1/28/2021

Mechanics of Material lab Manual

Teacher Name Dr Rizawan Azam

Prepared and submitted by Hasanat khan

Reg no 2019-civ-199

DEPARTMEN OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

N

TABLE 77 88 99 MODEL

DISPLAY

TABLE

COMPUT
ER
5 4 3 2 1
TABLE

MODEL DISPLAY
1. 10 Ton Buckton Universal Testing Machine
2. 50 Ton Denison Universal Testing Machine
3. Shimadzu 500 kN Tension Machine
4. Avery Torsion Testing Machine
5. Charpy Impact Testing Machine
6. 100 Ton Buckton Universal Testing Machine
7. Shimadzu Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine
8. Brinell Hardness Testing Machine
9. Shimadzu Fatigue Testing Machine
1) 10 Ton Buckton Universal Testing Machine

Manufacturer:
Joshua Buckton & Co. Ltd
Leeds England

DETAILS:
Load Measurement System
 Lever balancing system

Scale:
 Main scale
 Vernier Scale

MAXIMUM CAPACITY
10 Ton
Least count
0.001 Ton
Operations
Electric + Manual
TESTs Performed:
 TENSION TEST
 COMPRESSION TEST
 BEND TEST
 SHEAR TEST 1: DIRECT SHEAR 2: DIRECT PUNCHING SHEAR
 TORSION TEST

2) 50 Ton Denison Universal Testing Machine

Manufacturers:
Smal Denison & sons ltd.
Leeds England

Technical Details:
The machine has four different scales for testing various sizes of steel specimen.

Least Counts:
0.005 Tons
0.010 Tons
0.025 Tons
0.050 Tons
 Maximum Capacity:
05 Tons
10 Tons
25 Tons
50 Tons

Operations:
Electric Hydraulic system

TESTs Performed:

1. TENSION TEST
2. COMPRESSION TEST
3. BENDING TEST
 3) Shimadzu 500 kN Tension Machine

Manufacturer:

Shimadzu Corporation
JAPAN

Technical Details:

This Machine has six different scales for testing various sizes of specimen.
Result output can be taken a computer.

Least Count:
0.010 kN
0.025 kN
0.050 kN
0.100 kN
0.250 kN
0.500 kN

Maximum Capacity:

10 kN
25 kN
050 kN
100 kN
250 kN
500 kN

Operation:
Electric operating system

Tests Performed:
1) TENSION TEST
2) COPRESSION TEST
3) BEND TEST

4) Avery Torsion Testing Machine

Manufacturer:
W & T Avery Ltd. Birmingham
England
Technical Details:
This machine has four different scales for testing various sizes of steel specimen.

Maximum Capacity:
0-1500 lb-in
0-3000 lb-in
0-7500 lb-in
0-15000 lb-in

Rotational Speed:
0-3*1/3 degree per minute
0-10 degree per minute
0-30 degree per minute
0-90 degree per minute

Operation:
Electric operating system

Test performed:

 TORSION TEST
5) Charpy Impact Testing Machine

Technical Details:
IT contains a degree scale having range of 0-180 degree.

Maximum Capacity:
180 degree

Least Count:
1 degree

Test Performed:
This machine is used to carry out Impact test for steel specimen in

a) Bending
b) Torsion
6) 100 Ton Buckton Universal Testing
Machine

Technical Details:

Maximum Capacity:
200,000 lb or pounds

Least Count:
1 lb or pound

Scales:
a) 0-20,000 lbs
b) 0-200,000 lbs

Test performed:
 TORSION TEST
 COMPRESSION TEST
  BENDING TESTS

Specimen Used:
 Bars
 Plates
 Concrete
 Beams etc

7) Shimadzu Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine

Manufacturer:
Shimadzu Corporation
JAPAN

Technical details:
This machine has two different scales for low and high carbon steel hardness testing.

Scales:
a) Scale B- Red Color (For low carbon steel)
 b) Scale C- Black (For high carbon steel)

Penetrators:
 For low Carbon steel (steel ball Indenter 1/16 in Dia)
 For high Carbon Steel (Diamond cone indenter (apex angle 120 degree))

Operation:
Manual

Test performed:
 Rockwell hardness test
Objective:
To study and understand small instruments in lab
Instrument No 1:
Vernier Caliper
This instrument is used to measure the
internal and external diameters of solid
cylindrical shapes or bodies.

Least Count:
0.05 mm
1/128 in

Scales:
Vernier Scale
Main Scale

Measurements:
No 1:
Vernier scale reading = 15 mm

Main scale reading = 14 mm

Result = 14 +15*0.05
= 14.75 mm
No 2:
Vernier scale reading = 17 mm

Main scale reading = 41 mm

Result = 41 + 17 * 0.05

= 41.85
Instrument No 2:
Screw gauge
The screw gauge is an instrument used
for measuring exactly the diameter of a thin wire
or the width of a sheet of metal. It comprises of a
U-shaped mount which is fixed with a screwed
pin which is fixed to a thimble. Side by side to
the axis of the thimble, a scale passed in mm is
inscribed.

