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WP7 Simulation Tools For Audit Referencebook SB090213
WP7 Simulation Tools For Audit Referencebook SB090213
WP7 Simulation Tools For Audit Referencebook SB090213
Associates:
Jean Lebrun
University of Liege, Belgium
Philippe André
University of Liege, Belgium
Pierre-Yves Franck
University of Liege, Belgium
Jules Hannay
University of Liege, Belgium
Cleide Aparecida Silva
University of Liege, Belgium
Cleide Aparecida Silva
University of Liege, Belgium
First name, Last name
Institution, Country
First name, Last name
Institution, Country
First name, Last name
Institution, Country
First name, Last
Institution, Country
Supported by:
PROJECT TEAM
Building Research
Establishment - BRE
UK (Subcontractor)
Association pour la Recherche et le
Développement des Méthodes et
Processus Industriels - ARMINES
France
The sole responsibility for the content of this document lies with the authors. It does not
represent the opinion of the Community. The European Commission is not
responsible for any use that may be made of the information contained therein.
Page 2
CONTENTS
Page 3
Appendix A: Walls Parameters Default Values............................................................................... 56
External Walls .............................................................................................................................. 56
Internal Walls ............................................................................................................................... 60
Appendix B: List of inputs (BENCHMARK and SIMAUDIT) ...................................................... 61
Appendix C: List of parameters (BENCHMARK) .......................................................................... 62
Appendix D: List of outputs (BENCHMARK) ............................................................................... 66
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Scope of the work
This WP (WP7: Improved Inspection and Audit Simulation Tools) will review and improve the
AUDITAC modeling tools in the light of their use in WP4, as well as produce appropriate new tools
where possible dedicated to new aspects of the Inspection and Audit procedures to be produced
during the project.
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Introduction
Audit is required, among others, to identify the most efficient and cost-effective Energy
Conservation Opportunities (ECOs), consisting in more efficient use or in (partial or global)
replacement of the existing components.
4. The “investment grade” audit concerns the detailed technical and economical
engineering studies, justifying the costs of the retrofits. This fourth audit stage brings
the system (building + HVAC) to a new life cycle: new design, call for tenders,
submissions, evaluations, installations, commissioning, etc.
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1 Simulation for auditing
For this benchmarking and auditing targeted work, simulation models are required to be sufficiently
reliable, accurate, robust, easy to use and quickly adjusted to the studied installation (Adam et al.,
2006a).
To suit to the purposes of the audit, it seems rational to use a simple dynamic uni-zone model
coupled to an HVAC system model. The building model would take into account the main physical
phenomena involved in building dynamics (transient heat transfer, ventilation and infiltration rates,
internal generated gains, solar gains…). Bleil de Souza et al. (2006) have shown that the parameters
which affect the most the calculation of indoor conditions are:
o Ventilation and infiltration rates;
o Internals generated gains;
o Transmittance of glass.
The HVAC system model would simulate heat and cool production systems, AHU components, air
and water distribution system and terminal units.
Benchmarking is a very first challenge for the auditor, who must be able to make already a quick
evaluation of the building considered at early audit stage (preliminary inspection). The very first
questions to answer are:
- Is that building a “good” case (as said in medicine)?
- Is it worthwhile to submit it to a more detailed analysis?
- What might be the outcome of this analysis in terms of retrofit?
Answering these questions requires some diagnosis, which has to be established on the basis of the
very scarce information currently available: technical data contained in as-built files actually
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available, very global recordings of energy consumptions (fuel and electricity) and reference data for
comparison.
While normalization is required to allow comparison between data recorded on the studied
installation and reference values deduced from case studies or statistics; the use of simulation models
allow to assess directly the studied installation, without any normalization needed. Indeed, applying a
simulation-based benchmarking tool allows an individual normalization and allows avoiding size and
climate normalization.
So, rather than looking for very global weather indexes, it seems rational to use a simulation model
and run it over a few thousands of hours corresponding to one typical year. The current capabilities
of computers and simulation tools make this approach very efficient and allow considering the
climate as it is, without any simplification.
The level of detail required for the calculation of heating and cooling demands can be very different
(Adam et al., 2006a). For heating calculations, the major issues are a correct description of the
building envelope and a reasonably accurate evaluation of the air renewal (including infiltration and
ventilation). For cooling calculations, the fenestration area and orientation, the level and distribution
of the internal gains, the ventilation rates and the geographical location and the usability of the
thermal mass (if present and accessible) appear as critical issues.
Moving from heating and cooling demands to energy consumption involves modeling the HVAC
system. For benchmarking, the HVAC system can be considered as an “ideal” system ensuring
temperature, humidity and air quality control. This system has to be modeled with an optimal level of
details, corresponding to a compromise between the accuracy of the calculation.
Global monthly consumptions are insufficient to allow an accurate understanding of the building’s
behavior. Even if some very rough results can be expected from the analysis of monthly fuel
consumption, global electricity consumption records analysis do not allow to distinguish the energy
consumption related to AC from the consumption related to other electricity consumers.
Even if the analysis of the energy bills does not allow identifying with accuracy the different energy
consumers present in the facility, the consumption records can be used to calibrate building and
system simulation models. To assess the existing system and to simulate correctly the building’s
thermal behavior, the simulation model has to be calibrated on the studied installation. Of course,
basic data as building envelope characteristics or the type of HVAC system are easily identified but
infiltration rate or actual ventilation flow rate have to be adjusted. Unfortunately, no general
calibration procedure already exists and the adjustment of the developed simulation model will be
discussed later.
After having been calibrated to the adjusted, the baseline model can be used to identify the main
energy consumers (lights, appliances, fans, pumps…) and analyze the actual performance of the
building. Finally, selected energy conservation opportunities can be implemented, assessed and
compared to each other.
