-transit lines, their intersections, and the un served interstitial
areas (interstate) Dominating these local variations, however, there is an overall
decline of valuations (appraisal of cost) with increasing distance away from the peak
value intersection, the most accessible and costly parcel of the CBD. As would be
expected in a distance-decay pattern, the drop in valuation is precipitous (acting too
quickly) within a short linear (relating straight line) distance from that point, and
then the valuation declines at a lesser rate to the margins of that build up area.
With one important variation, the population density pattern of the central
city shows a comparable distance decay arrangement, as suggested by figure 12.22.
The exception is the tendency to form a hollow at the center, the CBD, which
represents the inability of all but the most costly apartments houses to compete for
space against alternative occupants desiring supremely accessible parcels. Yet
accessibility is attractive to a number of residential users and brings its penalty in
high land prices. The result is the high density residential occupancy of parcels near
the center of the city – by those who are too poor to afford a long – distance
journey to work; are consigned (entrust) by their poverty to the high density,
obsolescent (becoming obsolete) slum tenements (urban apartment bldg.) near the
heart of the inner city; or are self-selected occupants of the high density, high rent
apartments made necessary by the price of land. Other urbanites (city dweller) if
financially able, may opt to trade off higher commuting costs for lower-priced land
and may reside on larger parcels away from high accessibility, high congestion
locations. Residential density declines with increasing distance from the city center
as this option is exercised.
As a city grows in population, the peak densities no longer increase, and the
pattern of population distribution becomes more uniform. Secondary centers begin
to compete with CBD for customers and industry, and the residential areas become
less associated with the city center and more dependent on high-speed
transportation arteries. Peak densities in the inner city decline, and peripheral areas
increase in population concentration.

LAND VALUE

Is the value of piece of property including both the value of the land itself as
well as any improvements that have been made to it. This is not to be confused with
site value, which is reasonable value of the land assuming that there are no leases,
mortgages or anything else present that would otherwise change the site’s value.
Land values increase when demand for land exceeds the supply of available land or
if a particular piece of land has intrinsic value (the difference between the price per
share for which an option maybe purchased or sold and the market value of the
asset) greater than neighboring areas (eq. oil can be found on the land)
Property owners use land value to determine how much to charge other
parties for its use. For example, an individual who rents out several acres of
farmland to ranchers for grazing cattle will determine an amount to charge by
looking at the market value of the land compared to land taxes and capitalization
rate.
Land value may be determined by real estate appraisals conducted by third
parties. An appraiser’s assessment can be crucial to a lender’s decisions on offering
to finance a prospective buyer or refinancing for a property holder. Appraisal of the
land can include a comparison of its condition to similar real estate. This is not the
same as comparative market analysis, wherein the prices of recently sold similar
properties are compared. The position and location of the land can have a direct
influence on its value. For example, a remote parcel of land may have limited value
because it does not have access to amenities, utilities, transportation or other
resources that could make the property useful. The value of the land might increase
if the property is located near a popular destination such as a city, entertainment
venue, or services that are in demand.

POPULATION DENSITY

Is a measurement of population per unit area or exceptionally unit volume, it

is a quantity of type number density. It is frequently applied to living organism, most
of the time to Humans. It is a key geographical term, In simple terms, population
density refers to number of people living in an area per square KM.
It is also a population divided by total land area or water volume. Low
densities may cause extension vortex and lead to further reduced fertility. This is
called Alee effect after the scientist who identified it. Examples of the reduced
fertility in low population densities are: 1. Increased problem with locating sexual
mates 2. Increased inbreeding (mating with closely)

Philippine population density increases from 308 to 337 persons per square
kilometer. With a total land area of approximately 300,000 square kilometers, the
population density of the Philippines in 2015 was posted at 337 persons per square
km. This represents an increase of 29 persons per square Km (9.4 persent) from the
population density of 308 person per square KM in 2010. In 2000, there were 255
persons residing in every square Km. of land.

ZONING

The act or process of partitioning a city, town, or borough (district of city)

into zones reserved for different purposes (such as residence or business).
 The separation or division of a municipality into districts, the regulation of
buildings and structures in such districts in accordance with their construction and
the nature and extent of their use, and the dedication of such districts to particular
uses designed to serve the General Welfare.
The regulation of the use of the real property by local government restricts a
particular territory to residential, commercial, industrial, or other uses. The local
governing body considers the character of the property as well as its fitness for
particular uses. It must enact he regulations in accordance with a well – considered
and comprehensive plan intended to avoid arbitrary exercise of government power.
A comprehensive plan is a general design to control the use of properties in the
entire municipality, or at least in a large portion of it. Individual pieces of property
should not be singled out for a special treatment. For example, one or two lots may
not be placed in a separate zone and subjected to restrictions that do not apply to
similar adjoining lands.

