Module 1

Power Sources in Agriculture

Lesson 1: Solar Energy

History of Solar Energy

Solar energy is actually nothing new. People have used solar power as far back in history
as the 7th century B.C. In its most primitive state, energy from the sun has been revered and put
to use almost as long as man has walked the earth.

The earliest uses of solar power included focusing the sun’s energy through a magnifying
glass to start fires for cooking. By the 3rd century B.C., Greeks and Romans bounced sunlight off
of “burning mirrors” to light sacred torches for religious ceremonies.

Sunrooms were invented in ancient times to capture solar energy for its natural warmth.
These usually south-facing rooms have captured and concentrated sunlight from the famous
Roman bathhouses to Native American adobes, and are still popular today in many modern
homes.

In 1839, French physicist Edmond Becquerel discovered the photovoltaic effect while
experimenting with a cell made of metal electrodes in a conducting solution. He noted that the
cell produced more electricity when it was exposed to light.

Later in 1873, Willoughby Smith discovered that selenium could function as a

photoconductor.

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 Just three years later, in 1876 William Grylls Adams and Richard Evans Day applied the
photovoltaic principle discovered by Becquerel to selenium. They recorded that it could, in fact,
generate electricity when exposed to light.

Almost 50 years after the photovoltaic effect’s discovery, in 1883, American inventor
Charles Fritz created the first working selenium solar cell. Though we use silicon in cells for
modern solar panels, this solar cell was a major precursor to the technology used today.

In a way, many physicists played a part in solar cell invention. Becquerel is attributed with
uncovering the potential of the photovoltaic effect, and Fritz with actually creating the ancestor to
all solar cells.

Different Ways of Solar Energy Utilization

Solar energy is the energy obtained by capturing heat and light from the Sun. Energy from
the Sun is referred to as solar energy. Technology has provided a number of ways to utilize this
abundant resource. It is considered a green technology because it does not emit greenhouse
gases. Solar energy is abundantly available and has been utilized since long both as electricity
and as a source of heat.

Solar energy is the most abundant energy resource on Earth. It can be captured and used
in several ways, and as a renewable energy source, is an important part of our clean energy
future. About 173,000 terawatts of solar energy strike the Earth at any given time - more than
10,000 times the world's total energy needs. By capturing the sun's energy and turning it into
electricity for homes or businesses, solar energy is a key solution in combating the current climate
crisis and reducing our dependence on fossil fuels.

Solar technology can be broadly classified in two ways:

 Active Solar − Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems,
concentrated solar power and solar water heating to harness the energy. Active solar is
directly consumed in activities such as drying clothes and warming of air.

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  Passive Solar − Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun,
selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light-dispersing properties, and
designing spaces that naturally circulate air.

Harnessing Energy for Usable Power

There are many ways to use energy from the sun. The two main ways to use energy from
the sun are photovoltaics and solar thermal capture. Photovoltaics are much more common
for smaller-scale electricity projects (like residential solar panel installations), and solar thermal
capture is typically only used for electricity production on massive scales in utility solar
installations. In addition to producing electricity, lower temperature variations of solar thermal
projects can be used for heating and cooling.

Solar is one of the fastest growing and cheapest sources of power in the world, and will
continue to spread rapidly in the coming years. With solar panel technology improving each year,
the economic benefits of solar improve, adding to the environmental perks of choosing a clean,
renewable energy source.

Photovoltaic solar energy

Photovoltaic energy is the conversion of sunlight into electricity. A photovoltaic cell,
commonly called a solar cell or PV, is the technology used to convert solar energy directly into
electrical power. A photovoltaic cell is a non-mechanical device usually made from silicon alloys.

Sunlight is composed of photons, or particles of solar energy. These photons contain

various amounts of energy corresponding to the different wavelengths of the solar spectrum.
When photons strike a photovoltaic cell, they may be reflected, pass right through, or be absorbed.
Only the absorbed photons provide energy to generate electricity. When enough sunlight (energy)
is absorbed by the material (a semiconductor), electrons are dislodged from the material's atoms.
Special treatment of the material surface during manufacturing makes the front surface of the cell
more receptive to free electrons, so the electrons naturally migrate to the surface.

When the electrons leave their position, holes are formed. When many electrons, each
carrying a negative charge, travel toward the front surface of the cell, the resulting imbalance of
charge between the cell's front and back surfaces creates a voltage potential like the negative

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and positive terminals of a battery. When the two surfaces are connected through an external
load, electricity flows.