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1.3 Simulation assisted audit methodology
Early developments of simulation tools were mostly oriented towards supporting system design, i.e.
mainly the selection and sizing of HVAC components (Lebrun and Liebecq, 1988). The usefulness
of simulation tools in further stages of the building life cycle appeared later, among others with the
apparition of friendly engineering equation solvers and of reliable simulation models. Energy
simulation may help all along the building life cycle, from early design until last audit and retrofit
actions. Building and HVAC simulation models should therefore be continuously available, but in
different forms, according to what is expected from the simulation and according to the information
actually available.
Today, the simulation bottleneck is no more the computer, but the understanding of the user.
Simulation models have therefore to be designed in such away to make easier this understanding.
Hopefully the equation solvers presently available (Klein, 2008a) open the way to the development
of fully transparent and fully adaptable simulation models, with all equations written as in a text
book. This means that a simulation program, its user guide and its reference guide can be combined
into only one file, fully readable and directly executable.
Reference and detailed models of HVAC components may help a lot in the commissioning process,
among others for functional performance testing (Visier and Jandon, 2004). These detailed models
may also help a lot in the daily system management, among others for fault detection and diagnosis
(Jagpal, 2006). More global (and simplified) simulation can be used in real time to “emulate”
building energy management systems (Lebrun and Wang, 1993). New simulation capabilities are
also appearing today in the domain of energy audit (Adnot, 2007; Knight, 2008).
Two simulation tools are currently being developed in the frame of the HARMONAC project. The
two tools are called “BENCHMARK” and “SIMAUDIT”:
1.3.1 BENCHMARK
BENCHMARK is used to compute the "theoretical" (or “reference“) consumptions of the building,
supposed to be equipped with a “typical” HVAC system, including air quality, temperature and
humidity control. The building is seen as a unique zone, described by very limited number of
parameters. This first simulation tool should help the auditor in getting, a very first impression about
the performances of the system and a very first interpretation of the recorded consumptions (Figure
1).
The outputs, inputs and parameters must be selected according to the specific needs of the user. As in
some other software’s, as TRNSYS for instance (Klein et al., 2008b), the parameters are here defined
as selected inputs which are not supposed to vary during the simulation.
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The main outputs of the tool presented here are:
- Air quality and hygrothermal comfort achievements: CO2 contamination, temperature,
humidity, PPD and PMV
- Global power and energy consumptions : Fuel and Electricity consumptions
- HVAC components specific demands
- Performances of the mechanical equipments: COP, efficiencies…
The main inputs are:
- Weather data : hourly values of temperature, humidity, global and diffuse radiations
- Nominal occupancy loads (in W/m²), occupancy and installation functioning rates
- Comfort requirements: air renewal, temperature and humidity set points.
- Control strategies: feedback on indoor temperature and relative humidity, feed forward on
occupancy schedules and calendar.
The main parameters are:
- Dimensions, orientation and general characteristics of the building envelope (e.g.
“heavy”, “medium” or “light” thermal mass and walls U values).
- Sizing factors of the main HVAC components
The main parameters described here above are entered through the control panels. The other
parameters of the model, as HVAC system characteristics, nominal performances and capacities are
automatically computed through a pre-sizing calculation, or defined on the basis of default values,
given in European standards (prEN 13053 and 13779). Other information as weather data and
occupancy rate are provided in tables.
1.3.2 SIMAUDIT
Global monthly consumptions are often insufficient to allow an accurate understanding of the
building’s behavior. Even if some very rough results can be expected from the analysis of monthly
fuel consumption, global electricity consumption records analysis do not allow to distinguish the
energy consumption related to AC from the consumption related to other electricity consumers.
Even if the analysis of the energy bills does not allow identifying with accuracy the different energy
consumers present in the system considered, the consumption records can be used to adjust some of
the parameters of the simulation models (Figure 2). Some basic data, as building envelope
characteristics or the type of HVAC system, are easy to identify, but parameters related to infiltration
and ventilation flow rates, operating and occupancy profiles and performances of HVAC components
need always to be adjusted. To this end, SIMAUDIT offers a larger range of available HVAC
equipment and offers to calibrate the simulation model by tuning these parameters.
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The building is still seen as a unique zone. The system includes an equivalent global AHU and
several types of TU (radiators, fan coils, cooling ceiling, etc.).
After having been calibrated to the recorded data, the baseline model can be used to identify the main
energy consumers (lights, appliances, fans, pumps…) and to analyze the actual performance of the
building.
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2 Modeling bases
For benchmarking, as for further audit actions, the simulation tool must handle with realism:
- building (static and dynamic) behavior,
- weather and occupancy loads,
- comfort requirements and control strategies (air quality, air temperature and humidity),
- full air conditioning process and characteristics of all HVAC system components
(terminal units, Air Handling Units, air and water distribution, plants)
The level of detail required for the calculation of H/C demands can vary a lot from case to case:
- For heating calculations, the major issues are a correct description of the building
envelope and an accurate evaluation of air renewal.
- For cooling calculations, the fenestration area and orientation, the intensity and
distribution of internal gains, the ventilation rates and the geographical location appear as
critical issues.
At benchmarking stage mainly, the simulation tools have also to be usable with a limited quantity of
information only, depending on data actually available. These tools must be easy-to-use, transparent,
reliable, sufficiently accurate and robust. The simulation tool presented here after includes models of
both the building and the HVAC equipment. These models are submitted to different loads and
interact at each time step with a control module (Figure 3).
