Acoustically Induced Structural

F. L. Eisinger
Mem. ASME Fatigue of Piping Systems
Piping systems handling high-pressure and high-velocity steam and various process and
J. T. Francis hydrocarbon gases through a pressure-reducing device can produce severe acoustic
vibration and metal fatigue in the system. It has been previously shown that the acoustic
Foster Wheeler Energy Corporation, fatigue of the piping system is governed by the relationship between fluid pressure drop
Clinton, NJ 08809-4000
and downstream Mach number, and the dimensionless pipe diameter/wall thickness
geometry parameter. In this paper, the devised relationship is extended to cover acoustic
fatigue considerations of medium and smaller-diameter piping systems.

Introduction based on pipe diameter was directly established by utilizing field

Piping systems handling fluids such as steam and various pro-
cess and hydrocarbon gases through a pressure-reducing device at
high-pressure and velocity conditions can produce severe acoustic
vibration and metal fatigue in the piping system. This vibration and
fatigue is caused by high internal acoustic loading inside the piping
system generated by the flow passing through the pressure-
reducing device. In a previous paper (Eisinger, 1997), it has been
shown that the structural fatigue of a thin-walled piping system
with a diameter-to-thickness ratio of Dlt s 20 is governed directly
by the product of the Mach number M downstream of the pressure-
reducing device and the pressure drop Ap through the device.
Based on experimental data of Carucci and Mueller (1982), a
relationship between MAp and the pipe geometry parameter Dlt
has been developed (Eisinger, 1997) and is shown here in Fig. 1.
As can be seen from Fig. 1, there are limited number of experi-
mental data points available predicting fatigue for medium and
smaller-diameter piping systems, below the values of Dlt of about
60. In this paper, we will extend the fatigue limit to adequately
cover the smaller and medium values of Dlt within the range of
16 < Dlt :£ 64. The study will be based on theoretical consid-
erations utilizing the theory of coincidence between higher-order
acoustic modes and corresponding pipe wall structural modes.
Finite element modeling will be used for computing piping fre-
quencies, modes, and vibratory stresses. The newly developed
theoretical fatigue limit data will be correlated with the available
experimental data.
Brief Review of Publications
The effects of internal acoustic loading of piping systems have
first been studied from the point of view of sound transmission
through the pipe wall and noise generation in the surroundings of
the piping system. The theory of coincidence between higher-order
acoustic modes and pipe wall structural modes played a significant
role in this regard. Publications by Frymoyer (1967), Walter
(1979), Bull and Norton (1980), Fagerlund and Chou (1981),
Norton (1984), Reethof and Ward (1986), and others dealt primar-
ily with the noise generation aspects of the phenomenon. The
sound emission studies, however, laid the basis for the investiga-
tions of structural vibrations of the pipe wall in the high-frequency
range (Bull and Norton, 1982; Norton, 1989).
One of the first practical papers in the field of structural fatigue
of piping systems (piping shells) was published by Carucci and
Mueller (1982). In their paper, a correlation between acoustic
power level inside the pipe and the pipe structural fatigue behavior
Contributed by the Pressure Vessels and Piping Division and presented at the
Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference (Joint with ICPVT), Boston, Massachusetts,
August 1-5, 1999, of THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS. Manuscript
received by the PVP Division, April 13, 1999; revised manuscript received August 9,
1999. Technical Editor: S. Y. Zamrik.
experience with 36 cases of piping systems. Based on the Carucci
and Mueller data, an improved acoustic power level method and a
new input energy piping design method covering the range of large
and medium-size pipe diameters was published by Eisinger (1997,
1998). These new methods incorporated the wall thickness or the
thinness of the wall as an additional parameter in conjunction with
the parameter MAp representing the strength of the acoustic
waves.
As indicated before in the present paper, we will extend the
experimentally based fatigue limits of the Eisinger (1997) results
to medium and smaller-diameter piping systems based on theoret-
ical considerations and utilizing finite element modeling.
Theoretical Considerations
Due to the presence of a pressure-reducing device, increased
pressure fluctuations occur inside the piping system, giving rise to
increased vibrational response of the pipe wall. These pressure
fluctuations typically consist of 1) nonpropagating fluctuating wall
pressures, 2) propagating plane waves, and 3) propagating higher-
order acoustic modes; for a full description, see, for example,
Norton (1989). Out of the three excitation phenomena, the higher-
order acoustic modes are the most efficient excitation sources of
pipe wall vibration in gas-filled piping systems. The reason for this
is the interaction of these modes with structural modes when they
become coincident. Of importance is the coincidence of acoustic
modes and structural modes at which matching of wave numbers
between these modes occurs. The most severe dynamic loading of
the pipe wall is known to occur in the case of complete coinci-
dence in which, in addition to a match between wave numbers,
resonance (or matching) of acoustic and structural frequencies also
occurs.
The acoustic modes are characterized by the (p, q) wave or
mode, where p is the number of plane diametral nodal surfaces and
q is the number of cylindrical nodal surfaces concentric with the
cylinder axis. Plane waves are characterized by p = q = 0. The
higher-order acoustic modes can be of the symmetric type with
(p = 0, q > 1), or of the asymmetric or "spinning" type with
(p s 1, q > 1). Both the plane waves and higher-order acoustic
modes can propagate in a cylindrical shell. As mentioned before,
the most dangerous acoustic waves from the standpoint of dynamic
loading of the pipe wall are the higher-order acoustic modes which
are active above the cut-off frequency at (p = 1, q = 0), and
decay below it.
The frequencies of the p, q internal acoustic modes in a circular
pipe are given by (Norton, 1989)
(TT°t)n
_
/(/>.«) TTD
where