The photovoltaic cell is the basic building block of a photovoltaic system. Individual cells
can vary in size from about 1 centimeter (1/2 inch) to about 10 centimeter (4 inches) across.
However, one cell only produces 1 or 2 watts, which isn't enough power for most applications. To
increase power output, cells are electrically connected into a packaged weather-tight module.
Modules can be further connected to form an array. The term array refers to the entire generating
plant, whether it is made up of one or several thousand modules. The number of modules
connected together in an array depends on the amount of power output needed.

The performance of a photovoltaic array is dependent upon sunlight. Climate conditions

(e.g., clouds, fog) have a significant effect on the amount of solar energy received by a
photovoltaic array and, in turn, its performance. Most current technology photovoltaic modules
are about 10 percent efficient in converting sunlight. Further research is being conducted to raise
this efficiency to 20 percent.

Solar panels convert solar energy into usable electricity through a process known as the
photovoltaic effect. Incoming sunlight strikes a semiconductor material (typically silicon) and
knocks electrons loose, setting them in motion and generating an electric current that can be
captured with wiring. This current is known as direct current (DC) electricity and must be converted
to alternating current (AC) electricity using a solar inverter. This conversion is necessary because
electric grids operate using AC electricity, as do most household electric appliances.

Solar energy can be captured at many scales using photovoltaics, and installing solar
panels is a smart way to save money on your electric bill while reducing your dependence on
nonrenewable fossil fuels. Large companies and electric utilities can also benefit from photovoltaic
solar energy generation by installing large solar arrays that can power company operations or
supply energy to the electric grid.

Photovoltaic cells, like batteries, generate direct current (DC) which is generally used for
small loads (electronic equipment). When DC from photovoltaic cells is used for commercial
applications or sold to electric utilities using the electric grid, it must be converted to alternating
current (AC) using inverters, solid state devices that convert DC power to AC.

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 Classification of Solar Cells
Solar cells are the key component of converting sunlight into electricity. There are a wide
range of PV cell technologies on the market today, using different types of materials, and an even
larger number will be available in the future. PV cell technologies are usually classified into three
generations, depending on the basic material used and the level of commercial maturity.

1. First-Generation PV Technologies:Crystalline Silicon Cells

Bell Laboratories developed the first silicon solar cell in 1954 with an efficiency of
6%. The earliest commercial silicon traditional solar cells are made from silicon,
are currently the most efficient solar cells available for residential use and account
for around above 80 % of all the solar panels sold around the world. Silicon solar
cells are the most efficient in terms of single cell photovoltaic devices, and silicon
is the most abundant element on earth, only second to oxygen. Crystalline silicon
cells are classified into three main types depending on how the Si wafers are made.
The types are based on the type of silicon used, specifically:
i. Monocrystalline (Mono c-Si);
ii. Polycrystalline (Poly c-Si); and
iii. Amorphous Silicon Cells.

Figure 1 First Generation Solar cell (Monocrystalline Silicon Cells)

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2. Second-Generation PV Technologies: Thin-Film Solar Cells
Second-generation solar cells are also known as thin-film solar cells because when
compared to crystalline silicon based cells they are made from layers only a few
micrometers thick. After more than 20 years of Research and Development, thin-
film solar cells are beginning to be deployed in significant quantities. Thin-film solar
cells could potentially provide lower cost electricity than c-Si wafer-based solar
cells. Thin-film solar cells are comprised of successive thin layers, just 1 to 4 μm
thick, of solar cells deposited onto a large, inexpensive substrate such as glass,
polymer, or metal. Thin films can be packaged into flexible and lightweight
structures, which can be easily integrated into building components (building-
integrated PV, BIPV). There are basically three primary types of thin film solar
cells that have been commercially developed:
i. Amorphous silicon (a-Si and a-Si/μc-Si);
ii. Cadmium Telluride (Cd-Te); and
iii. Copper-Indium-Selenide (CIS) and Copper-Indium-Gallium-Diselenide
(CIGS).
One advantage of using very thin layers of silicon is that the panels can be made
flexible. The disadvantage of amorphous panels is that they are much less efficient
per unit area (up to 12%).
There are a few fundamental differences between second-generation solar cells
and first generation solar cells. The most notable difference is the semiconductor
material used in the cell has a direct band gap as opposed to the indirect band gap
of silicon, but these cells still rely on a p-n junction design. Thin film cells have a
top layer called the winder layer made of a large band gap material that absorbs
the higher energy photons and a bottom layer called the absorber layer made of a
smaller band gap material that absorbs the lower energy photons, which are not
absorbed by the window layer. This design allows for an inherently better
efficiency. CIGS cells have the highest efficiencies of thin film cells at 21.6%; CdTe
cells have an efficiency of 21.4%, and amorphous silicon has an efficiency of
11.8%. Although these thin film solar cells have a lower costs and good
efficiencies, they have some drawbacks. Most of the materials that these cells are
made of are either both becoming increasingly rare and more expensive (Indium)
or are highly toxic (Cadmium).

