EP 204

Classical Mechanics

Colm Bracken

2nd Year Experimental Physics

2020 - 2021
Maynooth University
EP204 Classical Mechanics

Lecture 1
Introduction
Textbook and Notes
Serway & Jewett: Physics for Scientists and Engineers with
Modern Physics
(I am working from 7th edition)
Earlier (or newer) editions can also be used, but numbered
examples might be different from my edition.

Notes will be posted on Moodle, but will not be handed out.

Additional material will be put on Moodle from time-to-time.
Background reading:
Woolfson & Woolfson: Mathematics for Physics
(Oxford 2007)
EP 204 structure

Thermodynamics 12 lectures Dr. Dan Nickstrom

Classical Mechanics 12 lectures Dr. Colm Bracken

EP 204 assignments

Assignment for Classical Mechanics will be in the form of a

Moodle Quiz.

Final Exam (Originally scheduled for May)

To be decided soon (I will inform you as soon as I know)!
EP204 exam (The usual way, but possibly remote again)
May 2021: 2 hour exam, do 3 out of 5 questions,
with 21/2 mechanics questions
and 21/2 thermodynamics questions
August 2021: repeat paper
NOTE: I do not currently have details regarding possible
changes to final exams.

EP204 evaluation
EP204 Exam 70% (TBC)
Assignments (average) 5% )
Laboratories (average) 18% ) 30% C/A
Formal Report 7% )
total 100%
What is Classical Mechanics?

Classical Mechanics is the branch of physics concerning

the motion of objects that are large relative to atoms, and
move at speeds much slower than the speed of light.

As, at a basic level classical mechanics deals with

Newton’s Laws it is sometimes also referred to as
Newtonian mechanics.

When we deal with motions on very small scales

comparable to the size of atoms we enter the quantum
mechanical regime. When we deal with speeds
approaching the speed of light we enter the regime of
relativity.
The Power of Classical Mechanics

By understanding Newton’s Laws of motion, we can very

accurately describe the behaviour of many systems.
From every day systems, such as a simple pendulum, to a
vibrating string or oscillating spring, right up to the motions of
planets, stars, and entire galaxies!
The Limits of Classical Mechanics
Although Classical Mechanics is extremely powerful in the
range of phenomena it can describe, it does have its limits. We
stated some of these limitations on the previous slide.
But interestingly, if we take a well-behaved system such as the
simple pendulum, and introduce just one more degree of
freedom, things can become very complex and interesting!

Interactive Tool
https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/pendulum-
lab/latest/pendulum-lab_en.html

Python Code for Double-Pendulum

https://scipython.com/blog/the-
double-pendulum/
Topics
The course covers the following chapters from Serway &
Jewett (some paragraphs will be skipped):
Ch2 Motion in one dimension
Ch3 Vectors revision of EP101
Ch4 Motion in two dimensions
Ch5 The Laws of motion
Ch6 Circular motion and other applications of Newton’s laws
Ch7 Energy and energy transfer
Ch8 Potential energy
Ch9 Linear momentum and collisions

This course follows on from the mechanics you did in EP101

(Cutnell & Johnson chapters 2 - 7). We will cover much of the
same material, but in more depth and with more mathematics.
Lecture Structure (How Material is Distributed Over the 6
Weeks

Serway & Jewett, Chapters 2 to 9, to be covered over 12

Lecture Slots

I currently have the material distributed over 10 Lecture Slots,

with the plan to allow for 2 Tutorial Sessions (1 midway, 1 at
end)
However, we will have to see how we go for time.

If we end up needing all of the 12 Slots to complete the

material, we can always add an additional slot or two for
tutorials.
What you are expected to do

 Download the lecture notes from Moodle, and study these

on a regular basis (at least once a week).

 Buy a copy of Serway & Jewett, and study the relevant

chapters on a regular basis (at least once a week).

 Look at the examples in Serway & Jewett, and attempt

some of the problems at the end of each chapter.

 Do the problems in your assignments and hand these in for

marking.

 Learning takes place in your brain and nowhere else. If you

do not engage with the material on a regular basis, you will
learn very little.
Disclaimer

 You will not learn how to play the piano by watching your
teacher play.

 You will not learn to speak a foreign language by hearing

your teacher speak.

 You will not learn physics by watching your teacher do

physics problems on the blackboard, by copying solutions
from your fellow students, or by learning solutions by
heart.

 Passing the exam is not a matter of luck. The exam is an

assessment of what you have learned during the course.
Revision: kinematics

See Jewett & Serway, Chapters 2 – 4

Position, velocity, and acceleration vectors

Motion with constant acceleration
Projectile motion
Uniform circular motion (more in chapter 6)
Tangential and radial acceleration
Relative velocity and relative acceleration
What is kinematics?