438 / Vol. 121, NOVEMBER 1999 Copyright © 1999 by ASME Transactions of the ASME

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 • Acoustically induced failures Table 1 Solutions to Bessel function for acoustic mode cut-off frequen-
cies
© Failure at severely undercut weld
O No failures
Q_ 10 -=r p q (*«)„„ P q (na)„.„
5 1 0
Region of Fatigue
1.8412 5 0 6.4156
a.
< Failures
5 2 0 3.0542 2 I 6.7061

0 I 3.8317 0 2 7.0156
Fatigue limit
boundary 3 0 4.2012 6 0 7.5013

4 0 5.3175 3 1 8.0152

S.0.1
h 1 1 5.3314 1 2 8.5363
Allowable
'§ design limit 11
c
4>
number, thus, when/? = n, and also when the frequencies of these
a. No Failures two modes coincide (complete coincidence).
c Based on structural analysis of the conditions at such coinci-
0.01 —
l 1 1 1 1 — i — i •"" 1 r dences, one can make the following observations:
30 40 50 60 70 80 90100 130 150 200
• The coincidences at lower values of m, n, and thus generally
Pipe geometry parameter, D/t at lower structural frequencies, typically result in higher
stresses (from the same loading) as opposed to stresses at
Fig. 1 Fatigue diagram for piping systems exposed to internal acoustic higher (ra, n) and their higher frequencies.
loading relating acoustic input energy parameter MAp to pipe geometry • For smaller-diameter pipes (or smaller D/t ratios), only a
parameter D/t, based on data in Carucci and Mueller (1982) (taken from few such coincidences occur and the number of coincidences
Eisinger, 1997)
increases with the increase in pipe diameter, with a large
number of coincidences possible at large D/t ratios.
• At each such coincidence condition, a resonant vibratory
{ira.)M = represent solutions to first derivative of Bessel func-
stress amplitude is generated in the pipe wall. This amplitude
tion for different modes, dimensionless (Table 1)
is typically the highest at coincidence with the lowest struc-
c, = speed of sound in medium inside pipe, m/s
tural mode and is lower at higher modes. Numerical analysis
D = pipe inside diameter, m
indicates that the coincidence at the lowest structural mode
The structural modes of the pipe wall are characterized by an results in the governing stress condition, with only generally
axial mode of order m, where m represents the number of pipe wall small contributions from higher modes. This is especially
half-waves distributed along the pipe axis. These could be standing true for smaller-diameter pipes. For medium and large-
waves for a finite pipe length, or traveling waves for an infinitely diameter pipes (large D/t ratio), the higher mode coinci-
long pipe. Circumferential structural modes of order n are distrib- dences contribute more substantially to the stresses at the
uted in the circumferential direction where n represents the num- lower modes, and thus one can say that the more coinci-
ber of pipe wall full waves. dences there are (as is true for large D/t's), the larger total
The interaction of the higher-order diametral acoustic modes stress levels will be produced by a given internal loading and
with circumferential structural modes plays a decisive role in the more vulnerable the pipe becomes from a fatigue point of
dynamic loading of the pipe wall, as there is no strong interaction view.
between the modes in the axial direction (the acoustic modes are
traveling modes, while the structural ones are of a standing wave Numerical Evaluation of Several Pipe Sizes in the Small
type and coincidence is very rare, if at all). The most severe
and Medium-Diameter Range (16 ^ D/t ^ 64)
loading of the pipe wall, and thus the highest vibratory stresses in
the pipe wall, develop when the diametral acoustic mode wave Description of Analysis. A total of eight pipe sizes were
number coincides with the circumferential structural mode wave selected for analysis with a range of inside diameters from 0.127

