1.

3 FINITE GEOMETRIES
In this section we will investigate several geometries, each having a small number
of axioms and theorems and only a finite number of points. These finite geometries, as we
call them, afford us the opportunity to study a geometry of relatively simple structure using
the axiomatic method. In these investigations we will begin to recognize the importance of
relying on our axioms and on the underlying logical structure in determining the “truth” of
our theorems.

Four-Point Geometry
The Four-point geometry, which, as you will see, derives its name from its first
axiom, has as its undefined terms point, line, and “on”. The following set of three axioms
will be assumed:
Axiom 1. There exist exactly four points.
Axiom 2. Any two distinct points have exactly one line on both of them.
Axiom 3. Each line is on exactly two points.
Now as mentioned in a previous section, models often offer insight into an
axiomatic system. If points are interpreted as dots on the paper and lines as pencil lines, a
model of the four-point geometry can be represented by many drawings, three of which are
shown in Figure 1.3.1.

The reader should verify that all three axioms apply to all three figures.

Definition 1.3.1. Two lines on the same point are said to intersect and are called
intersecting lines.

Definition 1.3.2. Two lines that do not intersect are called parallel lines.

Four-Point Theorem 1. In the Four-point geometry, if two distinct lines intersect, then
they have exactly one point in common.

Proof. By Definition 1.3.1, two distinct intersecting lines have at least one point in
common, and Axiom 2 prohibits them from having more than one in common.
Four-Point Theorem 2. The Four-point geometry has exactly six lines.
Proof. From Axiom 2, each pair of points has exactly one line on both of them, and Axiom
1 provides four points. Thus, by simple combinatorics, there must exist six pairs of points,
hence six lines. Axiom 3 guarantees no more and no less.

Four-Point Theorem 3. Each point of the Four-point geometry has exactly three lines on
it.
Proof. By Axiom 2, each point has a line in common with each of the other three points.
Therefore we have at least three lines on each point. Suppose a fourth line was on one of
the given points, then, by Axiom 3, it must be on one of the other points, but this would
violate Axiom 2. There¬ fore there are exactly three lines on each point.

Four-Point Theorem 4. In the Four-point geometry, each distinct line has exactly one line
parallel to it.
Proof. Axioms 1 and 3 provide us with a line / and a point P not on /. Four-point Theorem
3 tells us that there are exactly three lines on P, and Axiom 2 tells us that two of them must
intersect /. Therefore we have at least one line parallel to /. Suppose that there was a second
line parallel to /. This line could not contain P without violating Four-point Theorem 3, and
since it is parallel to /, it cannot contain either of the points on /. Now either the second
parallel contains only one point, which violates Axiom 3, or there exists a fifth point,
which violates Axiom 1. Therefore the second parallel cannot exist, and there exists
exactly one.
Alternate Proof. Since this geometry is finite, it is possible to examine every possible case
of points and lines. By using Figure 1.3.2, where the points are represented by the letters A,
B, C, and D and the lines by columns of letters, we may check directly to see that two
distinct lines intersect in exactly one point, that there must be exactly six lines, that each
point has exactly three lines on it, and that each line has exactly one line parallel to it.

The Geometries of Fano and Young

 The next two finite geometries we will investigate take on a slightly different
character than those of the last section, in that their axioms do not explicitly state the
number of points or the number of lines in the geometry. We must make use of the
interrelationships among the axioms to discover and prove the exact number of points and
lines as theorems.
The first geometry is of historical significance, since it was Gino Fano who first
initiated the study of finite geometries. In 1892, Fano considered a finite three-dimensional
geometry consisting of 15 points, 35 lines, and 15 planes. One of those planes yields the
finite geometry presented here. The following five axioms completely characterize what
we will call Fano's geometry, with point, line, and “on” serving as the undefined terms:

At this time, the reader is encouraged to use the axioms to devise a model for
Fano’s geometry before progressing further. Two representations of a model for Fano’s
geometry can be found in Figures 1.3.3a and 1.3.3b.
As we begin to make conjectures about Fano’s geometry, we may find the representation
contained in Figure 1.3.3b to be of greater assistance. Since not every set of three points
forms a line in the geometry, Figure
1.3.3a is subject to misinterpretation, whereas in Figure 1.3.3b the lines are explicitly
stated.