MODELS OF URBAN FORM

Generalized models – simplified graphic summaries f urban growth and land use
patterns were proposed during the 1920s and 1930s. While such models generalize
what admittedly is a tremendous degree of variation in cities, they also help us
understand some regularities in urban shape. More recently, urban geographers
have begun to employ models that help us better understand a decentralized city.

The common starting point of the classic models is the distinctive central business
district founds in every older central city. The core of this area displays intensive
land use development: tall buildings, many stores and offices, and crowded streets.
Framing the core is a fringe area of warehousing, transportation terminals, and light
industries ( as long as they require few raw materials and pollute very little). Just
beyond the urban core, residential land uses begin.

BURGESS MODEL OR CONCENTRIC ZONE MODEL

Burgess model or concentric zone model – urban land use model Ernest
Burgess gave a model to define how different social groups are located in a
metropolitan area. Burgess model is one of the well known and widely studied model
in urban planning. Social groups based on the socio-economic status of households
and distance from central area or downtown. This model is known as the
concentric zone model because the different locations were defined in the form of
rings around the core urban area around which city grew. Burgess Model is
another name for this model (given after the name of Ernest Burgess).
Concentric Zone Model or CCD model was developed between 1925 and 1929 based
on the study of American cities. Chicago city was studied for which Burgess provided
empirical evidence. Urban geography and human geography covers number of such
models which were introduced in last few centuries. This was one of the many
models such as Hoyt Model or Sector Model, Multiple Nuclei Model, Central Place
Theory etc studied under settlement geography

Different zone in the Burgess Model or Concentric Zone Model

Various researchers and scholars have debated over the number of zones
(concentric circles) in the Burgess concentric zone model. Some consider them to be
five whereas some consider 6 zones to explain this urban land use model. The
center is the oldest part of the city around which the city expands over time, and the
newest development comes on the edges. Some people also refer this model as
concentric circle theory because of the arrangements in form of circles. These circles
are often referred to as rings by a few. Related: Primate City & Primacy |
Relationship between city sizes
 Zone I (Central Business District)

This is the center (innermost zone) where the central business district is
located and has highest land value. The zone has tertiary activities and earns
maximum economic returns. Another feature is the accessibility of the area because
of the convergence and passing of transport networks through this part from
surrounding and even far places in the city. This part has tall buildings and
noticeably high density to maximize the returns from land. Commercial activity
taking place in the area results in negligible residential activity in this zone.

Zone II (Transition Zone)

The mixed residential and commercial use characterizes this zone. This is
located adjacent and around the CBD and is continuously changing, i.e. transition
takes place. Another feature is the range of activities taking place like mixed land
use, car parking, cafe, old buildings. This zone of transition is considered to “decay”
because of a large number of old structures as the buildings in transition zone were
earlier used for factories and tenement housing blocks. This zone had a high
population density when industrial activities were at their peak. Those residing in
this zone were of the poorest segment and had the lowest housing condition.

Related: Central Place Theory (CPT) by Walter Christaller (1933)

Zone III (Inner City/ Working Class zone)

This area is occupied for residential purpose and also known as “inner city” or
“inner suburbs.” It consisted of houses built to accommodate factory workers but
had better condition than the transition zone. This area has a mix of new and old
development and generally requires orderly redevelopment. People living in this zone
are second generation immigrants as many moves out of the transition zone to this
zone whenever affordable. This zone is nearest to the working area with modest
living conditions, and this resulted in reduced commuting cost. Another interesting
feature includes the large rental housing occupied by single workers.

Zone IV (Outer Suburbs/ White Collar Homes)  

This zone had bigger houses and new development occupied by the middle
class. Many of the homes are detached, and unlike single occupants of inner
suburbs, families resided in these homes. Better facilities are available to the
residents like parks, open spaces, shops, large gardens but this comes at an
increased commuting cost. This zone has a large area of residential land. People
living in this outer ring look for better quality of life.