Kinematics is the branch of classical mechanics that

describes the motion of points, bodies (objects) and
systems of bodies (groups of objects) without consideration
of the causes of motion.

To describe motion, kinematics studies the trajectories of

objects, specified by position as a function of time, and
their differential properties such as velocity and
acceleration.

In physics we categorise motion into three types – translational, rotational and

vibrational. A car moving along a road is an example of translational motion,
the Earth’s spin on its axis is an example of rotational motion and the back and
forth movement of a pendulum is an example of vibrational motion.
Lets firstly deal with translational motion!
Some definitions – describe the moving body as a particle
regardless of its size – Read Jewett & Serway Chp 2.

Position: A particle’s position is the location of the particle with respect to a chosen
reference point. We will take the reference point to be the origin in an x, y plane. The
motion of a particle is completely known if the particle’s position in space is known at
all times.

Distance: This is defined as the length of a path followed by a particle.

Displacement: Displacement is the change in position in some time interval. If for example
we use x to denote the particle’s position. We use xi for the initial position and xf for
the final position and therefore the displacement Δx = xf – xi. Note the difference
between distance and displacement!!

Speed: Speed is the distance travelled in a particular time interval. It has no direction.
Speed is a scalar.

Velocity: Velocity is the rate of change of displacement or the speed in a particular

direction. Velocity is a vector.
Average Speed: The average speed is the distance travelled divided by the time interval
required to travel that distance.

Average Velocity: The average velocity Vavg is defined as a particle’s displacement Δx

divided by the time interval Δt over which that displacement occurs. Vavg = Δx / Δt. We
can use bold (Vavg ) as velocity is a vector - the average velocity can be 0 even if the
average speed is not.

Instantaneous Velocity: Often we need to know the velocity of a particle at a particular

instant in time rather than the average velocity over a finite time interval. The
instantaneous velocity V equals the limiting value of the ratio Δx / Δt as Δt approaches 0.

In calculus notation, this limit is called the derivative of x with respect to t, written as
dx/dt.

Acceleration: When the velocity of a particle changes with time, the particle is said to be
accelerating. Consider a particle moving along a line with an initial velocity Vi at a time ti
and and a final velocity Vf at a time tf.
The average acceleration aavg = Δv/ Δt = (Vi -Vf)/ (ti – tf) .
The instantaneous accleration
Free Falling Objects
It is a well know that in the absence of air resistance,
all objects dropped near the Earth’s surface fall toward
the Earth at the same constant acceleration under the
influence of the Earth’s gravity. This is referred to a
free-fall motion. The Italian Galileo Galilei (1564 –
1642) originated our present day ideas concerning
falling objects.

A freely falling object is any object moving freely under

the influence of gravity alone, regardless of its initial
motion. Any free falling object experiences an
acceleration directed downwards, regardless of its
initial motion.

The magnitude of free-falling acceleration is denoted by the symbol g. The value of g

decreases with increasing altitude above the Earth’s surface. Furthermore slight variations
in g occur with changes in latitude. At the Earth’s surface, the value of g is approximately
9.8 ms-2 and unless otherwise stated use this value when performing calculations.

If we neglect air resistance and assume the free-fall acceleration does not vary with altitude
over short vertical distances, the motion of a freely falling object moving vertically is
equivalent to the motion of a particle under constant acceleration in one dimension. For
freely falling objects we use a = -g = -9.8 ms-2 to show that the motion is downward or the
negative y direction.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v
Free Falling Objects
=-4_rceVPVSY
On August 2nd 1971, astronaut David Scott conducted a demonstration of free fall motion on
the Moon. As the Moon has no atmosphere there is no air resistance and he demonstrated
that a hammer and feather would fall together to the lunar surface.
 Uniform Accelerated Motion – motion with
constant acceleration
Recall the equations of motion for uniform acceleration. Exercise derive the equations.

u = initial velocity
v = final velocity
a = acceleration
s = displacement
t = time
Example 2.10: motion with constant acceleration
y B
A stone is thrown upwards from the top of a
building with initial velocity 20.0 m/s vertically
upwards. The stone is launched 50 m above
the ground, and the stone just misses the A C x
edge of the roof on the way down.