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Figure 2 Second Generation (Thin film) Solar Cells

3. Third Generation PV Technologies

Due to high costs of first generation solar cells and toxicity and limited availability
of materials for second-generation solar cells, a new generation of solar cells
emerged. Currently there is a lot of solar research going on in what is being
referred to in the in the industry as Third-generation solar cells. Third generation
solar cells are inherently different from the previous two generations because they
do not rely on the p-n junction design of the others. This new generation of solar
cells are being made from variety of new materials besides silicon, including
nanomaterials, silicon wires, solar inks using conventional printing press
technologies, organic dyes, and conductive plastics. The goal of course is to
improve on the solar cells already commercially available – by making solar energy
more efficient over a wider band of solar energy , less expensive and without any
toxicity so it can be used by more and more people, and to develop more and
different uses. Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC) are also frequently called
Grätzel cells named after the developer. DSSCs separate the absorption of
photons from the energy generation. Among various solar cells, dye-sensitized
solar cells (DSSCs) demonstrate specific advantages over other photovoltaic
devices, because of their high efficiency, low cost, simple fabrication procedures,

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 environmental friendliness, transparency, and good plasticity. Though DSSCs
perform well under laboratory conditions relative to other solar cells, parameters
such as efficiency, lifetime, and cost determine their commercial applications. The
major components of conventional DSSCs include a nanocrystalline
semiconductor oxide, a dye sensitizer, a redox electrolyte, and a counter electrode
(CE). Recently, extensive studies of the individual components of DSSCs have
been performed to reduce production costs and to achieve high cell performance.
The cell performance depends on many factors such as surface morphology,
particle size, photo-electrode thickness of TiO2, and the nature of the dye. An
overall solar conversion efficiency of more than 12% has been achieved by
employing liquid electrolytes (I-/I-3 redox couple) in DSSCs.

Figure 3Third Generation Solar Cells (Dye-Sensitized)

Solar thermal
A second way to use solar energy is to capture the heat from solar radiation directly and
use that heat in a variety of ways. Solar thermal energy has a broader range of uses than a
photovoltaic system, but using solar thermal energy for electricity generation at small scales is
not as practical as using photovoltaics.

There are three general types of solar thermal energy used: low-temperature, used for
heating and cooling; mid-temperature, used for heating water; and high-temperature, used for
electrical power generation.

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 Low-temperature solar thermal energy systems involve heating and cooling air as a means
of climate control. An example of this type of solar energy usage is in passive solar building
design. In properties built for passive solar energy use, the sun’s rays are allowed into a living
space to heat an area and blocked when the area needs to be cooled.

Mid-temperature solar thermal energy systems include solar hot water heating systems.
In a solar hot water setup, heat from the sun is captured by collectors on your rooftop. This heat
is then transferred to the water running through your home’s piping so you don’t have to rely on
traditional water heating methods, such as water heaters powered with oil or gas.

High-temperature solar thermal energy systems are used for generating electricity on a
larger scale. In a solar
thermal electricity plant,
mirrors focus the sun’s
rays on tubes containing
a liquid that can hold
heat energy well. This
heated fluid can then be
used to turn water into
steam, which then can
turn a turbine and
generate electricity. This
type of technology is
often referred to as
concentrated solar
power.

Figure 4. An Example of High-temperature Solar Thermal Energy Systems

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Advantages of Solar Energy:

1. Renewable Energy Source

Among all the benefits of solar panels, the most important thing is that solar energy
is a truly renewable energy source. It can be harnessed in all areas of the world and is
available every day. We cannot run out of solar energy, unlike some of the other sources
of energy.
Solar energy will be accessible as long as we have the sun, therefore sunlight will
be available to us for at least 5 billion years when according to scientists the sun is going
to die.

2. Reduces Electricity Bills

Though the use of solar technology, most of the energy that a single household
consumes will be supplied by the system itself. Thus, electrical bills on homeowners are
expected to drop depending on the system’s capacity and the household’s usage.
In some countries like United Kingdom, homeowners who send part of the
electricity they generate using renewable energy, such as solar technology, will be given
export tariffs though the Smart Export Guarantee (SEG) scheme. This means that through
SEG, energy companies will pay homeowners who export renewable energy to the
National Grid. This was initiated by the UK government in order to encourage homeowners
on pursuing renewable energy.

