MODULE 1

COGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING

Activity
1. What cognitive strategies are taught in school? What cognitive processes are activated in teaching content?

Cognitive strategies are one type of learning strategy that learners use in order to learn more successfully.
The cognitive strategies taught in school are repetition, organizing new language, summarizing meaning, guessing
meaning from context, using imagery for memorization. Also, it include making mind maps, visualization,
association, mnemonics, using clues in reading comprehension, underlining key words, scanning and self-testing
and monitoring

Listening strategies, paying attention, reading strategies, underlining, metaphor, simile, and analogy, think-
pair-share-reflect(TPSR) writing marginal notes, highlighting, concept mapping, graphic organizers, semantic
webbing, story grammar, advance organizer, KWL Strategy(know, want to know, learning) recalling strategies,
mnemonic devices.

The cognitive strategies taught in school are student-centered instruction, activating prior knowledge,
problem solving, elaboration and concept learning. While the cognitive processes that are activated in teaching
content are perception, attention, memory language, reasoning, decision-making, and problem solving.

2. How can you structure and organize your own learning? Do you see the logic of what you are learning in
school?

I can structure and organize my learning through relating my new knowledge and skills acquired on my prior
knowledge. In addition, I make sure that I discovered the relationships among concepts and ideas for me to easily
understand the lessons well. It is important that I am learning in school where formal education is present in order to
learn knowledge and skills that I can use in my everyday life. Also to learn some virtues and values through my
teachers and socialization that will prepare me on playing my role in society. Moreover, I could learn effectively in
school because it guided by curriculum as instruction based and the teachers have a lot of strategies in order to
have a better learning for students like me.

3. Who do you think are the people with whom you can relate with in order to learn better? How can you
improve your relationship with them?

Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations and communication with others. I could
learn better with the help of my friends whom I can relate with through socialization. I have no doubt to ask them
about a certain thing that I wanted to clarify because I am comfortable to talk to them and when we working together
like doing our tasks and assignments. We can share our thoughts, opinions and prior knowledge with each other
freely. We can criticize and correct the mistakes of each other without hurting anyone feelings. Moreover, we work
collaboratively to assist one another and take on expert roles as tutor in order to strengthened, reinforced and
refined our learning. I can improve our relationships by sharing moments with them most of the time and knowing
each other more. I will continue showing who is the real me and treating them in a nice way. We will always helping
each other and working together to strengthen our bond as friends. I will care, respect and trust them as they also
doing in order to maintain our good relationships to each other.

4. What activities do you do to monitor your learning? Discuss.

Learning is very important to every individual. It is because through learning we could gain knowledge and
skills that are very useful for our survival and playing our role in the society effectively. We can learn a lot of things
every single day through our teachers, by studying and practicing, and even through our experiences in life.

I do monitor my learning through doing my reflections. I always do self-reflection in order to know if I really
learned something on my teachers, classmates, and from other people around me. Also, after I encounter new
experiences that will contribute a meaningful learning to me. I ask myself about what I have learned then I write it
on a piece of paper and apply it to my day to day life. I relate the new learning I obtained in my past experiences or
in real life situation so that I could clearly understand what does it means and then I will summarize it after. I also
monitor my learning through practicing what the teacher taught to me like solving different mathematical problems. I
make sure that I have time to practice in order to improve my skills in mathematics. Lastly, I monitor my learning
through sharing what I have learned including my own ideas and opinions to other people especially to my family
and friends. I educate them about doing things that they don’t know and I teach them to improve what they have
already known. In return, teaching them by using the knowledge and skills I gained makes me feel happy and helps
me to realize the importance of learning. In addition, it could help me to enhance my own learning and
understanding.

In conclusion, we have different ways of monitoring our learning and each of that ways is very effective. It
depends on your preferences and how you will do it. Always explore things that could make your learning better and
you should remember this quote as your inspiration; “The beautiful thing about learning is that no one can take it
away from you.” _B.B. King

Action Station: Developing Students Casebook

At the age of two, Hans is observed to be using formulaic chunks or basic expression such as “come, here,”
“stay there,” or “park car.” One day, Mommy Marielle fed him. Mommy Marielle told Hans, “Here is your food.” Hans
blurted, “No, say getti” (short for spaghetti) not food.”