Calculate (a) the time at which the stone

reaches it maximum height, (b) the maximum
height of the stone, (c) the velocity of the
stone when it returns to the height from which D
it was thrown and (d) the velocity at which
stone hits pavement
We ignore:
 friction of the air
 small horizontal velocity
So this is motion in one dimension.
E
Example 2.10: motion with constant acceleration
y B
If we take the y-axis vertically upwards, and y = 0 at A,
we have:
A C x
Constant acceleration: a0   g  9.8 m/s 2

Initial conditions at A:
tA  0 s yA  0 m vA  20.0 m/s
D
Street level: yE  50 m

E
Example 2.10: motion with constant acceleration

(a) Find the time at which the stone reaches it

maximum height.
Section 1 (AB) 2 (BC) 1 (CE)
u [m/s] u1=20 u2=0 u3=20
y B
v [m/s] v1=0 v2=20 v3=0
a [m/s2] a=-9.81 a=-9.81 a=-9.81
s [m] s1=? s2=2s1 s3=s2+50 A C x
t [s] tt11=?
=2.04 t2=2t1 t3=?

t = u/a = 2.04 s D

E
 y
Example 2.10
B
The equations of motion are:

y(t )   12 g t 2  vAt  yA A C x
v(t )   g t  vA
a0   g (constant)

with initial conditions:

D
yA  0 m
vA  20.0 m/s
and constant acceleration:
E
g  9.8 m/s 2
 y
Example 2.10
B
(a) Find the time at which the stone reaches it
maximum height.
A C x
Answer: at the maximum height (point B)
vB  v(t B )   g t B  vA  0
vA 20.0
 tB    2.04 s
g 9.8
D
And
(b) Find the maximum height of the stone.
yB  y (t B )   12 g t B2  vA t B  yA
  12 (9.8)(2.04) 2  (20.0)(2.04)  0
E
 20.4 m
 y
Example 2.10
B
(c) Find the velocity of the stone when it returns to the
height it was thrown.

Answer: A C x
yC  y A   12 g t 2  vA t  yA  yA
  12 g t 2  vA t  t ( 12 g t  vA )  0
This equation has two solutions:
t  tA  0 D
2vA 2(20.0)
t  tC    4.08 s
g 9.8
The velocity is:
vC   g tC  vA  (9.8)(4.08)  20.0  20.0 m/s
E
The minus sign indicates that the velocity vector is
directed downwards.
 y
Example 2.10
B
(d) Find the velocity with which the stone hits the pavement.

Answer: there are two possible workouts. A C x

1. First calculate tE and then vE:

yE   12 gtE2  vA t E  1
2
gtE2  vAtE  yE  0

vA  vA2  2 gyE
 tE   5.83 s D
g
Taking the solution with the + sign, we find for vE:

vE   gtE  vA  vA2  2 gyE  37.1 m/s

E
The negative sign indicates that the velocity is downwards.
 y
Example 2.10
B
Find the velocity with which the stone hits the pavement.

2. Use the equation we obtain by eliminating time: A C x

vE  vA
vE   g t E  vA  tE 
g
Substitution in yE   12 g tE2  vAtE  yA gives:

D
v  v  2( g )( yE  yA )
2
E
2
A

 vE   2 gyE  vA2  37.1 m/s

Note that this second workout does not give us the

direction (sign) of vE. E
Vectors and scalars

Serway & Jewett, p. 55:

A scalar quantity is specified by a magnitude (a value and

its appropriate unit).
Example: temperature (degrees Celsius or Kelvin; there is
no direction associated with temperature)
Commonly used symbol: T (italic, non-bold)

A vector quantity is specified by a magnitude and a

direction.
Example: velocity (meters per second in a given direction)

Commonly used symbol: v (bold) (Serway & Jewett use v )
Why vectors?

In mechanics and other fields of physics, we need to deal

with direction.

In one dimension (motion along a straight line) we can take

the x-axis along the direction of motion and adopt the
convention: – is to the left and + is to the right.

In two and three dimensions we have to use vectors. We

can write down and solve equations of motion for the
vector components of the position, the velocity, and the
acceleration of a particle in motion.
Why vectors?

For example, the motion of a y

projectile launched at an A
v (t A )  v x , 0 ˆi
angle θ0 with the Earth’s
surface can be described in v0 v x ,0 v x ,0
terms of 2 components: v y ,0
h
 Horizontal motion with a
constant speed,  0 v x ,0 v x ,0
x
O B
R
 Vertical motion with a
constant acceleration. g
Why vectors?

In this example y
vx (t )  vx,0 A
v (t A )  v x , 0 ˆi

v y (t )   g t  v y ,0 v0 v x ,0 v x ,0
v y ,0
so the velocity vector is h

v(t )  vx (t )ˆi  v y (t )ˆj  0 v x ,0 v x ,0

x
 vx , 0 ˆi  ( gt  v y ,0 )ˆj O
R
B