Least count:
0.01 mm
0.001 cm

Scales:
Main Scale
Circular Scale

Measurements:
No 1
Main Scale reading = 5.5 mm

Circular Scale reading = 15

Result = 5.5 + 15*0.01

= 5.65 mm
NO 2

Main Scale reading = 11 mm

Circular Scale Reading = 32 mm

Result = 11 + 32*0.01

= 11.32 mm
Instrument No 3:
Deflection Gauge
This is an instrument used to measure the
deflections (upward or downward or in any
direction) in different engineering structures.
The gauge on the top of the instrument is kept
in touch with that structure to measure the
deflection which automatically records on the
analogue scale attached with it.
The base of the Gauge is magnetic with an on-
off switch.

Scales:
1) small needle shows a bigger scale
2) Large needle shows a smaller scale

Maximum range:
it is 0.5”

Least count:
0.001”

Measurements:
NO 1:
Taking rotation of needles in clockwise
direction.
Main scale reading = 0.2” or inches

Outer scale reading = 25” or inches

Result = 0.2” + 25” * 0.001”

= 0.225” or inches

Now take rotation of needles in

anticlockwise direction.
Main scale reading = 0.2”
Outer scale reading = 75”

Result = 0.2” + 75” * 0.001”

=0.275” or inches
NO 2:
Taking rotation of needles in clockwise
direction.
Main scale reading = 0.3” or inches

Outer scale reading = 29” or inches

Result = 0.3” + 29” * 0.001”

=0.329” or inches

Now take rotation of needles in

anticlockwise direction.

Main scale reading = 0.1”

Outer scale reading = 70”

Result = 0.2” + 70” * 0.001”

=0.17” or inches
Instrument NO 4:
Dial Gauge
A dial gauge consisting of a circular
graduated dial and a pointer actuated
by a member that contacts with the
part being calibrated. The two arms
like parts of the dial gauge are kept on
the object whose width or depth is to
be measured which in turns
connected with pointer above
calibrated circular scale.

Least:
0.0025”

Maximum range:
1” or inch
Measurement:
As the needle has crossed the 0.8 and
now it is at 3/10 of the distance b/w 0.8
and 0.9 which is 0.1” which is further
divided into two parts and again that into
5 parts and again each of the five parts
into two equal parts and again each of
the two into two equal parts in which
each part is 0.0025”. So the

Current Reading = 0.8” + 0.03”

=0.83”
Instrument No 5:
Extensometer
An extensometer is a device that is
used to measure changes in the
length of an object. It is useful for
stress-strain measurements and
tensile tests. Its name comes from
"extension-meter"
This device is generally used for
measuring shortness, extension and
elongation etc , but we will use it only
for elongation here.

Scales:
Large needle shows small scale.
Small needle shows Large scale.

Maximum range:
5 mm

Least count:
0.001 mm
Measurements:
During the measurement the
needles of the extensometer
rotates in clockwise as well as in
anticlockwise direction. For
elongation the needles rotate in
anticlockwise direction and for
shortness it rotates in clockwise
direction.

No 1
Here the current reading is zero.
No 2:
For Elongation
Main scale reading = 1.2 mm

Outer scale reading = 85 mm

Result = 1.2 + 85*0.001

=1.285 mm

Now for Shortness

Main scale reading = 3.6 mm

Outer scale reading = 115 mm

Result = 3.6 + 115*0.001

=3.715 mm
No 2:
For Elongation

Main scale reading = 3.0 mm

Outer scale reading = 117 mm

Result = 3.0 + 117*0.001

= 3.117 mm

Now for Shortness

Main scale reading = 1.8 mm

Outer scale reading = 83 mm

Result = 1.8 + 83*0.001

= 1.883 mm
Instrument No 6:

steel Ruler
A steel ruler is a measuring tool made of stainless steel sheet. The lines are engraved on the ruler, on the upper and lower sides. The square
end of the ruler is the working edge.
Steel rules come in rigid and flexible versions. While their primary purpose is accurate measurement, they can also be used as guides for laying
out lines, and if rigid enough, for cutting. The thinner, more flexible rules can also be used to measure rounded or cambered work.
Least count:
0.5 mm
1/64 in

Maximum range:
30 cm
12 inches
Instrument No 7
Spring divider

This device is Manufactured from high quality

polished steel. Ground finished points, a fine
adjusting screw is mounted across the legs for
setting the distance between the two points. A
circular spring bow joins the legs, with a knurled
extension attached for use when pivoting
the dividers.
when it is fixed after taking a measurement then
its fixed state legs are compared with a steel
ruler.
Instrument No 8
Inside Caliper:

With the help of this device we can find

out the internal diameters of different
bodies.
A caliper that has two legs with feet that turn
outward; used to
measure inside dimensions, as the diameter
of a hole.
Instrument No 8:
Outside Caliper
The very similar instrument to inside caliper
used to measure external diameter and length
of many objects.
In the same manner after comparing it with the
object for finding the reading it must be
compered with some calibrated device like a
ruler etc.
Also used to measure thickness of objects.
Objectives:
The objective of this experiment is that to find the
 Shear strength of the material
 Shear stress of the of steel material
Apparatus
 Shear jigs
 Vernier caliper
 Steel bar
 Steel plate
Theory
 Shear Force
The tendency of a force that tends to slide one part of the steel member over the other.
 Shear Stress
It is the force per unit area (intensity) acting tangential to the area.
 OR
It is the intensity of the internal force on a plane when the forces are acting parallel to the section.
𝜏= 𝑣/ 𝐴

Types of Shear:

a. Single Shear
b. Double Shear
c. Punching Shear

a. Single Shear

When the shear force tends to shear a single area of cross-section, it is termed as single shear.
 𝑉 𝑉
𝜏= =
𝐴 𝐷2 (𝜋)
4

b. Double Shear

When the shear force tends to shear two areas of cross-section, it is termed as double shear.

𝑉 𝑉
𝜏= =
2𝐴 𝐷2 (𝜋)
4
 c. Punching Shear

When the shear force causes one part of the structure to be punched into the other it is termed as punching shear.
𝑉 𝑉
𝜏 = =
𝐴 𝜋𝐷𝑡

Punching Shear
Procedure:
For direct shear test first we will fit the specimen between the shear jigs and then we will imbalance the 10 Ton Buckton
Machine. After wards we will slowly start balancing the machine by the black key and will keep
On increasing the load and will wait for the sudden breakage of the specimen. When the
Specimen will break then we will note its reading that will be the required shear force.

Observations and Calculations

➢ Direct Shear Test (Steel bar)
Diameter of the specimen, D = 8.65 mm
Shear Force, V = 2.170 ton = 19,313 N
(1 ton = 2000lb, 1 lb = 4.45N)
𝑉 19313
Shear Stress, 𝜏 = 𝜋 ⇒ 𝜏=
( )𝐷2 𝜋 × 8.652 ×10−6
4 4

Shear Strength = 328.6454 MPa

Punching test Procedure
For this test to perform we have to place a sheet of fine steel on the lower jig and then we have to
To imbalance the 10 Ton Buckton Machine, and then we have gradually to balance it through
The black key attached to it. After the failure of the sheet the upper jig will punch into the sheet
And will make a hole in it at that time the Machine will produce a specific sound, which we will determine the failure of the
specimen. At time we will note the reading from the scale above the jig attached to a long beam. That will be our required
reading.

Punching Shear Test (Steel Plate)

Outer diameter, Do = 14.6 mm

Inner diameter, Di = 15.0 mm

𝐷𝑜 +𝐷𝑖 14.6+15.0
Average diameter, D = = mm = 14.8 mm
2 2

Thickness of plate, t = 1.55 mm

Punching force, V = 1.60 ton = 14,240 N

 𝑉 14,240
Shear stress, 𝜏 = =
𝜋𝐷𝑡 𝜋×14.8×10−3 ×1.55×10−3

Shear Strength, 𝝉 = 197.590 MPa

COMMENTS:

In both the experiments we have noted that there is a difference between the shear
strengths. In my opinion that may be due to the difference in the area on which load
is applied. In the second one the area is smaller on which load is applied that’s why
its strength is lower than the first one. The machine was working well and we would
know of the failure of the specimen from the abrupt sound of the machine.
Statement:
To carryout compression test on wooden cubes when load is applied
•
Parallel to grains
•
Perpendicular to grains

Objective
•
To determine the compressive strength of wood
•
To determine the modulus of elasticity of wood (E)
•
To determine the modulus of stiffness of wood (K)
•
To study the anisotropic behavior of wood

Apparatus
•
500 kN Shimardzu Universal Testing Machine
•
Wooden samples (2 samples)
•
Vernier caliper
•
Deflection gauge
 RELATED THEORY
Compressive Strength
The maximum stress that a material can bear in compression is called compressive strength.

Modulus of Elasticity
It is the slope of straight line from zero to elastic limit of stress strain diagram.

𝜎
𝐸=
𝜖
𝐸×𝜖 =𝜎
𝑃 𝛿
=𝐸
𝐴 𝐿
𝑃𝐿
𝛿=
𝐴𝐸
1
𝛿∝
𝐸

Modulus of Stiffness
It is the force required to produce unit deformation.
Isotropic Materials
The materials which exhibit same properties in different direction are known as isotropic material e.g. steel.

Anisotropic Materials
The materials which exhibit different properties in different directions e.g. wood.