Case study Activity

1. Describe Hans’ verbal learning in relation to learning the basic forms of language.

There are stages of learning the basic language and in the case of Hans he can’t really pronounce words
clearly because of his age so he attempts to express the things that he wanted to say by using short cut words. He
used formulaic chunks or basic expression because he can only remember fewer items/words and could only speak
two words in a phrase. That’s why Hans using only simple and very limited words when talking to other person
especially to his mom which is appropriate at his age of two years old. Essentially, chunking helps Hans in the
process of learning the basic forms of language by breaking long strings of information into bit size chunks that are
easier to remember. However, mommy Marielle should interact or talk to Hans regularly because the more words a
child hears in a day, spoken to him by a person, the better for language development. Through that, Hans could
learn the basic language normally and continuously with the proper guidance of his mother and eventually he could
form sentences when interacting with other people as he grow up or undergo maturation.

2. Describe the function of formulaic language in relation to the demands on cognitive processing?

Formulaic language is formulating of many languages but with the same meaning. The cognitive processing
such as memory and language are activated in the function of formulaic language that’s why they are related to
each other. In the case of Hans, he used formulaic chunks because his memory is not yet fully developed. He only
remembers fewer words. Moreover, language is also activated to Hans when using formulaic chunks because it is
one of the steps in learning the basic language.

3. How does concept formation happen among children?

As children grow and develop they form concepts through the interactions with others and from
experiences. Young children generally form concepts through the use of their senses. When a child forms a concept
they must isolate characteristics of experiences based on similar attributes. Concept formation is considered to be
one of the most important aspects of learning. Early concepts relate to common experiences in daily life. That’s why
concept development is a long and difficult process because of the limited knowledge and experience children have.
And in the case of Hans, he can only form basic concepts because of his age. He can only form concepts which are
simple, specific and concrete. That’s why he has no idea about the word food as he doesn’t develop yet his abstract
thinking. Hans may have a clear and accurate concept of what spaghetti means but may not know the word food
that generalizes this substance. He knows the word spaghetti but he don’t know that it is related to a food. However,
his concept formation will develop as he grow up or undergo maturation from simple to complex, specific information
to general principle and lastly from concrete to abstract.
 Concepts also serve an important function for a range of cognitive tasks including identifying objects in the
world, forming analogies, making inferences that extent knowledge beyond what are already known and conveying
core elements of a theory.

Module 2
METACOGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING
Activity
Identify the following by writing R for rehearsal, E for elaboration, S for systematic searching, and C for
clustering on each blank.

S 1.1. Creating associations R 1.6. Committing materials to memory

R 1.2. Picking out the main ideas RE 1.7. Relating the material to the
one that is already known
E 1.3. Adding details in new
information S 1.8. Looking for familiar
characteristics
R 1.4 Repeating the items several
times until they are memorized C 1.9. Putting things together

R 1.5. Segregating the main ideas C 1.10. Creating categories

from the large bodies of information

Identify the following by writing P for planning, M for monitoring, and E for evaluating on each blank.

P 2.1. Setting goals for certain activity

M 2.2. Tracking the progress of the

activity

E 2.3. Considering some variables of

task difficulty

ME 2.4 formulating judgment

P 2.5. Setting criteria for grading

M 2.6. Keeping a record of its progress

P M 2.7. Looking into the effectiveness

of a strategy used

P 2.8. Considering the steps to follow

P 2.9. Giving priority to what should be

stressed in the lesson

P 2.10. Carrying out the strategy

Action Station: Developing Students Casebook
Teacher Susie shows us the way we see if a strategy does not work and teaches us how to move on to
another. For example, in trying to improve spelling skills, we use flashcards of a reasonable size to write all the
words on our personal spelling list. But that strategy does not work in our class. When she finds that such strategy
does not work, she turns to other ways including “breaking the words into syllables” and “looking for short words
within words. “

Case study Activity

1. What advantage does Teacher Susie have in using metacognitive strategy in teaching?

The advantage that Teacher Susie had in using metacognitive strategy in teaching is the essential skills for
metacognition such as planning, monitoring and evaluating. First, she planned on what strategy is needed to improve the
spelling skills of her students.