Nomenclature
c, = speed of sound in medium n = circumferential mode no. of Vj = axial flow velocity inside pipe,
inside pipe, m/s structural pipe mode, dimension- m/s
D = pipe inside diameter, m less £ = structural damping ratio, di-
E = modulus of elasticity of p = no. of plane diametral nodal mensionless
pipe material, Pa surfaces of acoustic mode inside Ap = upstream to downstream pres-
fiM) = acoustic cut-off frequency pipe, dimensionless sure drop across pressure-
of order p, q, Hz q = no. of cylindrical nodal surfaces reducing station, Pa
/(m.n) = structural pipe wall fre- of acoustic mode inside pipe v = Poission's ratio of pipe mate-
quency of order m, n, Hz concentric with cylindrical axis, rial, dimensionless
M = vjc, = Mach no., dimensionless dimensionless (Tra) M = parameter identifying acoustic
m = axial mode no. of structural SRSS = square root of sum of squares (cut-off) frequencies, dimen-
pipe wall mode, dimension- t = pipe wall thickness, m sionless (Table 1)
less

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 to 0.406 m. With the selected wall thicknesses, the range of Dlt
covered was 16 s Dlt £ 64. The pipes are made of carbon steel
having a modulus of elasticity E = 200,000 MPa and a Poisson
ratio of v = 0.3.
The fluid inside the pipes was air at temperature of T = 38°C
at atmospheric pressure. The effect of the fluid MAp parameter
will be simulated as fluctuating pressure inside the pipe, at reso-
nance with the pipe wall.
From the analysis of the experimental data of Carucci and
Mueller (1982) by Eisinger (1997), it became clear that the MAp
parameter downstream of the pressure-reducing device represents
the internal acoustic pressure conditions for any type of gas or
steam, including air. It will represent the higher-order acoustic
modes as they reflect back and forth from the duct walls while
traveling along the pipe axis. These acoustic modes are known to
contain a continuous spectrum of frequencies, and will have an
energy content proportional to MAp.
In consideration of the foregoing, the pipes were exposed to
oscillating internal pressure (a unit pressure of 0.1 MPa) quasi-
uniformly distributed around the circumference. The quasi-
uniform loading consisted of a uniform loading with an unloaded
gap equal to 3 percent of the internal pipe circumference. This
slightly asymmetric loading was used to allow the uninhibited
development of all structural resonant modes of the pipe wall,
without departing to any significant degree from the "uniform"
pressure load representing the effect of the acoustic wave.
In the base case reported here, the imposed acoustic pressure
loading was uncorrelated with the structural mode shapes. In a
second study case, the acoustic pressure loading was fully corre-
lated with the pipe circumferential mode shapes and the obtained
resonant stresses became higher by an average factor of 21 for all
modes.
To simulate the complete coincidence conditions, the oscillating
internal pressure coincided with the natural frequencies of the pipe
wall in the structural m, n modes of up to 5500 Hz. Out of all the
available m, n modes, only those modes were selected, the fre-
quencies of which coincided with (or were within ±10 percent of)
the/?, q acoustic diametral modes, that met the condition of p =
n for wave numbers matching. m,n = 1,4
Finite element models of the pipes utilizing shell elements and
Fig. 2 Examples of diametral acoustic modes p, q and corresponding
the ANSYS Computer Program (1994) were used for the analysis, circumferential structural modes m, n with matching wave numbers
both for obtaining the pipe natural mode shapes and frequencies
and maximum stresses (stress intensities) at resonance. The length-
to-diameter ratio of the pipe models was maintained at LID = 6,
with up to 48 finite element divisions around the pipe circumfer- direct summation of the stresses from the individual coincidences
ence and 50 to 60 divisions along the pipe axis, depending on the would be justified; as in all cases, the maximum stresses were
pipe size, resulting in up to 2400 finite elements. Pinned conditions bending stresses in the cylinder's hoop direction. For reasons of
at both pipe ends were used allowing free rotation about x, y, and conservativeness, however, the SRSS summation of stresses was
z-axes. For the resonant response analysis, the structural damping selected in this evaluation.
used was one-quarter of one percent of critical, as an initial step. The total stresses of the eight pipe cases analyzed are shown
Figure 2 shows examples of structural pipe modes and acoustic graphically in Fig. 4. The least square fit of these cases shows an
modes with matching wave numbers. increase with Dlt within the computed range.
From the analysis of many of the studied cases, it became clear
that the maximum pipe vibratory response and also the pipe Correlation of Computed Results With Experimental Values
stresses become the largest at conditions of complete coincidence of Eisinger (1997). Figure 1 shows the fatigue diagram of MAp
at p = n. An example of a vibratory resonant response of a pipe as a function of Dlt for pipes in the range of 45.7 s Dlt < 130
with D = 0.1905 m, t = 6.35 mm exposed to a quasi-uniform (Eisinger, 1997).
internal oscillating unit pressure of 0.1 MPa at all structural modes The values derived in Table 2, which include also points B1 and
is shown in Fig. 3. C of Fig. 1, although derived on the basis of cold air, can be easily
Table 2 gives the results of the resonant response analysis of correlated to the experimental values of points Bl and C of the real
eight pipe cases, all exposed to unit quasi-uniform uncorrelated limit cases by matching the pipe stresses from the limit internal
oscillating pressure at resonance with the m, n structural modes of pressures of 0.947 MPa and 1.455 MPa for B1 and C, respectively,
the pipes. In this analysis, the damping was \ percent of critical. (Fig. 1) and those of Cases 7 and 8 in Table 2, respectively, derived
Stress intensity values at individual coincidences are given, and a from the unit loading. At the same time, we obtain the limit MAp
total stress value computed as the square root of the sum of the values for the analyzed cases and also the corresponding structural
squares (SRSS) of individual coincidence stress values was com- damping ratio.
puted, representative of each case analyzed. It can be seen that, in As there are some differences between the theoretical finite
general, the number of complete coincidences increases with the element-derived values at Bl and C, and the experimentally de-
increase in the pipe diameter. termined values at Bl and C, we will match the theoretical and
Because of the spinning nature of the internal pressure loads, a experimental values first at C, and then at Bl. Because of small