The main phenomena involved in building dynamics are considered in order to compute realistic
heating and cooling demands. Indeed, the indoor conditions of the zone come from the equilibrium
established among many different influences. A compromise is made between the number of
influences taken into account and the simplicity of the model: transient heat transfer through walls,
energy storage in slabs, internal generated gains, solar gains through windows, infrared losses and, of
course, ventilation and heating/cooling devices are actually taken into account.
The BENCHMARK tool has been previously described by Bertagnolio and Lebrun (2008a). This
description is presented and completed hereunder. A description of the SIMAUDIT tool follows.
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2.1 Building modeling
Both BENCHMAK and SIMAUDIT tools are based on the same mono-zone dynamic building
model.
The dynamic behavior of the building is taken into account by a simplified model to limit the
quantity of required data and ensure robustness and transparency. It is based upon a RC network
including five thermal masses, corresponding to a large occupancy zone, surrounded by external
glazed and opaque walls (Figure 4). This scheme corresponds to a typical office building, mainly
composed of lattice structure and slabs. The R-C model was the object of a comparative validation
works carried out using the BESTEST procedure.
2.1.1.1 Variables
AU: heat transfer coefficient, in W/K,
Q : Thermal power, in W,
W : Electrical power, in W,
V : Volume flow rate, in m³/s,
P : Pressure drop, in Pa,
: Effectiveness or emissivity,
t: temperature, in °C,
w: humidity ratio, in kg/kg,
V: volume, in m³,
C: thermal capacity, in J/K, or proportional control gain,
cp: specific heat, in J/kg-K,
MM: molar mass, in g/mol,
X: volumetric concentration, or control variable,
M: mass, in kg,
h: combined convective – radiative heat transfer coefficient, in W/m²-K, or enthalpy, in J/kg
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Albedo: albedo,
SF: solar factor
R: thermal resistance, in K/W,
I: solar radiation, in W/m²
2.1.1.2 Subscripts
w: water
a: air
in: indoor
s: sensible
out: outdoor
surf: surface
vent: ventilation
inf: infiltration
1: initial value
su: supply
ex: exhaust
occ: occupant
TU: terminal unit
CO2: Carbone dioxide
n: nominal
sh: shaft
u: useful
c: consumed
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2
dU
U in
d
1 in
d (2)
MM CO 2
CCO 2,in M a ,in * (10)
MM a
MCO 2,in CCO 2,in * XCO 2,in XCO 2,in,1 (11)
The “CO2 capacity” introduced in equation 10 is here supposed to correspond to the mass of the air
contained in the zone. A correction factor might be also introduced in order to take into account of
CO2 absorption in the building materials (walls and furniture).
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2
dM
M w ,in
d
1 w ,in
d (13)
2.1.3.1 Parameterization
A 1st order “two-port network” model (Figure 5) is associated to each massive wall (Laret, 1980).
The wall network corresponds either to imposed temperature boundary conditions (called
“isothermal” conditions) or to null heat flow boundary conditions (called “adiabatic” conditions).
Isothermal conditions deal with external massive walls, surrounding the zone, including walls in
contact with “cold” neighbor zone, such as outdoor car parks. The adjective “cold” means that the
neighbor zone is not heated so that its temperature is related to the outdoor temperature.
Adiabatic conditions deal with indoor walls in contact with “warm” neighbor zones. The adjective
“warm” means that the neighbor zone (neighbor floor or room) is heated following a schedule similar
to the zone under study.
The parameters of each “two-port network” are tuned through a frequency analysis based on the
computation of the zone admittance matrix (Masy, 2006; Masy, 2008) and chosen to reproduce:
1) the global heat transfer coefficient of the wall,
2) the magnitudes of isothermal admittance and transmittance on a 24h time period, in
isothermal conditions,
3) The magnitude and angle of adiabatic admittance for a 24 hour period, in adiabatic
conditions.
In the case of massive opaque walls in contact with “cold” neighbor zones (as external walls),
isothermal conditions are used. The adjustment allows expressing the values of the three parameters
(Rin, Rout, and C) of the two-port network as fractions of the wall total thermal resistance and
capacity, through factors θ and φ (Figure 6). Factor θ is commonly called accessibility, though its
value decreases as the wall capacity becomes more accessible from the model indoor node. It gives
the position of the capacity on the whole wall resistance. Factor φ defines the proportion of the whole
wall capacity accessed in a 24h time period.
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Figure 6: Two-port network parameters - Isothermal conditions
In the case of massive walls in contact with neighbor “warm” zones, adiabatic conditions are used.
Considering the fact that temperature variations are similar on both side of the wall, a “null flow
plan” can be defined (Figure 7). This plan divides the wall into two different “two-port R-C
networks”. The parameter characterizes the position of this plan and determines the reparation of
the global resistance and capacity.
The two resistances and the capacity of each “two-port network” can be expressed as fractions of the
wall total resistance and capacity using the three parameters: θ, φ and . The resistances “(1- θ)*R”
could be erased from the model, as there is no heat flow passing through them (Figure 8).
The adjustment process, the used R-C scheme and examples of use in cases of residential and office
buildings are detailed by Masy (2008).
In the case of walls totally included in the zone (“internal walls”) under study, the equivalent thermal
capacity is simply added to the indoor air thermal capacity (Ca,in).
For the most frequent wall compositions, the adjustment parameters stay in a limited range and
“standard” values are easily generated using the method previously presented. These values are then
used to tune the building model. Masy has shown that the use of standard values of parameters θ and
φ instead of exact values does not alter the quality of the results but simplifies greatly the
parameterization work for the final user (Appendix A: Walls Parameters Default Values).
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2.1.3.2 Solar gains and long wave exchange
In the case of an “isothermal wall” (massive opaque frontage or roof slab), the absorbed solar
radiation is injected on the outdoor surface node (Figure 6). Global radiative-convective heat transfer
coefficients are used to compute the global heat exchange trough the wall.