2. How can teaching strategy be a powerful means of helping students construct their own learning?

There are a lot of teaching strategies that a teacher could use in helping students construct their own
learning and in the case of Teacher Susie she used metacognitive strategy.

Students receiving instruction in metacognition develop skills that will help them to have a better learning or
to learn effectively. Thinking about thinking helps students better manage their own learning and learn difficult
concepts deeply. If a student understand how he/she learns, remembers and processes information, the more
information will retain to his/her memory. And possibly, that student could be able to develop better memory skills.
Students who understand how they learn will help themselves to create situations or strategies that promote
learning. Just like what teacher Susie did, she used a lot of metacognitive strategies that will help her students to
determine which learning strategy is effective for their class in order to improve their spelling skills. Teacher Susie
taught them that it is not necessary to stick in one strategy especially if does not really work but instead think and
explore another strategy that would bring effectiveness to one’s own learning.

The teaching strategy particularly metacognitive strategy provides students with the skill to study and
complete task more efficiently and successfully. Moreover, teachers can teach their students through that strategy
to think about their thinking in ways that help them understand what they know, what they don’t know and what they
wanted to learn, and to help them reflect on their own learning. Indeed, all of those kinds of thinking actually help
the students construct their own learning and make the learning process more powerful.

3. The main reason for teaching a learning strategy is for students to learn on their own initiative. What are
some indicators that students foster autonomy and ownership of learning? Explain.

Some indicators that students foster autonomy and ownership of learning are construction of knowledge
and summarization of new learning. Successful learner can construct knowledge by linking information with existing
knowledge in meaningful ways. And they can summarize the information that they get in their own words and
explanation.

Reflective Activities
1. Look back at the Student Portrait. Answer the following:
1.1 What metacognitive tools does Teacher Jenny use in order to make them learn?
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 1.2 Are graphic organizers effective in learning the content? Explain your answer.

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2. If you were already a teacher, how would you:

2.1 Provide learning objectives before instruction? Do you ask students when they achieve the
objectives of the lesson? Do your students see how objectives and activities in school relate to the values
and aspiration in homes and communities?
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2.2 Involve members of the community and other stakeholders in supporting the learning
objectives of your lessons?

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MODULE 3
DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES
Activity
Identify one concept from the theories reviewed and describe how this can be applied in teaching and learning.

Theory/Concept Application
The application of Vygotsky's theory in
teaching and learning is in his concept of a
zone of proximal development. This concept is
important because teachers can use it as a
guide to a child's development. Teachers
should consider their students individual zone
of proximal development in teaching any
subject matter. It is because learning takes
place when a child is working within the zone
of proximal development. They need to know
that there is a zone of proximal development
which represent what the students can do
with the help of adult, a friend, technology or
what Vygotsky called the more knowledgeable
other. This is the reason why he believes that
social interaction and language are the basis
for learning and will contribute to a child’s full
cognitive development. In connection,
scaffolding is part and another fundamental
concept of ZPD theory. Scaffolding is very
useful as teaching method because it helps
students learn more by working with a teacher
or a more advanced student to achieve their
learning goals. In other words, students learn
more and best when collaborating with others
who have a wider range of skills and
knowledge or the more knowledgeable other
compared when they are learning
independently. For example, in a mathematics
class, a teacher may scaffold his/her students
on solving quadratic equations by relating the
problem to an activity that is familiar to the
students, by reviewing skills needed to solve
the problem, by providing tools for students to
work with and by offering support while
allowing the students to find their own
solutions (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989).
Another strategy is through peer tutoring or
by forming pairs of students after the
discussion of lesson in which they will teach
and help each other in order to learn
effectively. Scaffolding, when done
appropriately can make the learners confident
and eventually they can accomplish the task
without any need for support or assistance. In
the same way, students who receive assistant
with their teacher can reach the full potential of
their ability. Moreover, as a teacher we should
know that there are students who can learn
on their own without the help of others but
there are also students who can’t do a certain
task even with the help of others. That’s why
consideration and adjustment are really
needed in order to provide effective
instructions to every student. In conclusion,
according to Vygotsky, the teacher must plan
activities that encompass not only what the
students are capable of doing on their own
but what they can learn with the help of
others.