Zone V (Commuter Zone) 

This is the peripheral area and farthest from the CBD, this resulted in highest
commuting cost when compared with other zones. Significant commuting cost gave
the name “commuter zone” to this part. People living in this part were high-income
groups which could afford large houses, could pay commuting charges, had access
to different transportation mode, enjoy modern facilities like shopping malls. Low
rise development, large gardens, less population density are some of the
characteristics of this zone. This zone offered the highest quality of life and facilities
but at a cost of higher commuting cost.

The rationale behind concentric zone theory

The Burgess model takes into account the positive correlation between
economic status and distance from downtown. This is sometimes also referred to as
concentric zone model or simply concentric model or concentric theory. This
considers, better the economic status more the distance from the central area. The
central area has high density, and the availability of land is scarce. Because of this
more affluent segment of the society reside away from the city center where they
can build large houses. Burgess described the changing spatial patterns of
residential areas as a process of “invasion” and “succession”. As the city grew and
developed over time, the CBD would exert pressure on the surrounding zone (the
zone of transition). Outward expansion of the CBD would invade nearby residential
neighborhoods causing them to expand outward. The process continues with each
successive neighborhood moving further from the CBD. His work included the study
of bid rent curves according to which the land with the highest rent was occupied
with economic activities of highest returns. Zone of transitions are important part of
the burgess model as they are very active and change of people & activities takes
place constantly.

Related: Rural-urban continuum and causes of rural-urban continuum,

Galactic City Model

Limitations and Criticisms of Concentric zone model

Concentric zone model is one of the simplest model available. This model
accounts for the economic forces which drive development and the study of patterns
present at the time of the study. But with the evolution and passage of time urban
areas grew more complex and this model cannot define the development of existing
cities. Some of the limitations and criticism include:

 Although widely appreciated in the United States Burgess model is not

applicable outside the US. This is so, as the pattern of growth is different
because of various circumstances.
 The relevance of this model decreased over time. With the advancement in
the mode of transportation, mass transit vehicles, motor vehicles, cars
changed the way people commute. Accordingly, their preference for living in a
particular zone changed.
 It does not take into account the effect of political forces and the restrictions
imposed by the government for the improvement of living conditions.
 In reality, no distinct zones and boundaries exist as overlapping of areas is
possible in every town. The preference of people changes over time
depending on the importance they associate for a particular benefit.
 This model is not applicable to polycentric cities as many CDB exists in such
towns. Moreover, every city is different, and the factors influencing the
growth of a city are diverse.

Hoyt Model or Sector Model (1939) of Urban Land Use by Homer Hoyt

Urban areas have always been an area of research and caught the attention
of scholars and academicians. Homer Hoyt gave sector model which is also known as
Hoyt model in 1939 explains how cities grew. As we witness the population growth it
is becoming more and more essential to understand how cities work. Studies on
patterns of urban growth, settlement geography, and land use are of great interest
to the concerned people. Various theories and models have been proposed which
attempts to explain how the growth took place and how different groups & activities
are arranged in an urban area. Different models about the growth of urban regions
include rank-size rule, primate city & primacy, central place theory, Multiple Nuclei
Model, Burgess Model.

Related: Primate City & Primacy | Relationship between city sizes

 Hoyt Model is somewhat similar to Burgess Model and is often considered as
its improved version. Hoyt argued that cities do not develop in the form of simple
rings, instead, they have “sectors.” Homer Hoyt in 1939 suggested that few activities
grow in the form of sectors which radiates out along the main travel links. Activities
in a sector are considered to be the same throughout the sector because of the
purpose/function it serves. Land use within each sector would remain the same
because like attracts like. The high-class sector would stay high-class because it
would be the most sought after area to live, so only the rich could afford to live
there. The industrial sector would remain industrial as the area would have a typical
advantage of a railway line or river. These sectors can be housing, industrial
activities, etc. These sectors grow along railway lines, highways or rivers.

Components of Hoyt Model

CBD – Central Business District is placed at the center. Sectors and the partial rings
of land use/activities take place. This area is often known as downtown and has high
rise buildings. Inner city area or downtown area is a complex and dynamic organism.
It represents many layers of historic growth of many generations impact of cultural
and traditions of men who inhabited the city as tourists. The combinations of these
layers and the way they are held together in the city gives imageability, out of its
socio-cultural heritage. As the cities expands and modern technology and scientific
innovations transformed the  style of living and also the  structure of the city, open
spaces were being eaten up by built forms resulting in congested and unhealthy
environment.

Industry – Industries are represented in the form of a sector radiating out from the
center. These forms sector because of the presence of a transport linkage along
which the activities grew. Presence of railway line, river or road would attract similar
activity, and thus a continuous corridor or “sector” will develop.