A correction heat flow Iirh (Bliss, 1961) varying from 45 to 100 W/m², is also used to take into
account that the sky temperature is below the outdoor air temperature. The hourly values of this
correction heat flow are provided in lookup tables, as inputs for the model. This correction is
necessary because of the use of combined radiative-convective heat transfer coefficient. The effects
*
of solar and sky radiations are included in the corrected outdoor (“sol-air”) temperature t out (eq. 19).
t out t out Q sun Q sky * Rsurf,out
*
(19)
where,
1
R surf,out
Aw all* hout
and, hout = 17 to 23 [W/m².K] is the outside combined radiative-convective heat transfer coefficient.
A constant value of 23 W/m².K is considered in the model.
The correction heat flow Q sky is defined as follows:
1
Q sky * Aw all* ε ir,w all* I irh and,
2
where, ir ,wall is the emissivity of the wall (generally around 0.9).
Solar radiation absorbed by the wall is computed as follows:
Q sun w all * Aw all * I sun,w all , (20)
where, wall is the absorbance of the wall (generally around 0.6).
The incident heat flow due to solar radiation is the sum of three contributions: direct radiation,
ground reflected radiation and diffuse radiation. The global incident heat flow, Isun,wall, is calculated
as follows:
1 1
I sun,w all I beam,w all * I glob * albedo * I diff (21)
2 2
where,
I beam,w all (I glob I diff ) * Fw all (22)
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and,
%w all,south * Fsouth %w all,east * Feast ...
Fw all
100
Fwall is the weighted average of the projection factors (Fsouth, Feast...) of all opaque walls facing
different orientations. The hourly values of these projections factors are pre-computed all along the
year as function of the incidence angles (for the latitude considered) and are provided as inputs for
the model.
t t (28)
Q surf ,in surf ,in a ,in
Rsurf ,in
A global radiative-convective heat transfer coefficient is used to compute the combined radiative-
convective indoor temperature ta,in. A constant value of 8 W/m².K for both vertical and horizontal
walls is considered in the model.
Q in Q r ,w all Q surf ,in (29)
To calculate this radiant heat flow, a simplified hypothesis is made: short wave solar heat gains are
supposed to be distributed all over the indoor surfaces proportionally to their respective areas (eq.
30).
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A (30)
Q r ,w all w all * Q sun,w indow s
Aw all,tot
where Q sun,w indow s is computed as follow:
The same method is applied to compute solar heat gains reaching “adiabatic” wall. Each light wall
(windows...) is modeled with only one resistance (Figure 4), connected, on one side, to the indoor
temperature node and, on the other side, to a corrected outdoor temperature node, taking into account
of sky radiation effect.
where Q s ,heating and Q s ,cooling are output variables of the terminal units models.
2.1.6 Validation
The validation of the building model presented hereunder has been realized by Bertagnolio et al.
(2008b) and Masy (2008).
Judkoff and Neymark (1995) have proposed a complete validation methodology for building
simulation models. It includes analytical, empirical and comparative tests.
The model was tested on the experimental results provided by EMPA test cell (Figure 11) in the
framework of IEA-ECBCS annex 43 (Judkoff, 2007) research project. The cell is composed of tight
insulated steel sandwich boards and the window is removed. The environment is controlled so that
outdoor temperature is known. Internal heat flows are given, as well as corresponding indoor
temperatures.
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Figure 11: EMPA test cell (2.36 m x 2.85 m x 4.63 m)
The indoor temperatures computed by the model for imposed heat flows are compared to measured
indoor temperatures (Figure 12). The RMS of the error related to indoor temperature equals 0.46 K.
Figure 12: Comparison of measured (dotted black line) and computed (red line) indoor temperatures
The model is also tested by comparison with a more detailed model based on a convolution process
using heat transfer functions. The comparison is performed on an office room defined in the
framework of IEA-SHC Task 27 (Köhl, 2005) research project. Masy (2008) has already detailed the
results of this analytical validation of the building zone model.
As mentioned above, analytical and experimental tests have been made by comparing the RC
network model to the transfer function method and to experimental results.
However, comparative testing is very useful to identify the main differences existing among the
simplified model and some reference detailed codes.
The BESTEST procedure is a comparison method used to evaluate building simulation models. This
“comparative testing” approach is based on the use of benchmark test cases, generated with reference
codes (BLAST, DOE-2, ESP, SRES/SUNCODE, SERIRES, S3PAS, TASE and TRNSYS). These
reference models do not necessarily represent “truth” but are representative of what is commonly
accepted as the current state-of-the-art in building energy simulation. (Judkoff and Neymark, 1995).
Indeed, the aim of BESTEST procedure is to identify errors in the models and to guarantee
consistency between them.
Two types of test-cases are proposed in BESTEST procedure:
- Diagnostic cases, attempting to isolate the effects of individual algorithm by varying
parameters one by one,
- Qualification cases, representing a set of realistic lightweight and heavyweight buildings.
Only the results dealing with the qualification cases are presented hereafter.
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Figure 13: BESTEST - test cell
The basis of the different test cases is a rectangular room (Figure 13). The envelope characteristics,
orientation of windows and temperature set points vary between the different test cases.
The main characteristics of the test cell are given in Table 1 for the base test-case (C600).
Dimensions 8 x 6 x 2.7 m
Walls Uwall = 0.514 w/m².k; c = 14534 j/m².k (indoor insulation)
Roof Uroof = 0.318 w/m².k; c = 18170 j/m².k
Floor Ufloor = 0.039 w/m².k; ground coupling neglected
Windows 2 x 6 m²; south oriented;
Uwindow = 3 w/m².k ; solar factor = 0.78
Infiltration 0.5 vol/h
Internal gains 200 w (60% rad., 40% conv.)