Another is by forming pairs of students after

 the discussion of lesson in which they will
teach their peers through worksheet and also
they will develop their helping skills and
collaboration.

Action Station: Developing Students Casebook

Teacher Ann is an elementary teacher at the public school. One day she observes that Lina, a grade 4 student
became hesitant to recite and prefers to stay out of the group that her classmates have. Base on the theories on
developmental growth relate Lina’s behavior.

Freud Components of Personality/Psychosexual Stages of Development

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Erikson Pyscho – Social Stages of Development

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Piaget Stages of Cognitive Development

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Kohlberg Stages and Substages of Moral Development

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Vygotsky Theory on Language and Zone of Proximal Development

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Bronfenbrener Bio – Ecological Systems

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Reflective Activities
From the review of theories related to learners’ development. I realize that…

I realized that the theories related to learner’s development are very useful in teaching and learning process. As a
future teacher, I can use those developmental theories as my strategy to understand my learners and in order to help them
learn better. I can easily know how to give appropriate instruction to every learner because I know their language, concept,
behavior and moral development as they grow or get matured. Moreover, I can educate and motivate them in many ways and
through the use of different developmental theories.

Module 4

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES – THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

Make a matrix of the different theories of intelligence. Highlight each salient feature.

Theories of Intelligence Components Description

Triarchic Theories

Multiple Intelligences Naturalist intelligence One of the eight multiple

intelligences of Howard Gardner is
naturalist intelligence. It is the ability
to observe and understand the
patterns in nature. It allows the
people with this kind of intelligence
to distinguish, classify, or use
features of the environment. In other
words, they can recognize and
categorize plants, animals and other
objects in nature like clouds and rock
configurations. They definitely love
plants, animals and nature, and also
understand the natural world. People
who have naturalist intelligence are
usually farmers, gardeners
(plantita/plantito), biologists,
conservationist and geologists.

Structure of the Intellect

 Emotional Intelligence
Empathy One of the components of emotional
intelligence is “empathy”. It is the
ability to recognize emotions in
others. People with empathy have
the capacity to be aware of and read
other people’s emotions. If they are
capable of reading other’s emotions,
they become sensitive and
empathetic. Furthermore, it includes
skills in building and maintaining
good relationships with other people.

1. Which theory do you think has created a greater impact on your intelligence? Why?

I think the theory of multiple intelligences proposed by Howard Gardner has created a greater impact on my
intelligence. It is because I do believe that not only those persons who have the ability to speak well can be considered as
intelligent person but also those who good enough or excellent in other fields like in sports, music, arts, mathematics, science,
etc. There are different types of intelligence which means I can excel in different fields also as there is a possibility that I can
have more than one type of intelligence. In the same way, I have different ways to learn and acquire information depending on
what is effective and suitable for my intelligence. Based on my self-assessment, I have three types of intelligence such as
logical/mathematical, interpersonal and naturalistic intelligence. Through my understanding on which types of intelligence I
possessed, I can be able to determine which learning styles are helpful in order for me to learn effectively like using numbers,
having social interactions and being tune in nature. As future teachers, we should know that there are different types of
intelligence the students may possess and they have also different ways to learn. That’s why we need to consider all of those
in the teaching and learning process in order to provide effective instructions to every type of learners.