Apart from the industries this area also serves as a residential area for lower class
workers. Living conditions are bad because of proximity to industries.

Related: Central Place Theory (CPT) by Walter Christaller (1933)

Low-Class Residential

Low-income groups reside in this area. Narrow roads, high population density, small
houses with poor ventilation exist in this area. Roads are narrow and often connects
to the industries where most of the people in this sector work. Closeness to
industries reduces the travel cost and thus attracts industrial workers. Environmental
and living conditions are often inadequate because of the proximity to factories.

Middle-Class Residential

This area has middle income groups who can afford more substantial travel cost and
want better living conditions. The activities of people residing in this area consist of
different activities and not just the industrial work. It has more linkages with CBD
along with some linkages to industries. This area has the most significant residential
area.

High Class residential

This is the outermost and farthest area from the downtown. Wealthy and affluent
people live in this area. This area is clean, has less traffic, quiet and has large
houses. Corridor or spine extending from CBD to the edge has the best housing.

The significance of Hoyt Model 

 Ecological factors + economic rent concept to explain the land use pattern
 Stress on the role of transport routes in affecting the spatial arrangement of
the city
 Both the distance and direction of growth from the city center are considered
 Brings location of industrial and environmental amenity values as
determinants in a residential place
 Example: Sectors of high-class residential areas tend to grow towards higher
grounds, sites with a better view, more open space, the homes of influential
leaders within the community and existing outlying, smaller settlements.

Limitations of Sector Model 

 Only Railway lines are considered for the growth of sectors and do not make
allowances for private cars.
 It is a monocentric representation of cities; multiple business centers are not
accounted for in this model.
 Physical features – physical features may restrict or direct growth along
specific wedges
 No reference to out of town development

Features of sector model

 Presence of low-income groups near industries supports Hoyt Model

  The Hoyt model realized that transportation (in particular) and access to
resources caused a disruption of the Burgess model.
 Transport linkages profoundly influence activities and their locations. Low
transportation cost and proximity to roads/railway reduce the cost of
production.
 This model applies well to Chicago
 Account for major transportation routes and its effect on activities

MULTIPLE NUCLEI MODEL of 1945 by C.D. Harris and Edward L. Ullman

Multiple Nuclei Model Harris and Edward Ullman of 1945

Multiple nuclei model of 1945 by C.D. Harris and Edward L. Ullman is based on
the argument that the cities have multiple growth points or “nuclei” around which
growth take place. This model was given in an article by them “The Nature of
Cities.” This is one of the widely adopted models which was applicable to modern
cities unlike older models studied under settlement geography

Concept and need for Multiple Nuclei Model

This model is based on the structure of Chicago just like the Burgess model or
Concentric zone model of 1925. It can be considered as an attempt to explain the
structure of the city taking into account the complexity and growth over time. Harris
and Ullman argued that a city might start with a single central business district
(CBD), but over the time the activities scatter and gets modified. The scattered
activities attract people from surrounding areas and act as smaller nuclei in itself.
These small nuclei gain importance and grow in size and start influencing the growth
of activities around them.

Multiple nuclei model 3 dimensional view

The need for this model was to provide a more realistic explanation of the
cities. The influence of cars on personal travel and greater movement of goods
offered opportunity in different places instead of concentrating all economic activities
in one place. People started optimizing their business for maximum profit by locating
at a different place and bringing down their rent with a slight increase in
transportation cost. Whereas some activities like industrial areas create pollution and
are thus preferred to be located away from residential areas. This model is
considered to be more suitable for cities which are large and expanding.

Activities listed under the model

The activities listed in the model can be considered as independent zones which
influences activities around them. These are also formed because of their
dependence on one another when such activities are located in proximity a “nuclei”
is said to be developed.

1. Central business district

2. Light manufacturing
3. Low-class residential
4. Middle-class residential
5. Upper-class residential
6. Heavy manufacturing
7. Outlying business district
8. Residential suburb
9. Industrial suburb

Assumptions for Multiple Nuclei Model

The land is not flat 

This provides a more practical application of the multiple nuclei model and is
an improvement over the Burgess model. It is difficult to find flat land for big cities,
and the terrain features affects the activities, development, and direction of growth
of an urban area.

Even distribution of resources

Resources are evenly distributed within the city,  no one enjoys privileges or
have exclusive access to resources.

Even distribution of people in Residential areas

People are distributed homogeneously and not concentrated in a particular area or pocket. This is
essential as an unevenly distributed population has a direct impact on markets.