System Perfect unlimited system; 100% convective heating and cooling.
Table 1: Test cell characteristics - C600
Basing on the C600 test-case, several variations are proposed. The main qualification cases are
described in Table 2. All the proposed cases have not been considered because of the limitations of
the model. Test-cases involving solar shading and equal cooling and heating set points have not been
applied.
The meteorological data used for the simulations correspond to a cold winter (min. outdoor
temperature: -24.4°C) and a dry and hot summer (max. outdoor temperature: 35°C).
The integrated annual heating and cooling demands are shown, respectively, in Figure 14 and Figure
15. The building model (“EES”) provides good results for the cases 600 to 640. Some little
discrepancies appear when looking at heavy-weight cases (C900 to 940).
These errors could be explained by the limited order of the wall model. An accurate estimation of the
interaction between indoor ambient and heavy outdoor insulated walls would require the use of a
more detailed wall model, using more than one thermal mass. However, these errors stay limited
(max. 10%) and the results stay in good accordance with those provided by more detailed models.
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Figure 14: C600 to C940 – Annual Heating Demands
The differences could also be partially explained by the use of an imperfect control for the
heating/cooling system. Indeed, the heating and cooling powers must be controlled by means of
proportional control laws to maintain the indoor set-point.
Some hourly data are also provided for comparison. These data correspond to the 4th January of the
simulated year. Calculated hourly values of heating/cooling powers are shown for C600 and C900,
respectively, in Figure 16 and Figure 17. Heating power is plotted in positive values while cooling
power is plotted in negative values.
The simplified model provides consistent results. For the lightweight case, the calculated heating and
cooling powers curves are superposed with those provided by the reference models.
As expected, for heavy inertia walls, the results are less good and, even if the global shape of the
curve is respected, the superposition is not perfect. As mentioned above, this discrepancy could be
explained by the low order of the wall model.
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Figure 17: C900 – 4th January, H/C powers
BESTEST procedure provides also hourly values for cases C600 and C900 with floating
temperature. The temperature profiles generated by the model for the test case C900 are shown in
Figure 18. Once again, the results provided by the simplified models are in good accordance with
those provided by reference models.
The model provides results included in the range, rather close to the high limit, generated by more
sophisticated models. The effects induced by inputs and parameters variations are of the same order
of magnitude as for the other building codes.
This comparative validation shows that the developed simplified building model predicts cooling and
heating demands with sufficient accuracy. This simplified model is well adapted to simplified
building and system simulation tools.
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2.2 HVAC System Modeling
Two different modeling levels are distinguished for the HVAC system (Adam et al., 2006b; Lebrun
et al., 2006a):
- So-called “mother” (“first principle”, or “mechanistic”) models, containing all the (present)
understanding of the physical phenomena, are used as references;
- So-called “daughter” (“simplified” and very often polynomial) model, generated with help of
the help of the previous ones, are preferred to simulate large system on long time periods.
“Mother” models are preferred in some other domains of use, as, for instance, to support
experimental work (design of the experiment and analysis of experimental results) or to characterize
some specific equipment. “Daughter” models only are used in BENCHMARK and SIMAUDIT.
BENCHMARK and SIMAUDIT mainly differ concerning the HVAC system, which is “ideal” in
Benchmark (Allowing air quality, humidity and temperature control) and characterized by the
following functionalities:
Hygienic ventilation rate
Humidity Control in AHU
Temperature Control by TUs (similar to fan coils)
HVAC system parameters are automatically computed trough « sizing calculation »
With the same functionalities, SIMAUDIT is able to take into account a larger range of available
HVAC components and control strategies.
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Figure 19: Typical double flux AHU
2.2.1.1.1. Fans
The different pressure drops of the components are taken into account to compute the fans
consumptions and the corresponding air heating-up.
The equations related to the return (or extraction) fan give, for instance:
Preturnfan
W returnfan Vreturnfan * (35)
s ,returnfan
where,
and,
W returnfan
t a ,ex ,returnfan t a ,su,returnfan (37)
Ca ,returnfan
When the control valve is fully open and for a constant air flow rate, the air-side effectiveness is
expressed as:
C min
a ,heatingcoil heatingcoil *
C a
For a constant air flow rate, the maximal air exhaust temperature ta,ex,heatingcoil,max is supposed to be
reached when the valve is fully open:
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t a,ex ,heatingcoil ,max t a,su,heatingcoil a,heatingcoil * t w ,su,heatingcoil t a,su,heatingcoil (38)
The control variable is then used to compute the required exhaust temperature ta,ex,heatingcoil:
where X is the control variable. The heating power actually provided by the coil is then computed:
This simplification allows avoiding the computation of the thermal exchange on water side. Only the
characteristics of the coil in nominal regime are required to compute the air-side effectiveness.
For given supply air temperature, contact effectiveness and contact temperature, the exhaust air
temperature can be defined as follows:
with
1
NTU c ,coil, wet (44)
Ra ,coil .C a ,coil
This means that (as Ra and C a ), the contact effectiveness is only depending on the air flow rate. The
exhaust air humidity is determined by equation 45.
