TOPIC : FUELS & COMBUSTION

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES:

1. Identify the concepts, terminology, types of combustions and its applications to a power plant
generation.
2. Apply the concepts in the analysis and solution of fuels and combustion problems in a power
generating plant.
3. Recognize the safety standards and effects of fuels and combustion in power generating plant and
to its environment.

General Concepts of Combustion:

To move an airplane  the air, some type of engine to generate power. internal combustion
engines, and all other prime movers to convert mechanical work to electrical energy depend on the
burning of fuel to produce power. Burning a fuel is called combustion, a chemical process that we study
in Combustion Engineering or in other source of learning.

Because combustion is so important for power generating system,we will review the
fundamentals. Combustion is a chemical process in which a substance reacts rapidly with oxygen and
gives off heat. The original substance is called the fuel, and the source of oxygen is called the oxidizer.
The fuel can be a solid, liquid, or gas. The oxidizer, likewise, could be a solid, liquid, or gas, but is
usually a gas (air) for airplanes, diesel, gasoline and other internal combustion engines. For a high power
generating plant, a solid fuel and air as oxidizer is used.

During combustion, new chemical substances are created from the fuel and the oxidizer. These
substances are called exhaust. Most of the exhaust comes from chemical combinations of the fuel and
oxygen. When a hydrogen-carbon-based fuel (like gasoline) burns, the exhaust includes water (hydrogen
+ oxygen) and carbon dioxide (carbon + oxygen). But the exhaust can also include chemical
combinations from the oxidizer alone. If the gasoline is burned in air, which contains 21% oxygen and
78% nitrogen, the exhaust can also include nitrous oxides (NOX, nitrogen + oxygen). The temperature of
the exhaust is high because of the heat that is transferred to the exhaust during combustion. Because of
the high temperatures, exhaust usually occurs as a gas, but there can be liquid or solid exhaust products as
well. Soot, for example, is a form of solid exhaust that occurs in some combustion processes.

During the combustion process, as the fuel and oxidizer are turned into exhaust products, heat is
generated. Interestingly, some source of heat is also necessary to start combustion. Gasoline and air are
both present in your automobile fuel tank; but combustion does not occur because there is no source of
heat. Since heat is both required to start combustion and is itself a product of combustion, we can see why
combustion takes place very rapidly. Also, once combustion gets started, we don't have to provide the
heat source because the heat of combustion will keep things going. We don't have to keep lighting a
campfire, it just keep burning.

To summarize, for combustion to occur three things must be present: a fuel to be burned, a
source of oxygen, and a source of heat. As a result of combustion, exhausts are created and heat is
released. You can control or stop the combustion process by controlling the amount of the fuel available,
the amount of oxygen available, or the source of heat.
Below illustrates the components of combustion based from the source as shown in the figure. Study
the function of each component such as the fuel, oxygen and the source of heat in the product of
combustion and its underlying general equation and application of concepts is the solution of problems
in fuels and combustion.

TYPES OF FUELS

Fuels can be classified as follows:

1. Solid fuels – principal component is carbon. Examples are: coal, coke, wood, charcoal, bagasse,
coconut shells and husks, briquetted fuels.
2. Liquid fuels – principal component is hydrocarbon. Examples are: gasoline, diesel, kerosene,
alcohol, bunker, other fuel oils.
3. Gaseous fuel – principal component is hydrocarbon. Examples are natural gas, blast furnace gas,
LPG, methane, ethane, acetylene, propane and others.

Fuels can be classified based on occurrence and physical state. In the next page is a figure that show
the details of fuel classifications. Study them and relate how these fuels can be used in a power
generating system… its concepts, standards and conversions that are needed in the analysis and
solving the problems in fuels and combustion, You need to go back to your Chemistry, the chemical
balance, molecular weight and other chemical related concepts that are needed in solving the air-
fuel ratio and the required quantity of fuels and air to produce a combustion that will meet the heat
requirements of the power generating system.
SALIENT TERMINOLOGIES & PROPERTIES IN FUELS & COMBUSTION:

1. HEATING VALUE OF FUEL (HHV) - refers to the gross calorific value and is the heating value
when obtained when the water in the products of combustion is in the liquid state.
2. LOWER HEATING VALUE - refers to the net calorific value and is the heating value obrained
when the water in the products of combustion is in the vapor state.
3. OXYGEN BOMB CALORIMETER – is the instruments used in measuring heating value for solid
and liquid fuels.
4. GAS CALORIMETER – is the instruments used in measuring heating value of a gaseous fuels.
5. Proximate analysis – is the analysis of the composition of fuel which gives on mass basis, the
relative amounts of moisture content, volatile matter, fixed carbon and ask.
6. ULTIMATE ( CHEMICAL ) ANALYSIS – is the analysis of the composition of fuel which gives on
mass basis, the relative amounts of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, ash and
moisture.
7. VISCOSITY – is the resistance to flow or the property which resists shearing of the lubricant.Units
of viscosity and its conversions are as follows:
1 reyn = 1 lb-sec/in2 ; 1 stoke = 1 cm2 & 1 poise = 1 dyne-sec/cm2
 RELATIONS OF VISCOSITY UNITS:
Centistokes = 0.308 ( SSU – 26 )
62 SSF = 660 SSU