Failure of Wooden Cube when Load is applied

Parallel to grains
When load is applied parallel to grains, the wooden sample will take more load to fail. The ability of wood to take more load parallel to grains before

failing is because each fiber acts as a column to take load.

Perpendicular to grains
When load is applied perpendicular to grains, wooden sample takes comparatively less load. This is because each fiber behaves as a beam and the failure of single
fiber will cause the failure of whole sample.
Procedure

For parallel to grains

 First, we have to measure all dimensions of the wooden block.

 Then we have to fix the wooden block in between the upper and lower jigs.
 With grains parallel to the load application.
 And we shall also set there a deflection gauge up.
 So that we could measure the deflection in the wooden block.
 We will note down the deflection reading after specific interval of load. e g 5 kN , 10 kN etc.
 At last we will calculate all the required values.

For perpendicular to grains

 First, we have to measure all dimensions of the wooden block.
 Then we have to fix the wooden block in between the upper and lower jigs.
 With grains perpendicular to the load application.
 And we shall also set there a deflection gauge up.
 So that we could measure the deflection in the wooden block.
 We will note down the deflection gauge reading but at low range values than the first one like 1 KN ,2 kN etc.
 Observations and Calculations
Sample No 1 (Grains Parallel)
L= 50 mm
H= 50 mm
Wooden
W= 50 mm Deflection

gauge
Cylinder

Sample No 2 (Grains perpendicular)

L= 50 mm
W= 50 mm
H= 50 mm

Wooden

Deflection

gauge

Cylind er
FOR PARALLEL TO GRAINS

LOAD P (KN) DEFLECTION GAUGE DEFORMATION 𝛿 % STRAIN STRESS

READING (mm) 𝛿 𝑃
𝜖= × 100 𝜎 = (KN/mm2)
𝐻 𝐴
5 01 0.0254 0.0508 0.002
10 27 0.6858 1.3716 0.004
15 47 1.1938 2.3876 0.006
20 62 1.5748 3.1496 0.008
25 71 1.8034 3.6068 0.010
30 78 1.9812 3.9624 0.012
35 84 2.1336 4.2672 0.014
40 86 2.1844 4.3688 0.016
45 93 2.3622 4.7244 0.018
50 94 2.3876 4.7752 0.020
55 103 2.6162 5.2324 0.022
60 107 2.7178 5.4356 0.024
65 108 2.7432 5.4864 0.026
70 113 2.8702 5.7404 0.028
75 117 2.9718 5.9436 0.030
80 128 3.2512 6.5024 0.032
85 131 3.3274 6.6548 0.034
90 138 3.5052 7.0104 0.036
95 148 3.7592 7.5184 0.038
100 165 4.191 8.382 0.040
FOR Perpendicular to grain

Load (kN) Deflection gauge Deflection (mm) %Strain Stress (kN/mm2)

Reading 𝛿 𝜹 𝑃
𝝐 = 𝑋 100 𝜎=
𝑯 𝐴
01 4 0.1016 0.2032 0.0004
02 11 0.2794 0.5588 0.0008
03 20 0.508 1.016 0.0012
04 26 0.6604 1.3208 0.0016
05 37 0.9398 1.8796 0.0020
06 48 1.2192 2.4384 0.0024
07 60 1.524 3.048 0.0028
08 72 1.8288 3.6576 0.0032
09 87 2.2098 4.4196 0.0036
10 124 3.1498 6.2996 0.0040
11 214 5.4358 10.8716 0.0044
11.5 342 8.687 17.374 0.0046
COMMENTS:

Here in this experiment we observed that there is a difference in

compressive strength of both the tests whether parallel or
perpendicular to grains. That is because of the placement of the
specimen, in parallel to the grains each grain acts as column and in
perpendicular to grains each grain act as a beam that’s why there is
a difference in compressive strength.
Apparatus
 500 kN Shimardzu Universal Testing Machine
 Extensometer (L.C= __________)
 Spring Divider
 Vernier Caliper (L.C= __________)
 Weighing Balance
 Steel Tape
 Hot Rolled Steel Bar

Objectives
There are three objectives:
 To study stress strain behavior of the specimen
 To check the adequacy of the specimen according to the standards
 To determine different mechanical properties of steel
Related Theory
Steel Steel is an alloy of iron with typically a few percent of carbon to improve its strength and fracture resistance compared to iron.
Classification of steel On the basis of carbon content, carbon is classified as follow:

 Low Carbon Steel

 Medium Carbon Steel

 High Carbon Steel

 Mild Carbon Steel

1. Low Carbon Steel
 It is also called Dead Mild Steel. If carbon content is less than 0.2% than this type of carbon is known as Low Carbon Steel.
2. Medium Carbon Steel

If carbon content ranges from 0.2% - 0.6% then it is called Medium Carbon Steel.
3. High Carbon Steel

If carbon content ranges from 0.6% - 1.0% then it is called High Carbon Steel.
4. Mild Carbon Steel