2. Do you think that creativity and intelligence are interrelated or separate entities? Prove your answer.

The relationship between intelligence and creativity is that both of them are functions of the brain that process
information to determine a solution or an answer to a problem. For me, intelligence and creativity are interrelated entities. It is
because they are different abilities that contribute to the other. Intelligence is the ability to acquire and utilize knowledge while
creativity is the act of having original and valuable thoughts. This means that the relationship between intelligence and
creativity is more on overlap of skills or abilities instead of a dependence on one another. For example, I usually use my
creativity to solve a problem, if I encounter the same problem in the future, then probably I will use my intelligence because I
already learn how to solve that problem or I have prior knowledge about the situation that’s why solving that kind of problem is
already familiar to me. On the contrary, in order to solve the problem creatively my level of intelligence gives me a starting
point or an ability to pull my existing knowledge into a new situation or idea. So, the lower the level of my intelligence, the more
difficult I can solve the problem creatively. This also implies that I don’t need to be very intelligent in order for me to be called
creative person because my basic intellectual capacity is enough to have creative ideas.

3. What is your Grade Point Average (GPA) I n high school or last year in college? Are grades really a reflection of your
intelligence?

My GPA during one of the semesters in my senior high school is 89.11 percent. For me, grades are not the reflection
of my intelligence. Instead, I believe that it is a reflection of my sense of responsibility, diligence, ability to understand the
lessons being presented, and to perform well when tested by teachers. Overall grades reflect the results and not my
intelligence or effort. A grade itself is a combination of a teacher’s professional judgment of a student’s overall performance.
Hence, my grades reflect whether teachers think that I have mastered the content or I understand the lesson. Another reason
is there are different types of intelligence that’s why every student has their strengths and weaknesses. This means that I can
excel in one or more subjects but I can also experience difficulties in other subjects. Moreover, based on my observation, most
of the students including me who have high or good grades are motivated, very obedient, compliant and hardworking. Also, I
observed that not all students who have low grades are unintelligent. Maybe they have their personal reasons or have
difficulties in showing their full potentials. On the other hand, based on my experience in my senior high school days, I got low
grades in some subjects because those are not my strengths, I am not motivated to learn and participate in class discussion, I
lost my self-esteem and self-confidence, I struggled to adjust in my new learning environment and lastly I had no time to study
and review our past lessons. In conclusion, grades are not the reflection of intelligence because there are many reasons or
factors that can affect the grades of a student. However, as future teachers, we should know that grades of the students are
very important in order to monitor their academic performance and to provide them more effective instructions.

4. Do you believe when Gardner says, “Everyone is a genius?” Explain your answer.

Sa aking pananaw, sumasang-ayon ako na ang lahat ng tao ay henyo. May ibat-iba tayong kaalaman at mga bagay
na nagagawa na masasabi nating magaling tayo. Marahil ay hindi ito alam o nakikita ng karamihan pero ito ang katotohanan.
May mga bagay tayo na nalilikha at nagagawa gamit ang ating likas na talino at kakayahan. Mayroong magaling sa panitikan,
musika, agham, sining, isport, matematika, pagsasaka at sa iba pang larangan na maipapakita natin ang ating angking
katalinuhan at kahusayan. Bawat isa sa atin ay may tinatagong galing at talino, kailangan lang natin itong alamin at hubugin.
Lahat tayo ay henyo, sadyang may iilan lang na hindi naniniwala sapagkat tumitingin lang sila sa mga bagay na hindi kayang
gawin ng isang tao sa halip na tingnan ang mga kaya nitong gawin. Ang kahinaan ay hindi sapat na basehan upang masabi
nating ang isang tao ay hindi henyo o walang alam. Subalit, para sa akin ito ay patunay lamang na ang talino at kakayahan ng
tao ay iba-iba at magkaiba. Maaring marami tayong kahinaan pero maari din na marami tayong kalakasan. Ako, ikaw, tayong
lahat ay henyo. Kailangan lang nating maniwala sa ating mga sarili lalong lalo na sa ating angking talino at mga kakayahan.

5. Teacher Ann is an elementary teacher at the public school. One day she observes that Lina, a grade 4 student
became hesitant to recite and prefers to stay out of the group that her classmates have. Base on the theories on
developmental growth relate Lina’s behavior.