Fano’s Theorem 1. In Fano’s geometry, two distinct lines have exactly one point in
common.
Proof. Figure 1.3.3b is easily checked for this result. However, the reader is encouraged to
provide a proof without directly referring to the model. (See Exercise Set 1.3, Problem 13.)

Fano’s Theorem 2. Fano’s geometry contains exactly seven points and seven lines.
Proof. Axioms 1 through 3 provide us with at least four points, three of which are on a line
l, and one point P which is not on l. Now by Axiom 4, P and each point on line l must
determine a distinct line, and by Axiom 2, each of these lines must contain three points.
These three points cannot be any of the original four points without violating Axiom 4;
therefore we have at least seven points. We must now show that there cannot be more than
seven points. Assume that there exists a distinct eighth point Q. Points P and Q must
determine a line m, which by Axiom 5 must intersect l. The point of intersection cannot be
any of the three points on l without violating Axiom 4; therefore l must contain a fourth
point, which contradicts Axiom 2. The proof that Fano’s geometry has exactly seven lines
is left for the reader. (See Exercise Set 1.3, Problem 14.)

It should be noted that if we define parallel lines as before, Fano’s geometry is an

example of a geometry that has no parallel lines. Additional theorems in Fano’s geometry
can be found in the exercises at the end of the section.
The second geometry we will investigate provides an example of how changing
only one axiom can create a distinctly different system. The new geometry, called Young's
geometry, assumes the first four axioms of Fano’s geometry along with the following
replacement for Axiom 5.
Axiom 5. For each line l and each point P not on /, there exists exactly one line on
P that does not contain any points on l.
Figure 1.3.4 depicts a model of Young’s geometry in which the points are the letters A
through l and the lines are columns of letters:
 Closer inspection of Axiom 5 in Young’s geometry indicates that this geometry
does indeed have parallel lines.

Young’s Theorem 1. Every point in Young’s geometry is on at least four lines.

Proof. Let P be any point, and let l be any line that does not contain P. By Axiom 2, /
contains exactly three points, and by Axiom 4, P and each point on line / must determine a
distinct line; therefore we have at least three lines. Now by Axiom 5, there must be a line
that contains P but contains no points on l; thus we have at least four lines.

Young’s Theorem 2. Young’s geometry contains exactly nine points.

The proof is left as an exercise. See exercise set 1.3, problem 23.

Young’s Theorem 3. Young’s geometry contains exactly 12 lines.

The proof is left as an exercise. See exercise set 1.3, problem 24.
In the next section we will investigate another characteristic type of axiomatic geometry
that is not necessarily finite in nature.
 EXERCISE SET 1.3
Finite Geometries
1. Verify that Four-point Theorems 1 through 4 are “correct” in each of the drawings in
Figure 1.3.1.
2. Devise a concrete model for the Four-point geometry.
3. Devise an abstract model for the Four-point geometry.
4. Prove that there exists a set of two lines in the Four-point geometry that contains all
the points of the geometry.
5. Rewrite each of the axioms of the Four-point geometry interchanging the words
“point” and “line” (and making appropriate adjustments in the grammar and
definitions Each of these new axioms is called a plane dual; the resulting geometry is
called the Four-line geometry.
6. Rewrite each of the theorems of the Four-point geometry interchanging the words
“point” and “line.” These new statements are theorems in the Four-line geometry.
7. If points are interpreted as dots on the paper and lines as dashes, make a drawing
representing a model of the Four-line geometry.
8. Without using the principle of duality, prove that the Four-line geometry has exactly
six points.
9. Without using the principle of duality, prove that each line of the Four-line geometry
has exactly three points on it.
10. Without using the principle of duality, prove that in the Four-line geometry a set of
two lines cannot contain all the points of the geometry.
11. Suppose that Axiom 1 of the Four-point geometry is changed to read as follows: There
exist exactly five points. Also suppose that Axioms 2 and 3 remain the same.
(a) Make a drawing representing the new five-point geometry.
(b) State and prove at least two theorems in the five-point geometry. {Hint: See
Exercise Set 1.2, Problems 5 through 9.)

