1.3 What is Classical Mechanics?

Classical mechanics is the study of the motion of bodies in accordance with the
general principles first enunciated by Sir Isaac Newton in his Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica (1687). Classical mechanics is the foundation upon which all
other branches of Physics are built. It has many important applications in many areas
of science:
I Astronomy (motion of stars and planets)
I Molecular and nuclear physics (collisions of atomic
and subatomic particles)
I Geology (e.g., the propagation of seismic waves)
I Engineering (eg structures of bridges and buildings)

Classical Mechanics covers:

I The case in which bodies remain at rest
I Translational motion– by which a body shifts from one point in space to another
I Oscillatory motion– e.g., the motion of a pendulum or spring
I Circular motion–motion by which a body executes a circular orbit about another
fixed body [e.g., the (approximate) motion of the earth about the sun]
I More general rotational motion–orbits of planets or bodies that are spinning
I Particle collisions (elastic and inelastic)
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 Forces in mechanics

Relative magnitude of forces:

I Strong force - nuclear : ∼ 1
1
I Electromagnetism - charged particles : 137
I Weak force - β decay : ∼ 10−5
I Gravitational - important for masses, relative strength :
∼ 10−39

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 Not too fast!

Classical Mechanics valid on

scales which are:
I Not too fast
I eg. high energy particle
tracks from CERN
I v << c [speed of light in
vacuo]
I If too fast, time is no longer
absolute - need special
relativity.

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 Not too small!
Classical Mechanics valid on
scales which are:
I Not too small!
I Images of atom planes in a
lattice by scanning
tunneling electron
microscope
I Particles actually have
wave-like properties :
λ = ph (h = 6.6 × 10−34 Js)
I Hence for scales >> λ,
wave properties can be
ignored

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 Not too large!

Classical Mechanics valid on

scales which are:
I Not too large!
I Gravitational lens
produced by a cluster of
galaxies
I Space is “flat” in classical
mechanics - curvature of
space is ignored
I Also in Newtonian
mechanics, time is
absolute

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 1.4 Vectors in mechanics
The use of vectors is essential in the formalization of classical
mechanics.
I A scalar is characterised by magnitude only: energy,
temperature.
I A vector is a quantity characterised by magnitude and
direction: eg. Force, momentum, velocity.
Notation:
I Vector: a (bold); in components
a = (ax , ay , az )
I Magnitude of a is |a| or simply a.

I Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude

and direction (i.e. parallel)
a = b gives ax = bx , ay = by , az = bz
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 1.4.1 Vector components in 3D

Projecting the components:

p = (px , py , pz )

I x-component
px = |p| sin(θ) cos(φ)
I y-component
py = |p| sin(θ) sin(φ)
I z-component
pz = |p| cos(θ)
√
I Magnitude |p| = (px2 + py2 + pz2 )
I Direction tan(φ) = (py /px )
cos(θ) = (pz /|p|)

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 1.4.2 Unit vectors
I A unit vector is a vector with
magnitude equal to one.
I e.g. Three unit vectors defined by z
orthogonal components of the
Cartesian coordinate system: k
I i = (1,0,0), obviously |i| = 1
I j = (0,1,0), |j| = 1
I k = (0,0,1), |k| = 1 O y
I A unit vector in the direction of j
general vector a is written i
â = a/|a| x
I a is written in terms of unit
vectors a = ax i + ay j + az k

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 1.4.3 Vector algebra

Sum of two vectors

I To calculate the sum of two vectors
c=a+b
Triangle rule: Put the second vector
nose to tail with the first and the
resultant is the vector sum.
I c = a + b : in (x, y, z) components
(cx , cy , cz ) = (ax +bx , ay +by , az +bz )
I Alternatively c = a + b
cx i + cy j + cz k =
(ax + bx )i + (ay + by )j + (az + bz )k

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Vector algebra laws

I a + b = b + a : commutative law
I a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c:
associative law
I Can treat vector equations in same
way as ordinary algebra
a+b=c ⇒ a=c−b
I Note that vector −b is equal in
magnitude to b but in the opposite
direction.
so a − b = a + (−b)

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Multiplication of a vector by a scalar

I This gives a vector in the same direction as the original but

of proportional magnitude.
I For any scalars α and β and vectors a and b
I (αβ) a = α(β a ) = β(α a ) = a (αβ) : associative &
commutative
I (α + β)a = αa + βa : distributive
I α(a + b) = αa + αb

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 2.1.1 The scalar (dot) product

Scalar (or dot) product definition:

a.b = |a|.|b| cos θ ≡ ab cos θ
(write shorthand |a| = a ).

I Scalar product is the magnitude of a

multiplied by the projection of b onto a.

I Obviously if a is perpendicular to b then

a.b = 0

I Also a.a = |a|2 (since θ =0◦ )

√
Hence a = (a.a)

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 Properties of scalar product

(i) i.i = j.j = k.k = 1 and i.j = j.k = k.i = 0

(ii) This leads to a.b = (ax i + ay j + az k).(bx i + by j + bz k)

= ax bx + ay by + az bz

iii) a.b = b.a : commutative

a.(b + c) = a.b + a.c : distributive

(iv) Parentheses are important

Note (u.v) w 6= u (v.w) because one is a vector along ŵ,
the other is along û.

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 2.1.2 The vector (cross) product
Vector (or cross) product of two vectors,
definition:
a × b = |a||b| sinθ n̂

where n̂ is a unit vector in a direction perpendicular to both a and b.