8. ABSOLUTE VISCOSITY – is the viscosity which is determined by direct measurement of shear

resistance.
9. KINEMATIC VISCOSITY – is the absolute viscosity divided by the density.
10. VISCOSITY INDEX – is the rate at which viscosity changes with temperature.
11. VISCOSIMETER – is an instrument, consisting of standard orifice, used for measuring viscosity
12. SAYBOLT SECOND UNIVWERSAL ( SSU ) – is the number of seconds required for 60 mL of oil at
37.80 C to pass through a standard orifice.
13. SAYBOLT SECOND FUROL – is the unit used for very viscous liquids using a relatively larger
orifice.
14. FLASH POINT – is the temperature at which oil gives off vapor that burns temporarily when
ignited.
15. FIRE POINT – is the temperature at which oil gives off vapor that burns continuously when
ignited.
16. POUR POINT – is the temperature at which oil will no longer pour freely.
17. DROPPING POINT – is the temperature at which grease melts.
18. CONRADSON NUMBER Carbon Residue ) – is the percentage by weight of the carbonaceous
residue remaining after destructive distillation.
19. OCTANE NUMBER – is the ignition quality rating of gasoline , which is the percentage y volume
of iso-octane in a mixture of iso-octane and heptane that matches the gasoline in anti-knock
quality
20. CETANE NUMBER - is the ignition quality rating of diesel, which is the percent of cetane in the
standard fuel.
21. COMBUSTION – is a chemical reaction etween fuel and oxygen , which is accomplished by heat
and light.
22. THEORETICAL AIR-FUEL RATIO – is the exact theoretical amount , as determined from the
combustion reaction of air needed to burn a unit amount of fuel ( kg air/ kg fuel ).
23. ACTUAL AIR-FUEL RATIO – refers to the theoretical air fuel ratio plus excess air.

IMPORTANT FORMULA ON FUELS & COMBUSTION

1. SPECIFIC GRAVITY/DENSITY:
Density of Substance
a. Specific Gravity ( for liquids) =
Density of Water

Density of Substance
b. Specific Gravity ( for gases ) =
Density of Water

INSTRUMENTS TO MEASURE SPECIFIC GRAVITY:

1. Hydrometer
 2. Pycnometer ( specific gravity bottle )
3. Westphal Balance

0
c. API and 0Beume Units:

141.5
1. 0
API = - 131.5
sg @ 15.6 deg . C
140
2. 0Beume = - 130
sg @ 15.6 deg . C

d. Specific Gravity at temperature (t), applying correction factor:

SGt = SG @ 15.6 deg C [ 1 -0.0007( t – 15.6)]

2. CALCULATING HEATING VALUES BY FORMULAS:

* HIGHER HEATING VALUE OF SOLID FUELS

A. DULONG’S FORMULA – used for solid fuels of known ultimate analysis.

QHHV = 33,000 C + 122,212 ( H - O/8) + 9,304 S , kJ/kg

B. ASME FORMULA - for petroleum products

QHHV = 41,130 + 139.6 (0API ) , kJ/kg

C. BUREAU OF STANDARDS FORMULA:

QHHV = 51,716 - 8793. 8 (SG )2 , kJ/kg

*LOWER HEATING VALUE OF SOLID FUELS:

QL = QH - 9H2 ( 2442), kJ/kg where : 1 Btu/lb = 2.236 kJ/kg = 0.5556 kCal/kg

H 2 = 26 – 15 SG ( in %)

*DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HIGHER AND LOWER HEATING VALUE

Q NET = QHHV - QLHV = 26 – 15(2,442) where % H2 = 26 – 15(SG)

3. COMPOSITION OF AIR & ITS RELATED FORMULA:

* By Weight: * By Volume:
O2 = 23 % O2 = 21 %
N2 = 77 % N2 = 79 %
100% 100%

 MOLAL RATIO:

Moles N 2 79 %
Moles O 2
= 21 %
= 3.76
 * Molecular Weights:

C = 12 g/ mole-atom
O2 = 32 g/mole-atom
H2 = 2
N2 = 28

4.COMBUSTION

Combustion of Solid Fuel with known ultimate analysis:

 Theoretical Weight of Air:

The theoretical weight of air is the exact theoretical amount as determined from
the comustion reaction of air needed to urn a unit amount of fuel.