If carbon content ranges from 0.15% - 0.3% then it is called Mild Carbon Steel.
Chemical Composition of Mild Steel

 Carbon C 0.25%

 Sulphur S 0.06%

 Phosphorous P 0.06%
Stress ~ Strain Diagram / Curve
Stress and strain are calculated on the basis of tension test data plotted on a graph with the ordinate representing stress and
abscissa representing the strain is called Stress ~ Strain Diagram.
Proportional Limit
Maximum stress that may be developed during a simple tension test such that the stress is the linear function of strain is called
Proportional Limit.
(No proportional limit exists for brittle materials; it exits only for ductile materials because brittle materials don’t
undergo appreciable deformation before failure and suddenly breaks.)
Elastic Limit

Maximum stress that may be developed during a simple tension test such that there is no permanent or residual
deformation when load is entirely removed is called Elastic Limit.
Hook’s law is not valid after elastic limit and the numerical values of proportional limit and elastic limit are usually
identical.
Yield Point

A point on Stress ~ Strain Curve after which there is increase in strain with no significant increase in stress is called yield point. The phenomenon is
called Yielding. The stress corresponding to yielding point is known as Yield Strength of the material 𝜎 which if represented in Ksi gives the grade of
steel.

The stress may actually decrease momentarily resulting in upper and lower yield points.
Grade 40 and 60 are most commonly used.

Stress ~ Strain Diagram

Strain Hardening Zone
If a ductile material can be stressed considerably beyond the yield point without failure, the material is said to be strain hardened. It is a zone after
yielding when the particles of material re-arrange themselves and start taking load again, so stress starts increasing.

Ultimate Strength / Tensile Strength

Maximum or highest stress on Stress ~ Strain Diagram is also called Ultimate Strength.
It is the maximum strength of the material.

Necking

Localized decreased in cross sectional area of sample after the ultimate strength is called Necking. Necking continuous up to the failure of the material. Due to
necking (cup and cone formation) the cross-sectional area is reduced.

Actual Rupture Strength (ARS)

Actual Rupture Strength can be obtained by dividing the rupture load with actual rupture area. So, the point of actual rupture strength will obviously be higher than
the nominal rupture strength.

Nominal Rupture Strength (NRS)

It is the failure stress calculated based on nominal area. For ductile materials, NRS is always less than ARS.

Modulus of Elasticity

It is called Young’s Modulus. It is the ratio of stress to strain up to proportional limit. It is determined as slope of straight line from 0 to proportional limit of stress ~
strain diagram. Hook’s law

Stress ∝ strain

𝜎=𝐸𝜖

E=

Modulus of elasticity for steel is 200,000 MPa or 29 × 106 Psi

Resilience
The ability of material to absorb energy in the elastic range (i.e. without permanent deformation) is called Resilience.
Modulus of Resilience

It is the amount of work done on a unit volume of material as a simple tensile force is increased from 0 to proportional limit.

It is calculated as the area under stress ~ strain diagram from 0 to proportional limit. Its unit is MPa or Psi.
Toughness

The ability of a metal to deform plastically and to absorb energy in the process before fracture is termed toughness.
Modulus of Toughness

It is the amount of work done (energy absorbed) on a unit volume of material as simple tensile force is increased from 0 to failure of specimen. It is
calculated as total area under stress ~ strain diagram. Its unit is MPa or Psi.
Gauge Length

It is the length between two gauge marks on the bar and serve as a reference to measure strain
For commercial purposes, we take gauge length as 8” and for academic purpose; we take 2” or 50mm.
Various Methods for Determination Of Yielding

There are three methods for determination of yielding.

1. Halting of machine
2. Offset method
3. Specific strain method
4. Luder line method

1. Halting Of Machine Method

It is also called Drop of Beam Method. The stress may decrease momentarily resulting in upper and lower yield points. The yield point during a
simple tension test can be observed by Halting of machine.

2. Offset Method

For the materials that do not give well defined yield point, yield strength is determined by offset method. This consists of drawing a line parallel to
the initial tangent of the stress strain diagram at 0.2% strain.

3. Luder Line Method

When the specimen yields, a pattern of fine lines appears on the polished surface.

4. Specific Strain Method

In this method simply 0.5% of the total strain is marked to determine the corresponding stress, which is yielding stress.

Procedure

First of all we measured the weight of the steel bar with weighing balance.

After that we find the length of bar

Then we marked Gauge length 0f 2inch on steel bar.

Then we fit our specimen in shimadzu universal testing machine and start applying load and also set the extensometer to measure the
Extension in specimen. With increasing of load we were measuring readings of extensometer.
We observe yielding when the load were not changing for sometime.
 When the load reached to certain value the specimen failed and load stop increasing.
At last we measure the elongation of gauge length through spring divider.
And note all the readings.