3. Diverse Applications
Solar energy can be used for diverse purposes such as in generating electricity
(photovoltaics) or heat (solar thermal). Solar energy can be used to produce electricity in
areas without access to the energy grid, to distil water in regions with limited clean water
supplies and to power satellites in space. Solar energy can also be integrated into the
materials used for buildings. Not long ago “Sharp” introduced transparent solar energy
windows.

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 4. Low Maintenance Costs
Solar energy systems generally don’t require a lot of maintenance. You only need
to keep them relatively clean, so cleaning them a couple of times per year will do the job.
In some countries, there are companies who specialized in cleaning equipment and
devices used in a solar technology system. They offer service from around £25-£35 (about
Php 1,700 to Php 2,400).
Most reliable solar panel manufacturer offer 20-25 years warranty.
Also, as there are no moving parts, there is no wear and tear. The inverter is
usually the only part that needs to be changed after 5-10 years because it is continuously
working to convert solar energy into electricity and heat. Apart from the inverter, the cables
also need maintenance to ensure your solar power system runs at maximum efficiency.
So, after covering the initial cost of the solar system, you can expect very little
spending on maintenance and repair work.

5. Technology Development
Technology in the solar power industry is constantly advancing and improvements
will intensify in the future. Innovations in quantum physics and nanotechnology can
potentially increase the effectiveness of solar panels and double, or even triple, the
electrical input of the solar power systems.

Disadvantages of Solar Energy:

1. Cost
The initial cost of purchasing a solar system is fairly high. This includes paying for
solar panels, inverter, batteries, wiring, and the installation. Nevertheless, solar
technologies are constantly developing, so it is safe to assume that prices will go down in
the future.

2. Weather-Dependent
Although solar energy can still be collected during cloudy and rainy days, the
efficiency of the solar system drops. Solar panels are dependent on sunlight to effectively
gather solar energy. Therefore, a few cloudy, rainy days can have a noticeable effect on
the energy system. It should also be taken into account that solar energy cannot be
collected during the night.

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3. Solar Energy Storage is Expensive
Solar energy has to be used right away, or it can be stored in large batteries. These
batteries, used in off-the-grid solar systems, can be charged during the day so that the
energy is used at night. This is a good solution for using solar energy all day long but it is
also quite expensive.
In most cases, it is smarter to just use solar energy during the day and take energy
from the grid during the night (this is only possible if the household’s system is connected
to the grid).

4. Uses a Lot of Space

The higher the household’s demand on electricity, the more solar panels are
needed in order to collect as much sunlight as possible. Solar PV panels require a lot of
space and some roofs are not big enough to fit the number of solar panels needed for
producing sufficient amount of electricity.
An alternative is to install some of the panels in an open yard provided that the
location have access to sunlight. Some households without enough space to place the
panels opt to install fewer numbers in order to still satisfy some of their energy needs.

5. Associated with Pollution

Although pollution related to solar energy systems is far less compared to other
sources of energy, solar energy can be associated with pollution. Transportation and
installation of solar systems have been associated with the emission of greenhouse gases.
There are also some toxic materials and hazardous products used during the
manufacturing process of solar photovoltaic systems, which can indirectly affect the
environment.
Nevertheless, solar energy pollutes far less than other alternative energy sources.

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Answer the following questions in no more than five (5) sentences.
1. What makes solar technology a clean source of energy? Why?
2. What are the drawbacks of utilizing the sun’s energy using photovoltaic technology?
3. What impact would the application of solar energy bring in the field of agriculture?
4. What are the possible constraints that restrict our local farmers from benefitting solar
power technology?

https://news.energysage.com/what-is-solar-energy/

https://us.sunpower.com/solar-array-definition

https://www.nrel.gov/research/re-photovoltaics.html

https://climatescience.org/advanced-energy-

solar/?gclid=Cj0KCQjw3duCBhCAARIsAJeFyPXkFDnICOUSVj36w8dmekZ5Y_t1cJAyq

wuLI7GzMCTajkSsE2YpgJQaAooHEALw_wcB

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/solar-energy/

https://science.nasa.gov/ems/09_visiblelight

https://scindeks-clanci.ceon.rs/data/pdf/1451-4117/2016/1451-41171604481R.pdf

https://ei.lehigh.edu/learners/energy/readings/solar.pdf

https://www.greenmatch.co.uk/blog/2014/08/5-advantages-and-5-disadvantages-of-solar-energy

https://youtu.be/xKxrkht7CpY

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