If the ultimate analysis of coal is available, the theoretical weight of air required
to completely oxidize the fuel can be calculated as:

A
[ F ]TA = Wt = 11.5 C + 34.5 [ h -0/8 ] + 4.3 S , kg air/kg fuel

Where : Wt = ideal proportion of air to completely burn the fuel

C, H, O and S are proportions by weight of Carbon, Hydrogen,

Oxygen and Sulfur per kg of fuel from the ultimate
Analysis

If the ultimate analysis of coal is not available, an approximate formula to obtain

the theoretical air – fuel ratio when the heating value of the fuel is known:

A
[ F ]TA = Wt = Qh¿ ¿ , kg air/kg fuel

A
[ F ]TA = Wt = Qh¿ ¿ , kg air/kg fuel

A
[ F ]TA = Wt = Qh¿ ¿ , kg air/kg fuel

 Actual Weight of Air

The weight of air supplied for combustion is necessarily in excess of what is

theoretically required. The volumetric analysis of the dry flue gas can be used to calculate
the actual weight of air:
 A 1 C xN2
[ F ]a = Waa = ¿
32.72 CO 2+CO
] , kg air/kg fuel

A % Excess Air
[ F ]a = Waa = Wt ¿ 1+ ] , kg air/kg fuel
100
Where: Waa = actual weight of air including the excess
C = weight of carbon per kg of fuel from the ultimate analysis
N2, CO2 & CO are percentages by volume of the component gases
In the flue gas as obtained by ORSAT Analysis

COMBUSTION OF HYDROCARON FUELS

Hydrocarbon fuels consist mainly of combustible elements carbon and hydrogen. The chemical
formula of hydrocarbons si Cn Hm , where the value of the subscripts “ m” and “ n” depends on the
hydrocarbon family.

Typical combustion reaction of a fuel with known Chemical Formula:

Fuel + Air Products of Combustion

Cn Hm + xO2 + x ( 3.76)N2 y CO2 + z H2O + x ( 3.76) N2

Where : x, y & z represents the number of moles.

ANALYSIS OF FLUE GASES

Gaseous products of combustion are analyzed using gas analyzer known as the Orsat Apparatus.
The combustion products contains CO2, SO2,N2,O2, CO and water vapor.

The result of the analysis of dry flue gas by volume can be expressed by the equation:

CO2 + CO + O2 + N2 = 100 %

The weight of gaseous products liberated during the combustion of fuel with air:

Wfg = Wa + Wf kg/hr

The weight of dry flue gas formed per kg of fuel burned:

Wdg = Wa a + 1 - [SO2 + H2 O + Ash Loss ] kg/hr

Where:

Waa = actual air-fuel ratio, kg air/kg fuel

2x % S
SO2 =
100
 9 x% S % Ash Waa−Wta
H2 O == and Ash Loss = ; thus: % Excess =
100 100 Wta

CLASSIFICATION OF COMBUSTION REACTION

1. Combustion Reaction with Chemically-correct or Stoichiometric condition, general chemical

formula of the fuel is:

m m m m
Cn Hm + [n + ¿O2 + ( 3.76) [n + ¿N2 n CO2 + H2O + ( 3.76) [n + ¿ N2
4 4 4 4

2. Combustion Reaction with greater amount of theoretical air, or having a fuel-lean mixture.

3. Combustion Reaction with lesser amount of theoretical air, or having a fuel-rich mixture

Equivalence Ratio for given mass of air:

φ =
( FA )t
( AF ) a
where: φ = 1 for stoicchiometric mixture
φ < 1 for fuel-lean mixture
φ > 1 for fuel-rich mixture

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

1. If excess air of 15% is desired for a given fuel and air, what will be the combustion reaction of
fuel with known chemical formula?

The typical combustion reaction of fuel with known chemical formula is:

Fuel + Air Products of Combustion

Cn Hm + xO2 + x ( 3.76)N2 y CO2 + z H2O + x ( 3.76) N2

Where : x, y & z represents the number of moles.

With excess 15 % air, the combustion reaction will be:

C n Hm +1.2[ xO2 + x ( 3.76)N2 ] y CO2 + z H2O + uO2 x 1.20[( 3.76) N2 ]

2. A liquid fuel with chemical formula of C8H18 fuel is burned with ideal proportion of air. Calculate
the ideal air-fuel ratio by weight
 Combustion Reaction of fuel:

C8H18 + xO2 + x ( 3.76)N2 y CO2 + z H2O + x ( 3.76) N2

Solution:
Material balance:
C : 1 ( 8) = y (1) ; y = 8 kg mol
H : 1 (18) = z (2 ) ; z = 9 kg mol
O : x ( 2) = y (2 ) + z ( 1) ; x = 12.5 kg mol
N : 3.76 a ; = 47 kg mol

Therefore, the balanced equation is:

C8H18 +12.5O2 + 47N2 8CO2 + 9 H2O + 47 N2

Solving for the ideal air- fuel ratio by weight is:

A 12.5 ( 32 ) + 47(28)
[ F ]TA = Wt a = , kg air/kg fuel
12 ( 8 ) +1(18)
1716
=
114
= 15.05 kg air / kg fuel

LET US CONSIDER THE PREVIOUS BOARD EXAM IN OUR STUDY OF FUELS & COMBUSTION FOR
REFERENCE:

1. A logging firm in Isabela operates a Diesel Electric Plant to supply its electric energy
requirements. During a 24 hr period, the plant consumed 250 gallons of fuel at 80 deg.F and
produced 2700 kw-hrs. Industrial fuel used is 30 0 API and was purchased at P3.00 per liter at
60 0C. Determine the over-all efficiency of the plant.
A. 26.08% * C. 29.07%
B. 25.06% D. 30.01%
3.