The Geometries of Fano and Young

12. Devise a model that demonstrates the absolute consistency of Fano’s geometry.
13. Prove Fano’s Theorem 1 without using the models.
14. Complete the proof of Fano’s Theorem 2 by proving that Fano’s geometry has exactly
seven lines.
15. In Fano’s geometry prove that each point is on exactly three lines.
16. In Fano’s geometry prove that the set of all lines on any point contains all the points of
the geometry.
17. In Fano’s geometry prove that for any pair of points there exists exactly two lines
containing neither point.
18. In Fano’s geometry prove that for any set of three nonconcurrent lines there exists
exactly one point not on any of the three lines.
19. Show that each of the axioms in Fano’s geometry is independent.
20. Write the plane dual for each of the axioms of Fano’s geometry and draw a
representation of a model satisfying these axioms.
21. Devise a dot-and-pencil-line model for Young’s geometry.
22. Prove the stronger version of Young’s Theorem 1 in which each point must lie on
exactly four lines.
23. Prove Young’s Theorem 2.
24. Prove Young’s Theorem 3.
25. In Young’s geometry, prove that every line has exactly two lines parallel to it.
26. In Young’s geometry, prove that two lines parallel to a third line are parallel to each
other.
27. In Young’s geometry, suppose that Axiom 2 is changed to read as follows: There are
exactly two points on every line. How many points and lines would the geometry
have? What if every line had exactly four points? Generalize your result for the case
where each line contains exactly n points (n being some positive integer).
28. Describe the similarities and/or differences between Young’s geometry and Fano’s
geometry.
 1.4 AXIOMS FOR INCIDENCE GEOMETRY

In the previous two sections we applied the axiomatic method in a geometric setting
to prove results in several examples of finite geometries. Our past experience should
indicate that geometries exist that do not have a finite number of points and lines. In this
section we will investigate a set of axioms that does not explicitly state that the number of
points or lines is finite. In particular, we will find that the axioms apply to both finite and
infinite geometries.
As before, our undefined terms will consist of point, line, and “on”, and we will
assume the following four axioms as a basis for our geometry.

Incidence Axiom 1. For each two distinct points there exists a unique line on both of them.
Incidence Axiom 2. For every line there exist at least two distinct points on it.
Incidence Axiom 3. There exist at least three distinct points.
Incidence Axiom 4. Not all points lie on the same line.

Any geometry that satisfies all four incidence axioms will be called an incidence geometry.

Example 1.4.1
Consider the Four-point geometry in Section 1.3. Axiom 2 is essentially the same as
Incidence Axiom 1, Axiom 3 implies Incidence Axiom 2, and Axioms 1 and 2 together
imply Incidence Axioms 3 and 4. Therefore the Four- point geometry is an incidence
geometry.

Example 1.4.2
Fano’s geometry and Young’s geometry are examples of incidence geometries.

Example 1.4.3
Recall your high school geometry and consider a fixed circle in the plane. Suppose that we
interpret “point” as any point in the interior of the circle, and interpret “line” as an open
chord of the circle. This model represents an incidence geometry containing an infinite
number of points.

Example 1.4.4
The Four-line geometry discussed in Problem 5 in Exercise Set 1.3 is not an incidence
geometry since Incidence Axiom 1 is not satisfied.
 The following theorems represent only a sample of the types of theo¬ rems that can
be proven using only the axioms of incidence geometry. Additional theorems in a variety
of different incidence geometries can be found in the exercises at the end of this section.

Incidence Theorem 1. If two distinct lines intersect, then the inter¬ section is exactly one
point.
Proof. If lines l and m intersect, then by definition the intersection is at least one point P.
Now if we assume that l and m share a second distinct point Q, we have different lines
each containing distinct points P and Q. But this violates Incidence Axiom 1.

Incidence Theorem 2. For each point there exist at least two lines containing it.
Proof. First we observe, as a consequence of Incidence Axioms 3 and 4, that for every
point P there is at least one line / not containing P. Now Incidence Axiom 2 provides that /
must contain at least two points, and by Incidence Axiom 1, P and each of these points
determines a unique line. Therefor there are at least two lines on P.