Observations And Calculations

Least count of extensometer = 0.001 mm/ div

Original diameter of the bar = d = 12.51 mm

Density of steel = steel = 7850 kgm-3

Gauge length = 50 mm

Load Elongation %strain stress

Extensometer ∆
Sr. No. P ∆l Remarks
reading %
(kN) (mm) 100 (MPa)
1 0 500 0 0.000 0.00
2 2 503 0.003 0.006 15.50
3 4 507 0.007 0.014 31.01
4 6 511 0.011 0.022 46.51
5 8 515 0.015 0.030 62.02
6 10 518 0.018 0.036 77.52
7 12 522 0.022 0.044 93.02
8 14 526 0.026 0.052 108.53
9 16 530 0.03 0.060 124.03
10 18 533 0.033 0.066 139.53
11 20 537 0.037 0.074 155.04
12 22 540 0.04 0.080 170.54
13 24 545 0.045 0.090 186.05
14 26 548 0.048 0.096 201.55
15 28 552 0.052 0.104 217.05
16 30 556 0.056 0.112 232.56
17 32 559 0.059 0.118 248.06
18 34 563 0.063 0.126 263.57
19 36 566 0.066 0.132 279.07
20 38 569 0.069 0.138 294.57
21 40 572 0.072 0.144 310.08
22 42 576 0.076 0.152 325.58
23 44 585 0.085 0.170 341.09
24 46 590 0.09 0.180 356.59
25 47.9 594 0.094 0.188 371.32

26 48 603 0.103 0.206 372.09

27 48.1 650 0.15 0.300 372.87 Yield point
28 48.1 700 0.2 0.400 372.87
29 48.1 750 0.25 0.500 372.87
30 48.1 800 0.3 0.600 372.87
31 48.1 850 0.35 0.700 372.87
32 48.1 900 0.4 0.800 372.87
33 48.1 950 0.45 0.900 372.87
34 48.1 1000 0.5 1.000 372.87
35 48.1 1050 0.55 1.100 372.87
36 48.1 1100 0.6 1.200 372.87
37 48.1 1150 0.65 1.300 372.87
38 48.1 1200 0.7 1.400 372.87
39 48.1 1250 0.75 1.500 372.87
40 48.1 1300 0.8 1.600 372.87
41 48.1 1350 0.85 1.700 372.87
42 48.1 1400 0.9 1.800 372.87
43 48.1 1450 0.95 1.900 372.87
44 48.1 1500 1 2.000 372.87
45 48.1 1550 1.05 2.100 372.87
46 48.1 1600 1.1 2.200 372.87
47 48.1 1650 1.15 2.300 372.87
48 50 1678 1.178 2.356 387.60
49 50.5 1688 1.188 2.376 391.47
50 51 1710 1.21 2.420 395.35
51 51.5 1736 1.236 2.472 399.22
52 52 1768 1.268 2.536 403.10
53 52.5 1805 1.305 2.610 406.98
54 53 1835 1.335 2.670 410.85
55 53.5 1870 1.37 2.740 414.73
56 54 1911 1.411 2.822 418.60
57 54.5 1960 1.46 2.920 422.48
58 55 2010 1.51 3.020 426.36
59 55.5 2055 1.555 3.110 430.23
60 56 2100 1.6 3.200 434.11
61 56.5 2150 1.65 3.300 437.98
62 57 2188 1.688 3.376 441.86
63 57.5 2234 1.734 3.468 445.74
64 58 2281 1.781 3.562 449.61
65 58.5 2328 1.828 3.656 453.49
66 58.8 2500 2 4 455.81
67 59 52 2 4 457.36
68 60 53 3 6 465.12
69 61 54 4 8 472.87
70 62 55 5 10 480.62
71 63 56 6 12 488.37
72 64 56.5 6.5 13 496.12
73 65 57 7 14 503.88
 74 66 58 8 16 511.63
75 68 58 8 16 527.13
76 70 59 9 18 542.64
77 72 59 9 18 558.14
78 74 60 10 20 573.64
Point of
79 74.95 62 12 24 581.01
failure

Comparison Of The Properties

Properties Calculated value Standard value

Diameter 12.51 mm 12.7 mm
Nominal dimensions Area 122.915 mm2 129 mm2
perimeter 39.30 mm 39.9 mm
Yield strength 372.87 MPa
Ultimate strength 581.01 MPa
Modulus of toughness 11.94 GPa
Modulus of elasticity 79.718 MPa
Modulus of resilience 36.48 MPa
Yield Strain 0.21 %
Ultimate Strain 24%
Grade 57.04 40
Comment:
In this experiment we learned and observe the stress strain behavior of steel and also stress strain curve. We
became aware of different properties of steel like modulus of elasticity, modulus of resilience ,yielding strength ,modulus of
toughness , necking and plastic region.
It was very much useful experiment for us because steel is frequently usable element in structures.
Objectives
To determine Modulus of Toughness of Steel in Tension and in Bending

Apparatus

 Charpy’s Impact Testing Machine.