Once the exhaust air temperature and humidity are known, the sensible and latent heat outputs of the
coil can be calculated. The minimal value of the contact temperature (corresponding to the full
opening of the control valve) must be determined as a function of both supply temperatures: the
temperature of the refrigerant and the (dry bulb or wet bulb) temperature of the air (according to the
regime: dry or wet):
Page 27
a ,coil,dry
tc ,coil,min,dry ta ,su,coil .(ta ,su,coil tr ,su,coil ) (46)
c,coil
tc ,coil,min,wet t wb,su,coil a ,coil,wet .(t wb,su,coil tr ,su,coil ) (47)
c,coil
In these equations, εa,coil,dry and εa,coil,wet are the “air-side” effectiveness’s, defined in dry and wet
regimes respectively. In each regime, the “air side” effectiveness is related to the actual coil
effectiveness:
C
a,coil,dry coil,dry . min,coil,dry (48)
C a ,dry
C min,coil,w et (49)
a ,coil,w et coil,w et .
C a ,f
with,
The fictitious specific heat, cp,af is defined by the equation 51 (Lebrun et al., 1990).
h ha ,ex ,coil,w et
c p ,a ,f ,coil a ,su,coil (51)
Tw b,su,coil Tw b,ex ,coil,w et
These effectiveness’s are defined with the valve fully open. If the air flow rate is varying, its effect
has to be pre-identified with the help of the reference model. The coil is supposed to work in dry
regime, if the dew point temperature at cooling coil supply is lower than the minimum contact
temperature. If not, it is supposed to be in wet regime:
If tdp,su,coil tc,coil,min,wet ,
tc,coil,min tc,coil,min,dry
If tdp,su,coil tc,coil,min,wet ,
tc,coil,min tc,coil,min,wet
Lemort et al. (2008) have shown that the agreement between results of both reference and simplified
models is very good. A comparative test between the reference and the simplified models proofs that
the simplified model can be used without any significant loss of accuracy on the cooling load
calculation. Moreover the calculation time dramatically reduced and no numerical instability is
encountered.
2.2.1.1.4. Humidifiers
Both adiabatic and steam humidification are modeled in the present simulation tool.
Adiabatic humidification is supposed to be controlled by means of the preheating coil and is modeled
by the following equations:
Page 28
t a,ex ,adiabhum t a,su,adiabhum adiabhum * t wb,su,adiabhum t a,su,adiabhum (53)
M steam,su,steamhum
w ex ,steamhum w su,steamhum (54)
M a ,steamhum
M steam,su,steamhum
ha,ex ,steamhum w a,su,steamhum * hsteam,su,steamhum (55)
M a ,steamhum
The exhaust air humidity ratio is then calculated by using the following control law :
Kheating,FCU is the equivalent heat transfer coefficient of the fan coil unit:
This term is defined for the nominal water flow rate (valve fully open) and for the fan rotation speed
considered (usually selected by the occupant). Xheating,FCU is the control variable (this control is
supposed to consist in a tuning of the water flow rate).
The cooling power is defined in the same way. Possible water condensation inside the fan coil is not
yet taken into account in Benchmark, but it could be easily included by using a model similar to the
one used for the cooling coil of the Air Handling Unit.
Q heatingplant ,n
M w ,hotw aterdistr (59)
cw * t w ,heatingplant ,n
Page 29
The so-defined “primary” water flow rate is kept constant in the simulation.
Both heating-up through the pump and heat exchanges along the distribution network are taken into
account. For hot water distribution, for example, this gives:
Similar equations are used to model the chilled water network and its pump.
The “daughter” boiler model used here is derived from the reference (“mother”) model developed by
Bourdouxhe et al. in the ASHRAE HVAC1 Toolkit (Bourdouxhe et al., 1999).
In the mother model, the boiler is represented by an assembly of a supposed to be adiabatic
combustion chamber and two (gas-water and water-environment) heat exchangers (Figure 20).
At constant water supply temperature, the fuel oil boiler submitted to ON/OFF control has a very
linear behavior as shown in Figure 21. This suggests that a double linear correlation can be used as
simplified model. Consumed power is plotted as function of useful power and a linear fit is made on
this curve.
Page 30
Figure 21: Boiler consumption as function of its useful thermal power at constant water supply temperature
(ON/OFF control)
Applying the same methodology to the same boiler for different values of water supply temperature
(e.g. from 50°C to 80°C) , and using reduced variables, the following correlation is established (eq.
66).
Q u
q u ,red (64)
Q u ,n ,on
Q c (65)
q c ,red
Q c ,n ,on
q c ,red C0 C1 * q u ,red (66)
The values of C0 and C1 can be correlated with the water supply temperature as follows:
If there is no mixing valve or if it’s fully open, the boiler water supply temperature corresponds to
the heating plant return water temperature:
Q heatingdemand
t w ,return ,heatingplant t w ,ex ,hotw aterdistr (69)
M w ,hotw aterdistr * cw
In Benchmark, the boiler is only submitted to weather control: the exhaust water temperature set
point is fixed according to the outdoor temperature.
Of course, it may occur that this set point stay above the maximal temperature achievable; in such
case, the boiler is running in full load.
Page 31
The part load regime can be described with the help of Heating, Cooling and Electrical load factors
(eq. 70, 71 and 72):
Q
HLF cd (70)
Qcd ,max
Q ev (71)
CLF
Q ev ,max
W el (72)
ELF
W el ,max
Simple polynomial laws can also be used to correlate electrical and cooling load factors to each other
(Figure 23).
Figure 23: Possible relationship between electrical and thermal load factors
A better, but still very simple, approach consists in using the evaporation and condensation
temperatures (in place of the secondary fluid temperatures) in the two first polynomial laws (which
then concern the compressor and the refrigeration cycle only). Separate semi-isothermal heat
exchanger models can then be used to deal with the evaporator and with the condenser. The
definitions of the part load factors stay the same as for the first model. Till now, the first approach is
preferred in Benchmark.