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 iiiiiiiiimiTmi niiiiiii iiiiiiiii|fflffiiii|iiiiniiifffli!iiiipiiiiiipiiiiii 11III III I I 1 1 1 I I 1 1 1 1 j 11II M 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I III IIIII H I 11

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Structural frequency, Hz Pipe geometry parameter, D/t
Fig. 4 Total maximum (SRSS) resonant stresses in pipe wall versus DIt
Fig. 3 Structural resonant response of a pipe at complete coincidence.
for uncorrelated internal pressure loading of 0.1 MPa. Damping ratio C =
Shown are maximum stresses in pipe wall from 0.1 MPa internal uncor-
0.0025 (see also Table 2).
related pressure loading at all structural frequencies. Damping ratio: £ =
0.0025.

Table 2 Maximum resonant stress intensity amplitudes in pipe wall at complete coincidence with acoustic diametral modes (internal pressure load:
0.1 MPa, uncorrelated with structural modes; structural damping ratio: £ = 0.0025)

Case Pipe Wall D/t Acoustic p, q and Structural in, n Modes at Total
Inside Tliicknes Coincidence and Resultinii Stress in Pipe Wall Stress,
Diameter, s,t (MPa) SRSS*
I) nun (MPa)
in

1 0.1905 11.9 16 3,0 70.85

1,3

70.85
2 0.127 7.11 17.9 3,0 4,0 89.19
1,3 6,4

89.17 2.41
3 0.1588 6.35 25 4,0 6,0 82.04
1,4 9,6

81.87 5.28
4 0.1905 6.35 30 4,0 5,0 6,0 8,0 83.96
6,4 1,5 10|6 13,8

45 83 00 10.41 6.73
5 0.222 6.35 35 4,0 5,0 6,0 4,1 8,0 110.12
6,4 1,5 11,6 11,4 5\%

.5.65 109.00 6.59 6.43 7.39

6 0.254 6.35 40 4,0 6,0 106.14
6,4 1,6

41.87 97.54
7 0.254 5.56 45.7 4,0 6,0 7,0 4,1 91.28
(Relates to Point 6,4 12,6 1,7 11,4
Bl in Fig. 1.)
985 1092 89.17 12.85

8 0.406 6.35 64 4,0 6,0 4,1 8,0 9,0 10,0 11,0 157.70
(Relates to Point 6,4 12,6 11,4 14,8 1,9 1,10 **
C in Fig. 1.) 1,11
26.2 18.2 11.9 11.8 87.07 71.15 104.5
*SRSS = Square root of the sum of the squares

"Coincidence of respective modes is within 15%

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 # Acoustically induced failures
© Failure at severely undercut weld
O No failures
V Present results - Match at point C
A Present results - match at point B1
10