Even transportation cost

Transportation cost is even in the city and not influenced by location.

Profit maximization –

A particular activity will locate itself where maximum profit can be earned. For
this, a different combination of rent, transportation costs, labor cost,  proximity to
market may be tried, and the combination which yields the best result gives the final
location for the activity. This location also takes into account the restrictions over the
activity and the need to be separated from other non compatible activities such as
locating residential areas away from industrial, locating large industries with more
accessibility to reduce transportation cost and to ease the movement of goods.

Multiple nuclei model

Limitations and criticism of the Harris & Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model

Multiple nuclei model was considered much better than the previous simple
models which attempted to explain the structure of urban areas. However, this
model also had its limitations and could not be applied to many cities and did not
entirely explain the structure of urban areas. Formation of well-defined zones or
“nuclei” required the considerable size of the city as the small or new towns do not
have a very well defined location because of which they are usually
scattered. Another drawback is the limited activities which are considered in the
model along with the very rigid and specific boundaries of the activities. Some other
disadvantages include:

 Negligence of the height of buildings.

 Non-existence of abrupt divisions between zones.
 Each zone displays a significant degree of internal heterogeneity and not
homogeneity.
 Unawareness of inertia forces.
 No consideration of the influence of physical relief and government policy.
 The concepts may not apply to Asian cities with different cultural, economic
and political backgrounds.
 SOCIAL AREAS OF SOCIETIES
Although too simplistic to be fully satisfactory, these classical models of
American City structure receive some confirmation from modern interpretations of
social segregation within urban areas. The more complex cities are economically and
socially, the stronger is the tendency for city residents to segregate themselves into
groups based on social status, family status and ethnicity. In a large metropolitan
region, this territorial behavior maybe a defense against the unknown or the
unwanted. Most people feel more secure when they are near those with whom they
can easily identify. In traditional societies, these groups are the families of tribes. In
modern society, people group according to income or occupation(social status); and
language or race ( ethnic characteristics). Many of these groupings are fostered by
the size and the value of the available housing. Land developers, especially in cities,
produce homes of similar quality in specific areas. Of course, as time elapses, there
is a change in the quality of houses, and new groups may replace old groups. In any
case, neighborhoods of similar social characteristics evolve.

SOCIAL STATUS
The social status of an individual of a family is determined by income, education,
occupation, and home value. In the United States, high income, a college education,
a professional or managerial position, and high home value can mean an expensive
rented apartment as well as a large house with extensive grounds.

A good housing indicator of social status is persons per room. A low number of
persons per room tends to indicate high status. Low status characterize people with
low income jobs living in low value housing. There are many levels of status, and
people tend to filter out into neighborhoods where most of the heads of households
area of similar rank.

In most cities, people of similar social status are grouped in sectors whose points are
in the innermost urban residential areas. The pattern in Chicago Illustrated in figure
11.20. If the number of people within a given social group increases, they tend to
move away from central city along an arterial connecting them with the old
neighborhood. Major transport routes leading to the city center are the usual
migration routes from the center. Social status patterning agrees with sector theory.

FAMILY STATUS

As the distance from the origin of each sector increases, the average age of the
head of the household declines,or the size of the family increases, or both. Within a
particular sector – say, that of high status – older people whose children do not live
with them or young professionals without families tend to live close to the city
center. Between these are the older families wholived at the outskirts of the city in
an earlier oeriod. The young families seek space for child rearing, and people covet
more the accessibility to the cultural and business life of the city. Where inner city
life is unpleasant, there is a tendency for older people to migrate to the suburbs or
to retirement communities. Within the lower status sector, the same pattern tends to
emerge. Transients and single people are housed in the inner city, and families, if
they find it possible or desirable, live farther from the center. The arrangement that
emerges is a concentric (with common center line) circle patterning according to
family status.

ETHNICITY

For some groups ethnicity is more important residential locational determinant

than social or family status. Areas of homogenous ethnic identification appear in the
social geography of the cities as separate clusters or nuclei, reminiscent of the
multiple nuclei concept of urban structure. For some ethnic groups, cultural
segregation is both sought and vigorously (energetic) defended, even in the face of
pressures for neighborhood change exerted vy potential competitors for housing
space. The durability “ little Italy’s “ and Chinatown’s, and the Polish, Greek,
Armenian, and other ethnic neighborhoods in many American cities is evidence of
the persistence (determination) of self maintained segregation.