Page 32
In ideal control conditions, the simulation will determine the chilled water supply temperatures
“required” by both air handling and terminal units. These temperatures will be generated by the (real
or fictitious) proportional controls of both units. The minimum between these two temperatures will
become the set point of the chiller control.
Of course, it may occur that this set point stay below the minimal temperature achievable, in such
case, the chiller is running in full load.
A simple proportional control laws is used for each component, with a non dimensional control
variable Xcontrol, varying between 0 and 1 in proportion of the difference observed between the set
point and the controlled variable:
The control “gain”, Ccontrol, is arbitrarily fixed as a realistic compromise between accuracy and
robustness.
To be continued…
Page 33
3 Implementation and Interface
3.1 Implementation
The presented model is implemented on an Engineering equation solver (Klein, 2008). This
implementation ensures also a full transparency for the user and makes easier the continuous
improvement and development of the tools. Indeed, model’s equations are directly readable and easy
to modify by any user (Figure 24). It is also very easy to develop additional HVAC components
models and to connect them to the existing ones. Moreover, the present equation solver is very well
adapted to solve differential equations systems as used to model the thermal behavior of the building
zone.
Of course, the use of an equation solver to solve complex equation systems implies longer
computation time than other simulation software’s, but the continuous increase of computer
performances tends to reduce this inconvenience. At present time, about 20 minutes are necessary to
simulate a mono-zone building and its complete HVAC system (including AHU, terminal units and
heat and cold production and distribution) hour by hour on one year with a classical computer
equipped with a 2.00GHz processor.
Page 34
3.2 BENCHMARK: Inputs/Outputs/Parameters
The ventilation rate is supposed to be the hygienic ventilation rate. Ventilation and humidity control
are ensured by the AHU (equipped with recovery system or not). Temperature control in the building
is ensured by terminal units (supposed to be similar to fan coil units).
Lists of inputs, parameters and outputs are given in appendix B, C and D, respectively.
3.2.1 Outputs
The main outputs of the tool are given in Figure 25.Monthly fuel and electricity consumptions are
given in child windows. Hourly values of temperatures, electric powers or heat flows can also be
easily plotted.
Page 35
3.2.2 Inputs
The main inputs of the model are weather and climate data. Hourly values of outdoor temperature,
relative humidity, diffuse and global radiation are provided in lookup tables. Other inputs, as
correction sky radiation heat flow and projection factors are also provided in lookup tables. The first
table “sun_data” include all the projection factors used to compute direct solar radiation. The other
table, “weather_data” include hourly values of temperature, humidity, solar radiation and correction
sky radiation.
A library of weather data files will be provided with the tools. A procedure to implement additional
weather data files will also be given.
3.2.3 Parameters
In Benchmark, the parameters asked to the user have to be provided by means of control panels. A
main control panel (Figure 26) is used to access the other ones.
The simulation control panel (Figure 27) is used to fix the simulation time and to choose between the
default location (Brussels) and the location of the user. When selecting “user”, the software uses data
given in tables “sun_data_user” and “weather_data_user” generated with the “Climate Data Tables
Generation” tool.
Page 36
Figure 27: Simulation parameters control panel
The “Building description” panel (Figure 28) is used to fix the geometry of the building and the
internal gains (occupancy, lighting and appliances). Basing on the values, given in appendix A, the
characteristics of the envelope have to be fixed in the lookup table “walls_data” (Figure 29).
Page 37
Figure 29: Lookup table "walls_data"
The “HVAC System Description” panel (Figure 30) is used to access the control panels related to
each HVAC components (AHU, TU, plant...).
The “Air Handling Unit” panel (Figure 31) is used to select the main characteristics of this
subsystem (existence of a mechanical ventilation, hygienic ventilation flow rate, type of
humidification system, water nominal temperature regimes and nominal fan efficiencies).
Page 38
Figure 31: AHU control panel
Typical values of AHU components pressure drops and performance are provided in PrEN13779
(2007) and PrEN13053 (2003).
The temperature and humidity set points and the control laws can be modified in the “HVAC System
Control” panel (Figure 33). Four heating and cooling set points have to be defined for occupancy and
non-occupancy hours. HVAC components (AHU coils and TUs) are controlled with proportional
control laws. For each control strategy, a set point (temperature or humidity) and a control gain (C)
are asked. Maximal values of outdoor temperature (tout,max) are defined to reduce the field of
intervention of the different heating/cooling/humidifying/dehumidifying systems.
Page 39
Figure 33: HVAC system regulation control panel
To be continued…
Page 40
4 Example of Application
An application of the developed simulation tools to a Belgian case study (Bertagnolio et al., 2008c)
has been presented in ICEBO 2008 conference (International Conference for Enhanced Building
Operations) and is shown hereunder.
Figure 34: Case study building (left) and envelope module (right)
The frontages of the lobby are made of single-glazed windows. The rest of building envelope is made
of about 1000 double-glazed modules, equipped with external solar protection (Figure 34). The main
characteristics of the envelope are given in Table 3.
Page 41
[W/m²-
Roof deck U value 0.32
K]
Double-Glazed
[m²] 3020
frontages area
Double-Glazed [W/m²-
3.6
windows U value K]
Single-Glazed frontages
[m²] 1440
area
Single-Glazed windows [W/m²-
5.8
U value K]
Table 3: Main characteristics of the building
Page 42
Another heat transfer coefficient corresponds to the mechanical ventilation:
If having to maintain 50% of relative humidity at 20 °C in the same nominal conditions the
corresponding latent heat demand would be of about:
i.e. 920 kW in the present case; this would bring the total heat demand around 3.52 MW. This very
rough estimate of the total heat demand can be compared to the power installed in the heating plant
(around 4 MW): the agreement is not bad and there seems to remain a fair reserve of heating power.
i.e. 540 kW, bringing the total cooling demand around 2.07 MW. A satisfactory agreement is found
between this rough estimation and the cooling power actually installed in the building (2.1 MW).