Incidence Theorem 3. There exist three lines that do not share a common point.
Proof. By Axioms 3 and 4, our incidence geometry must have three noncollinear points.
These three points must pairwise determine distinct lines. Therefor there are at least three
lines, and these lines cannot all share the same point.
At this stage we may wish to consider the question of the existence of parallel lines
(nonintersecting lines) in incidence geometry. Our incidence axioms do not explicitly state
that parallel lines exist, and therefore, we may ask, Can we prove that they exist? It is here
that investigating models of incidence geometry can prove to be helpful. Since Fano’s
geometry is a model of incidence geometry that has no parallel lines, it should be clear that
the existence of parallel lines cannot be deduced from the axioms. There¬ fore if we are to
prove that a model of incidence geometry has parallel lines, they must be the result of an
axiom or its consequences. For example, Young’s geometry is an incidence geometry that
has parallel lines as a con¬ sequence of its Axiom 5.
If we consider any line / and any point P, where P is not on /, then three
possibilities exist for a parallel axiom.
1. There exist no lines on P that are parallel to l.
2. There exists exactly one line on P that is parallel to l, or
3. There exists more than one line on P parallel to l.
As we will discover in subsequent chapters, an incidence geometry that assumes alternative
2 above or its axioms imply some equivalent statement is said to be Euclidean or to have
the Euclidean parallel property. If the incidence geometry assumes alternative 1 or 3, or its
axioms imply some equivalent statement, then it is said to be non-Euclidean.

Example 1.4.5
The Four-point geometry has the Euclidean parallel property since its axi¬ oms imply
alternative 2.

Example 1.4.6
Young’s geometry has the Euclidean parallel property since its Axiom 5 is equivalent to
alternative 2.

Example 1.4.7
Fano’s geometry has the non-Euclidean property since its Axiom 5 is equiv¬ alent to
alternative 1.

Example 1.4.8
The five-point geometry discussed in Problem 11 in Exercise Set 1.3.1 has the non-
Euclidean property, since its axioms imply that for any line l and any point P not on line l
there exist two lines through P and parallel to l, which satisfies alternative 3.
Example 1.4.9
The geometry in Example 1.4.3 has the non-Euclidean property since it satisfies alternative
3.
In the first section of this chapter we made a brief reference to the systematic study
of geometry made by Euclid in the Elements. The question that naturally arises seems to
be, How does Euclid’s development fare when viewed as an axiomatic system in the
context of this chapter? In the next chapter we shall attempt to answer this question and in
doing so gain further insight into our own investigation of geometry.
 EXERCISE SET 1.4
1. Verify that Fano’s geometry and Young’s geometry are both incidence geome¬ tries.
2. Show that the axioms of incidence geometry are independent.
3. Determine which of the following interpretations of the undefined terms are models
of incidence geometry and indicate which parallel alternative is exhibited.
(a) Points are points on a Euclidean plane, and lines are nondegenerate circles in the
Euclidean plane.
(b) Points are points on a Euclidean plane, and lines are all those lines on the plane
that pass through a given fixed point P.
(c) oints are points on a Euclidean plane, and lines are concentric circles all having
the same fixed center.
(d) Points are Euclidean points in the interior of a fixed circle, and lines are the parts
of Euclidean lines that intersect the interior of the circle.
(e) Points are points on the surface of a Euclidean sphere, and lines are great circles
on the surface of that sphere.
(f) The same as part (e) except that any two points that lie on opposite ends of a
diameter are identified as the same point.
(g) Points are points on a Euclidean hemisphere (not including those points on the
great circle that define the hemisphere) and lines are great semicircles (i.e., those
points on a great circle that intersect with the hemisphere).
(h) In Euclidean 3-space, points are interpreted as lines and lines are interpreted as
Euclidean planes.
(i) Points are lines in Euclidean 3-space, and lines are Euclidean planes all of which
contain the same fixed line.
4. An incidence geometry that exhibits the Euclidean parallel property is called an
affine geometry. Which of the geometries discussed in Sections 1.3 and E4 are affine
geometries?
5. Prove that in a finite affine geometry all lines must contain the same number of
points.
6. In an affine geometry prove that if a line is parallel to one of two intersecting lines,
then it must intersect the other.
7. In a finite affine geometry prove that if every line contains exactly n points, then
every point has exactly (n + 1) lines on it.
8. In a finite affine geometry prove that if every line contains exactly n points, then
there are exactly n2 points and n(n + 1) lines in the geometry. (See Exercise Set 1.3,
Problem 27.)
9. An incidence geometry having no parallel lines (parallel alternative 1) and in which
each line has at least three points is called a projective geometry. Which of the
geometries discussed in Sections 1.3 and 1.4 are projective geometries?
10. Consider Fano’s geometry with Axiom 2 replaced by the following: There are
exactly four points on every line. Devise a model for this geometry. Is this new
geometry affine or projective? Prove your result.