To get direction of a × b use right hand rule:
I i) Make a set of directions with your right
hand→ thumb & first index finger, and with
middle finger positioned perpendicular to plane
of both
I ii) Point your thumb along the first vector a a

I iii) Point your 1st index finger along b, making

the smallest possible angle to a
I iv) The direction of the middle finger gives the b

direction of a × b . c=axb

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 Properties of vector product

I i×j=k ; j×k=i ; k×i=j ; i × i = 0 etc.

I (a + b) × c = (a × c) + (b × c) : distributive

I a × b = −b × a : NON-commutative

I (a × b) × c 6= a × (b × c) : NON-associative

I If m is a scalar,
m(a × b) = (ma) × b = a × (mb) = (a × b)m

I a × b = 0 if vectors are parallel (0o )

i.e a × a = 0

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 Vector product in components

Cross product written out in components:

I a × b = (ax , ay , az ) × (bx , by , bz )
= (ax i + ay j + az k) × (bx i + by j + bz k)
I Since i × i = j × j = k × k = 0 and i × j = k etc.
I a × b = (ay bz − az by )i − (ax bz − az bx )j + (ax by − ay bx )k

This is much easier when we write in determinant form:

 
 i j k 
 
a × b =  ax ay az 
 (1)
 bx by bz 

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2.1.3 Examples of scalar & vector products in mechanics

I a) Scalar product
Work done on a body by a force through
distance dr from position 1 to 2
R2
W12 = 1 F.dr
Only the component of force parallel to
the line of displacement does work.

I b) Vector product
A torque about O due to a force F
acting at B :
τ =r×F
Torque is a vector with direction
perpendicular to both r and F,
magnitude of |r||F| sin θ.

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 2.2 Differentiation of vectors
Notation: a dot above the function indicates derivative wrt time.
A “dash” indicates derivative wrt a spatial coordinate.

dy dy
ẏ ≡ y0 ≡
dt dx
a(t + ∆t) − a(t) ∆a
ȧ = lim = lim
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t

a(t) = ax (t)i + ay (t)j + az (t)k

 
ax (t + ∆t) − ax (t)
ȧ = lim i + ...
∆t→0 ∆t

Hence ȧ = ȧx i + ȧy j + ȧz k

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 2.2.1 Vector velocity

I ∆r = r2 − r1

∆r
v = lim
∆t→0 ∆t

I Velocity at any point is

tangent to the path at that
point
dr
I v= dt = ṙ

In one dimension:
dx
Abandon vector notation and simply write v = dt = ẋ,
(+v in +x direction, −v in −x direction).
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 Example - 1D motion
A body has velocity v0 = −15 ms−1 at position x0 = 20m and
has a time-dependent acceleration a(t) = 6t − 4 [ms−2 ]. Find
the value of x for which the body instantaneously comes to rest.

I a(t) = 6t − 4 [ms−2 ] ; x0 = 20 m ; v0 = −15 ms−1

v̇ = 6t − 4 → v = a(t)dt = 3t 2 − 4t + c
R
I

I At t = 0, v = −15 ms−1 → c = −15 ms−1

I v = 3t 2 − 4t − 15
I v = 0 for 3t 2 − 4t − 15 = 3(t − 3)(t + 35 ) = 0
→ t = 3s (also − 53 s)
v (t)dt = t 3 − 2t 2 − 15t + c 0 → x = 20 m at t = 0, c 0 = 20 m
R
I x=
I x(t) = 27 − 18 − 45 + 20 = −16 m
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 2.2.2 Vector acceleration

I ∆v = v2 − v1

∆v
a = lim = v̇ = r̈
∆t→0 ∆t

In one dimension:
dv
Abandon vector notation and simply write a = dt = v̇ = ẍ,
(+a in +x direction, −a in −x direction).

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Example: constant acceleration - projectile motion in 2D
dv
I a= dt = constant
I r = 0 at t = 0
Rv Rt
v0 dv = 0 adt
I

dr
→ v = v0 + at → v = dt
Rr Rt
0 dr = 0 (v0 + at)dt
I

→ r = v0 t + 21 at 2

Under gravity: a = −g ŷ → ax = 0; ay = −g

I vx = v0 cos θ I x = (v0 cos θ)t

I vy = v0 sin θ − gt I y = (v0 sin θ)t − 12 gt 2

g
Trajectory: y = (tan θ)x − 2v02
(sec2 θ)x 2

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 The monkey and the hunter

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 3.1 Dimensional analysis
I A useful method for determining the units of a variable in
an equation
I Useful for checking the correctness of an equation which
you have derived after some algebraic manipulation.
Dimensions need to be correct !
I Determining the form of an equation itself
Most physical quantities can be expressed in terms of
combinations of basic dimensions. These are certainly not
unique :
I mass (M)
I length (L)
I time (T)
I electric charge (Q)
I temperature (θ)
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Note: The term "dimension" is not quite the same as "unit", but
obviously closely related.

Quantity Unit Dimension

Frequency Hertz (Hz) = (cycles) s−1 T −1

Force Newton (N) = kg m s−2 MLT −2
Energy Joule (J) = N m = kg m2 s−2 ML2 T −2
Power Watt (W) = J s−1 = kg m2 s−3 ML2 T −3
Current Ampere (A) = Cs−1 QT−1
EMF Volt (V) = Nm C−1 = kg m2 s−2 C −1 ML2 T−2 Q−1

Dimensional analysis is best illustrated with examples.

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