CD Region of Fatigue
a. Failures
, Fatigue limit boundary
(ieast-squares fit)

E 1 -
CO
fi 1Q Fatigue limit boundary
to Allowable design limit 0 *sr
c 8
aioi
o
i—
0)
<D
E Allowable design limit
CO
co 0.1
Q.
>»
S>
©
c
0)
+-*
3
CL
C
0.01 -j 1 1 1—r

10 50 60 70 80 90100 130 150 200

Pipe geometry parameter, D/t

Fig. 5 Fatigue diagram for piping systems exposed to internal acoustic loading relating acoustic input energy
parameter MAp to pipe geometry parameter Dlt. Shown are originally published data (Eisinger, 1997) with
superimposed present data for Dlt < 64.

differences, we obtain two slightly displaced lines of MAp versus
Dlt for the range of 16 < Dlt < 64.
Considering a metal fatigue limit for carbon steel of 179 MPa
(26,000 psi), the correlation of the theoretical and experimental
data yields a structural damping value of £ = 0.021 or 2.1 percent
of critical damping for the piping systems exposed to uncorrelated
acoustic pressure loading. This damping value appears perfectly
plausible, especially if one considers the damping effect of the pipe
external insulation which is typically provided.
For the test case of the fully correlated acoustic pressure load-
ing, the corresponding average structural damping value would be
approximately 21 times lower, thus only 0.1 percent of critical.
Such a low damping value appears unlikely, and thus leads us to
a conclusion that the base case uncorrelated resonant loading is
dominant for the medium and smaller-diameter piping systems.
Figure 5 shows the derived theoretical limit values of MAp as a
function of Dlt. As these values vary somewhat, a least square fit
is also shown, providing a smooth relationship. It can be seen that
for the smaller Dlt values, the MAp values do not rise as steeply
as would be the case if one had extrapolated the experimentally
based data. The new data are thus more conservative as lower
values of MAp can be tolerated for design purposes in the smaller-
diameter or Dlt range.
Based on the limit values of MAp, an allowable fatigue limit
can be obtained by utilizing a typical safety factor of 2.
Discussion
The numerically derived pipe internal acoustic loading limit
values of MAp giving the fatigue limit loading values for medium
and smaller-diameter piping systems are a significant extension of
the range covered by the available experimentally based (operating
experience-based) database. The derived limit values of MAp in
the range studied are somewhat lower than those which would be
obtained by extrapolating the limited experimental data below
Dlt = 64. The studied range of 16 < Dlt < 64 differs substan-
tially from that of Dlt > 64 well defined by the available exper-
imental data (Eisinger, 1997). Here, as can be seen in Fig. 5 and
also in Fig. 1, the limit values of MAp fall off quite rapidly,
indicating strong vulnerability of larger-diameter piping systems
(with larger D/t's) to internal acoustic loading. Thus, a combina-
tion of this study with the experimentally available data shows that
there is a relatively mild decrease in the acoustically induced
fatigue resistance of a piping system up to a value of Dlt of about
64, in which range an instability-type behavior seems to occur and
beyond which the fatigue resistance decreases rapidly. The strong

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 decrease of the fatigue limit is apparently associated with an
increase in the number of coincidences due to the increased density
of vulnerable structural modes in a possible combination with
acousto-elastic coupling instability-type phenomena. Further stud-
ies of this range are clearly warranted.
The graph in Fig. 5 includes a material fatigue limit of 179 MPa
(26,000 psi) and a critical damping value for all modes of £ =
0.021 for the medium and smaller-diameter pipes. For different
values of material fatigue limits, including effects of stress con-
centrations, etc., the limit MAp values shall be adjusted by trans-
lating the entire graph linearly up for higher fatigue limits, or down
for lower ones.
Summary and Conclusions
Acoustically induced fatigue limits in piping systems in the
range of medium and smaller-diameter piping, 16 ^ D/t :£ 64,
have been obtained based on the theory of complete coincidence of
higher-order internal acoustic modes with structural modes of the
pipe wall. It is shown that the fatigue limits decrease mildly up to
about a value of D/t = 64. For greater values of D/t > 64, a rapid
decrease of fatigue resistance occurs, based on available experi-
mental data (Fig. 5). The derived relationship clearly indicates that
the fatigue resistance of a piping system can be easily maximized
by selecting an appropriate wall thickness for a given pipe diam-
eter.
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge the permission of Foster
Wheeler Energy Corporation to publish the results contained in
this paper.
Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology
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