 Steel Samples.
 Sample of rectangular x-section for impact test in bending.
 Sample of circular x-section for impact test in tension.
Related Theory
Toughness

The ability of a material to deform plastically and to absorb energy in the process before fracture is called toughness.

Plastic Range

The stress range in which a material will not fail when subjected to a force but will not recover completely so that a permanent deformation results when the force
is removed.

Modulus of Toughness

The amount of energy absorbed in plastic range. It is the amount of work done on a unit volume of material as simple tensile force is increased from 0 to failure of
specimen.
It is calculated as the total area under stress strain diagram. Its units are Psi and MPa.

𝜎
( MPa or Psi)

Types of Loads
Loads can be divided into three types based on their mode of application.

1. Static Loads
2. Dynamic Loads
3. Impact Loads
1. Static Loads
The loads which do not change their magnitude, location or direction are termed as static loads. For example, self-weight of a structure.

2. Dynamic Loads

The loads which change their magnitude, direction or location are known as dynamic loads. For example, wind load, earthquake load, and traffic load etc.

3. Impact Load

A large magnitude of load applied suddenly for a very short interval of time is called impact load. For example, landing of an airplane, explosion, and passing of
vehicles on expansion joints.

Derivation for Modulus of Toughness

mgh

mgh
 ∆

∆𝐸
MOT = --------- (1)
𝑉

∆𝐸 = E1 – E2

∆𝐸 = mgh1 – mgh2 = mg (h1 – h2) --------- (2)

Where

h1 = ho + Rsin (𝜃1 −90) = ho - R cos 𝜃1

h2 = ho + Rsin (𝜃2 −90) = ho - R cos 𝜃2

Equation (2) ∆𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔 (ho - R cos 𝜃1 − ho + R cos 𝜃2 )

∆𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔 (R cos 𝜃2 − R cos𝜃1 )

∆𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔R (cos 𝜃2 − cos𝜃1 )

Procedure

For Bending

 For bending experiment we have measure the initial angle (𝜃1 ) by freely allowing the movement of fork.
 Then we will place the specimen in charpy’s impact machine.
 Afterwards we will allow the fork to hit the specimen.
 After breakage of the specimen we will note the final angle (𝜃2 ).
For Tension

 For this type of experiment we will move the fork freely.

 And we will note the initial angle 𝜃1 .
 Then we will add some additional parts with the fork for properly carrying out the experiment.
 We will fit the specimen in the fork.
 The will lose the fork again to hit the specimen.
 And we will note final angle 𝜃2 .

Comment

In tension’s experiment when we lose the fork for first time it rised upto greater height as compared to the second time it because in the
second time there was a specimen in its path.

Observations and Calculations

Mass of fork = m = 22.9 kg

Radius of fork =R = 0.7 m = 700 mm

Volume of specimen used in tension = V = 0.25 in3 = 5489.67 mm3

Volume of specimen used in bending =V = 0.335 in3 = 4096.76 mm3

Specimen and hammer combined mass (in case of tension) = m = 681g = 0.681 kg
 Height attained by fork
∆𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔R(cos 𝜃2 − cos 𝜃1 )
Volume ∆𝐸
Test Initial Final MOT =
𝑉
name Angle 𝜃 Angle 𝜃

deg deg N-mm mm3 MPa

Bending 151o 139𝑜 18856.38307 5489.67 4.602

Tension 152𝑜 102o 109309.0544 4096.766 19.944

Objective
There are two objectives of this test:
 To study the Bending behavior of Wooden Beam
 To study Modulus Of Elasticity and Modulus Of Rupture of wood

Apparatus
 10 Ton Buckton Universal Testing Machine
 Wooden Beam
 Deflection Gauges
 Measuring Tape
 Related Theory
Bending Moment
Bending moment at a particular transverse cross section of a beam is the algebraic sum of all the moments taken about an axis passing through the
centeroid of cross section of all the loads and reactions applied to the portion of beam on either side of the cross section.
The axis about which the moments are taken is normal to the plane of loading. Moments are measured as a force multiplied by a distance so they
have as unit newton-metres (N-m), or foot-pounds force (ft-lb).

Shear Force

Shear force at any particular transverse cross section of a straight beam on the algebraic sum of all the components acting transverse / normal or
perpendicular to the axis of the beam of all the loads and reactions applied to the beam on either side of the cross section.
Elastic Curve
A line representing the deflected shape of the central line of the beam is called elastic curve.
Bending Stress
Stresses caused by bending moment are called bending or flexural stresses.
𝐌𝐲
𝛔=
𝐈

Modulus Of Rupture

 It is the energy absorbed per unit volume from zero load up till failure.
  It is also known as flexural strength, bend strength, or fracture strength. It is the maximum tensile stress which can be developed in a beam
before failure.

The flexural strength represents the highest stress experienced within the material at its moment of
rupture. It is measured in terms of stress, σ.