Certain ethnic or racial groups, especially blacks, have had segregation in

nuclear communities force on them. Every city has one or more black areas, which in
many respects maybe considered cities within a city. Figure 11.21 illustrates the
concentration of blacks and Puerto Ricans in certain portions of Brooklyn, New York.
The barriers to movement outside the area have always been high> Whites have
consistently blocked blacks from gaining social status that would allow them a
greater choice in neighborhood selection. In most American Cities, the poorest
residents are the blacks, who are relegated to the lower quality housing in the least
desirable areas of the city. Similar restrictions have been placed on Hispanics and
other Non – English- speaking minorities.

Of the three patterns, family status has undergone the most widespread
change in recent years. Today, the suburbs house large numbers of singles and
childless couples, and areas near the central business district have become popular
for young professionals (see gentrification). Much of this is a result of changes in
family structure and the advent of the large numbers of new jobs for the
professionals in the suburbs and the CBD, but not in between
By: Amanda Briney
Updated January 23, 2020

Gentrification

is defined as the process by which wealthier (mostly middle-income) people

move into, renovate, and restore housing and sometimes businesses in inner cities
or other deteriorated areas formerly home to poorer people.

As such, gentrification affects an area's demographics because this increase in

middle-income individuals and families often results in an overall decline in racial
minorities. Additionally, household size decreases because low-income families are
replaced by young single people and couples desiring to be closer to their jobs and
activities in the urban core.

The real estate market also changes when gentrification occurs because
increases in rents and home prices increase evictions. Once this happens rental units
are often switched to condominiums or luxury housing available for purchase. As real
estate changes, land use is also altered. Prior to gentrification these areas usually
consist of low-income housing and sometimes light industry. After, there is still
housing but it is usually high end, along with offices, retail, restaurants, and other
forms of entertainment.

Finally, because of these changes, gentrification significantly affects an area’s

culture and character, making gentrification a controversial process.
History and Causes of Gentrification

Since Glass came up with the term, there have been numerous attempts to
explain why gentrification occurs. Some of the earliest attempts to explain it are
through the production- and consumption-side theories.

Production-side theory is associated with a geographer, Neil Smith, who

explains gentrification based on the relationship between money and production.
Smith said that low rents in suburban areas after World War II led to a movement of
capital into those areas as opposed to inner cities. As a result, urban areas were
abandoned and land value there decreased while land value in the suburbs
increased. Smith then came up with his rent-gap theory and used it to explain the
process of gentrification.

The rent-gap theory itself describes the inequality between the price of land
at its current use and the potential price a piece of land could attain under a “higher
and better use.” Using his theory, Smith argued that when the rent-gap was large
enough, developers would see the potential profit in redeveloping inner-city areas.
The profit attained by redevelopment in these areas closes the rent-gap, leading to
higher rents, leases, and mortgages. Thus, the increase in profits associated with
Smith’s theory leads to gentrification.

The consumption-side theory, professed by geographer David Ley, looks at

the characteristics of people performing gentrification and what they consume as
opposed to the market to explain gentrification. It is said that these people perform
advanced services (for example they are doctors and/or lawyers), enjoy arts and
leisure, and demand amenities and are concerned with aesthetics in their cities.
Gentrification allows such changes to occur and caters to this population.

The Process of Gentrification

Over time, these urban pioneers help to redevelop and “fix-up” run down areas.
After doing so, prices go up and the lower income people present there are priced
out and replaced with middle and upper-income people. These people then demand
greater amenities and housing stock and businesses change to cater to them, again
raising prices. These rising prices then force out the remaining population of lower
income people and more middle and upper-income people are attracted,
perpetuating the cycle of gentrification.

Costs and Benefits of Gentrification

The largest criticism of gentrification though is its displacement of the redeveloped

area’s original inhabitants. Since gentrified areas are often in the run-down urban
core, lower-income residents are eventually priced out and are sometimes left with
no place to go. In addition, retail chains, services, and social networks are also
priced out and replaced with higher-end retail and services. It is this aspect of
gentrification that causes the most tension between residents and developers.

Despite these criticisms though, there are several benefits to gentrification.

Because it often leads to people owning their homes instead of renting, it can
sometimes lead to more stability for the local area. It also creates an increased
demand for housing so there is less vacant property. Finally, supporters of
gentrification say that because of the increased presence of residents in the
downtown, businesses there benefit because there are more people spending in the
area. Whether it is viewed as positive or negative, however, there is no doubt that
gentrified areas are becoming important parts of the fabric of cities worldwide.