According to Erikson, a person passes through eight developmental stages that build on each other. At each stage
we face a crisis. By resolving the crisis, we develop psychological strengths or character traits that help us become confident
and healthy people.
I can relate Lina’s behavior in the fourth stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development which is industry
versus inferiority that occurs during childhood or elementary school years between the ages of approximately six and eleven
years old. Based on the observations of Teacher Ann, Lina struggled in resolving the psychological crisis because she is not
yet develop a capacity for industry which is supposedly her primarily task at this stage. Instead, she develops sense of
inferiority. She became hesitant to recite in class. Maybe, she has a fear or worried that her classmates will judge her and will
question her intelligence if she gave the wrong answer. Also, she prefers to stay out of the group that her classmates have.
Maybe, she is a shy child or introvert. That’s why she can be misinterpreted by peers, who see her as unfriendly and conclude
that she doesn’t want to play with them. In reality, shy child usually wants to be involved with her classmates, but doesn’t know
how to begin or sustain a conversation. With those situations, it seems like she needs help from other people in order to
resolve the crisis at this stage.
During this time of Lina’s life, school and social interaction play an important role in order for her to develop a sense
of industry or competence. Through social interactions, she will begin to develop a sense of pride in her accomplishments and
abilities. It is really important for a child to develop social skills as she enters school so that she will be able to build self-
confidence as well as she will feel being competent and capable. At this stage, it is important also for both parents and
teachers to offer support and encouragement to overcome those difficulties and to avoid sense of inferiority or incompetence.
She needs to feel supported and encouraged to develop industry in her early school years. Lina’s parents must help her in
academics by praising her efforts in a good way and talk to her regularly to practice conversation. While teacher Ann must
encourage Lina to participate in class and must create more activities that will help Lina to interact with her classmates and to
gain friends like group activities or by working with partner/s.

However, Teacher Ann and parents of Lina should remember that it is better to help her in developing the right
balance of industry and inferiority. She needs to develop mostly industry with just a touch of inferiority to keep her sensibly
humble and then to have virtue called competency.

For me, grades are not the reflection of my intelligence. Instead, I believe that it is a reflection of student’s sense of
responsibility, diligence, the ability to understand the lessons being presented, and to perform well when tested by teachers.
Overall grades reflect the results and not the intelligence or effort. A grade itself is a combination of a teacher’s professional
judgment of a student’s overall performance. This is because high achieving students are able to deliver what the teacher
wants. Hence, grades reflect whether teachers think students have mastered the content. Another reason is there are different
types of intelligence that’s why every student has their strengths and weaknesses. You can excel in one subject and can
struggle in other subjects as well. Moreover, based on my observation, most of my classmates who have high or good grades
are motivated, very obedient, compliant and hardworking. Also, I observed that not all students who have low grades are
unintelligent. On the other hand, based on my experience in my senior high school days, I got low grades in some subjects
because those are not my strengths, I am not motivated to learn and participate in class, I lost my self-esteem and self-
confidence, I struggled to adjust in my new learning environment and lastly I had no time to study and review our past lessons.
In conclusion, grades are not the reflection of intelligence because there are many reasons or factors that can affect the
grades of a student. However,
 MODULE 5

TEACHING STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

Activity

1. How should gifted children and students with special learning needs be treated by parents and teachers?
2. Explain the role of the classroom teacher in working with students with special learning need.

3. How do learning disabilities influence student success in the classroom?

Students with a learning disability may influence their success in the classroom in different ways. For
example, language processing disabilities like dyslexia can make a student reading and writing become slow and
challenging, and memory issues can result in a student having to reread a piece of text or listen to spoken
instructions many times. These students also may need more time to process information before answering questions
or replying through spoken which can result in difficulties contributing to classroom or group discussions. Someone
with attention deficit disorder (ADD) may also find it difficult to maintain focus, and paying attention is critical to
learning. Their organization and planning skills can also be impaired, resulting in difficulty keeping track of
assignments or supplies and submitting work on time. In conclusion, learning disabilities come in a variety of forms
and affect students in different ways. That’s why as future teachers we should be aware of the students’ difficulties in
learning so that we can help and guide them correctly and effectively.

4. Discuss some strategies that can be used by the teacher in helping students with special learning needs.