Procedure
 First we have to set an wooden beam under the 10 ton bukton machine.
 The we will set up three deflection gauges over there Gx, Gy and Gc each at 250 mm distance.
 Then we will divide the single point into two point load by another beam with two roller supports.
 Afterwards we will apply load and note down deflection gauge reading after each 0.05 tons.
 At last we also note the rapture or failure load when the beam fails.

Comment

In this experiment when we suddenly started increasing the load on wooden beam, it did not failed at once because the load was
divided into two point load, it acted at two different points. So this was the reason behind the late breakage or failure of the beam.

Loading Arrangement (2 Point Loading)

 𝑷 𝑷
𝟐 𝟐
a

𝑷 𝑷
𝟐 𝟐
Calculations and Observations

a = distance between support and point load = 150mm

L = distance between deflection gauges = 500mm
Rupture load = P = 0.50 tons = 4903.325 N

No of ∆
Load Deflection Guage Readings = (𝐺𝑐
obs: 𝐺𝑥 +𝐺𝑦
− 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛)
Tons N Gx Gy Mean= 2
Gc × 𝐿. 𝐶

1 0.05 490.33 22 18 20 22 0.002

2 0.10 980.665 52 44 48 64 0.016
3 0.15 1470.99 78 67 72.5 101 0.0285
4 0.20 1961.33 116 104 110 159 0.049
5 0.25 2451.66 145 132 138.5 201 0.0625
6 0.30 2941.99 178 165 171.5 251 0.0795
7 0.35 3432.32 207 195 201 296 0.095
8 0.40 2922.66 232 219 225.5 334 0.1085
9 0.45 4412.99 265 252 258.5 383 0.1245
10 0.50
Modulus of Rupture

𝑴𝒎𝒂𝒙 × 𝒀𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟑𝑷𝒂

Modulus of Rupture = =
𝑰 𝒃𝒉𝟐
3×(4903.325)×150
Modulus of Rupture =
(50)×(502 )

=17.65197 N

Modulus of Elasticity

𝟑𝒂𝒍𝟐 𝒑′
Modulus of Elasticity = ( )
𝟒𝒃𝒉𝟑 𝒅

3×150×5002
Modulus of Elasticity = ×1522.78
4×50×503

=6852.5
 JOB = 8

To Perform Hardness Test on Different Steel Samples

Objectives
To determine the Rockwell hardness of a given specimen.

Apparatus
Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine
Steel Samples

Related Theory

Hardness
It is defined as the resistance of a metal to plastic deformation against indentation, scratching, abrasion or cutting.

Hardness Test Methods

• Rockwell Hardness Test
• Brinell Hardness Test
• Vickers Hardness Test
• Mohr’s Hardness Test
• Scleroscope Hardness Test
• Durometer Hardness Test
Rockwell Hardness (ASTM E18-20)
The hardness of a material by Rockwell hardness test method is measured by the depth of penetration of the indenter. The depth of penetration is inversely
proportional to the hardness. Both ball and diamond cone types of indenters are used in this test. There are two scales on the machine for taking hardness readings.
Scale “B” with load 100 kgf and 1/16” dia ball indenter is used for performing tests on soft steel, malleable iron, copper, and aluminum alloys. First, a minor load is
applied which eliminates errors in the depth of measurements due to setting down of the specimen and table attachments. The Rockwell hardness is derived from
the measurement of the depth of the impression

EP = Depth of penetration due to the minor load of 10kg.

Ea = Increase in the depth of penetration due to major load.

E = Permanent increase of depth of indentation under minor load at 10kg even after removal of Major load.

This method of test is suitable for finished or machined parts of simple shapes
PROCEDURE:
1. Fix the suitable indenter.

2. Clean the test-piece and place the special anvil or worktable of the machine.

3. Turn the capstan wheel to elevate the test specimen into contact with the indenter point.

4. Apply the minor load.

5. Set the pointer on the Scale dial at the appropriate position.

6. Apply major load.

7. As soon as the pointer comes to rest pull the handle in the reverse direction slowly. This releases the major, but not the minor load. The pointer will now
rotate in the reverse direction.

8. The Rockwell hardness can be read off the scale dial, on the appropriate scale, after the pointer comes to rest.

Step-1
Step-2

Step-3
Observations and Calculations
Load (kg)
Sr. Type of Hardness Mean
Specimen Scale
No. Indenter Major Minor Number Hardness
Load Load
1 1/16” dia 90 10 HR91B
Mild Carbon Steel steel ball
2 B 90 10 HR89B HR89.8B
Specimen indenter
3 90 10 HR89.5B
1 Diamond 140 10 HR62C
High Carbon Steel cone
2 C 140 10 HR63C HR62.3C
Specimen indenter
3 140 10 HR62C

Comment:
In this experiment we saw that how to calculate hardness of different materials and also learned that why hardness is important , where to use
hard materials and soft materials .

It was very much healthy experiment for us.

Thank you Sir