Page 43
point is displaced in relationship with the outside air temperature, in such a way to make the
adiabatic humidification possible, when required, and also to bring some sensible heating or cooling
to the zone, when required. The primary air is only supplied during pre-heating and occupancy time.
Out of that time, if the weather is very cold, the induction units are still used in free convection
mode, by supplying hot water to the heating coils. The re-starting time of the installation in the
morning is fixed by the BEMS, according to weather conditions and to the week day. In average, the
total running time is of about 75 h/week. The chilled water temperature regime is 6/12 °C in nominal
conditions.
Monthly records of fuel consumptions are available from 1971 to 2006 and monthly records of
electricity consumption are available from November 2004 to February 2006. The records made
from November 2004 to February 2006 are plotted in Figure 36.
Page 44
should be of the same order of magnitude as the average heat transfer coefficient of the building. In
order to calculate an average heat transfer coefficient, it is necessary to take the ventilation
intermittency into account. This gives:
Both values are in good agreement and confirm that the fuel consumption is quite well explained.
Theoretically, it should have been a little higher, because of the latent heat power consumed to
humidify the air which is not taken into account in this average heat transfer coefficient. The
remaining error found in this building “signature” is very probably due to the effect of the inside
temperature control (the temperature inside the building is “sliding” down slowly with the outside
temperature).
Page 45
4.3 Use of simulation tools
It has been decided to compare the computed fuel and electricity consumptions to averaged data
because of the following reasons:
The very heterogeneous use of the HVAC equipment and the important dispersion of the
recorded data (Figure 37) make the calibration to one-year data very difficult and arbitrary;
There are some uncertainties in the fuel consumption recording schedule.
The use of energy records averaged on up to 35 years should make the consumption profiles
smoother, hide the heterogeneities in the building operation an tend to minimize the errors due to the
use of a typical weather data set. Indeed, actual, recent and complete weather data are not available
in the present case and typical hourly weather data are used all along this analysis. So, the aim of the
calibration performed here is not to represent the behavior of the building for a given year but in
average.
4.3.1 Benchmarking
The first software presented above (BENCHMARK) is applied to the nine conditioned storeys of the
building (from level 0 to 8), simulated as a unique zone. Parking zone is not considered in the study.
The actual characteristics of the building envelope, the estimated internal generated gains, the actual
occupancy schedules and temperature and humidity setpoints are entered in the software. The first
approach consists in supposing that the studied building is coupled to a “typical” HVAC system
(very different of the actual one) ensuring efficient air quality, temperature and humidity control. The
performances of this system (pressure drops and HVAC components efficiencies) are estimated
according to the standards prEN 13053 and 13779. The constant hygienic ventilation flow rate is
fixed to 45 m³/h of fresh air per hour and per occupant; the AHU is supposed to be equipped with a
classical cross-flow heat recovery system.
It appears that monthly computed and measured consumptions are very different. Mostly the fuel, but
also the electricity consumptions are largely underestimated by the software. This suggests the
existence of important energy savings potentials.
Page 46
Figure 39: Measured and computed electricity consumptions (first run)
Figure 40: Recorded and computed monthly fuel consumptions (calibrated model)
Figure 41: Recorded and computed monthly electricity consumptions (calibrated model)
Page 47
To simplify the parametrization and the calibration works, the mono-zone model, previously used in
“BENCHMARK” is also used in the second part of the study. The results obtained with this
simplifed global model should surely be improved by using the multi-zone capability of the tool.
The calibration method used here is totally heuristic and based on practical guidelines. The computed
and recorded datawill be compared in terms of Mean Bias Error (MBE) and coefficient of variation
of Root Mean Squared Error (CV(RMSE))
During the first step, the tuning of the parameters is based on as-built data and on the analysis of
recorded data. In constrast with the benchmarking made before, this consists in implementing:
The actual primary and secondary HVAC components;
The actual setpoints and occupancy and operating schedules;
The design air renewal rate;
Standard values coming from prEN standards and rule of thumb values are used for the undetermined
HVAC components characteristics (as pump, fans and plant performances) and for the plug and
lighting loads. At the end of this first step, it appears that the electricity consumption is largely
underestimated and has to be re-evaluated. Even if the fuel consumption seems to be well estimated,
the calibration of the whole system (building and HVAC system) has to be continued. Indeed, both
electricity and fuel consumptions are intrinsincally linked and cannot be studied separatly.
During the second step, plug and lighting loads are adjusted basing on observations made during site
visits and interviews. As expected, the electricity consumption increases and the fuel consumption
decreases because of the increasing of density of lighting and plug loads (Erreur ! Source du renvoi
introuvable.). At this step of the calibration work, the shapes of the consumption profiles are similar
to the recorded ones but a “scale” difference remains.
Table 4: Calibration - simulation runs
RUN # ERROR FUEL ELEC.
MBE -70.9 % -47.8 %
0 (benchmark)
CV(RMSE) 22.2 % 13.8 %
MBE -4.4 % -25.6 %
1 (base case)
CV(RMSE) 4.2 % 7.4 %
MBE -11.9 % - 9.4 %
2
CV(RMSE) 4.5 % 2.8 %
MBE -6.6 % -3.2 %
3 (baseline)
CV(RMSE) 3.4 % 1.6 %
The third step consisted in changing the performance of primary HVAC heating and cooling
equipment (for which data ar not available) in more realistic values, depending on the type and age
of the equipment. At the end of this third step, the results are satisfying and both MBE and
CV(RMSE) are near the range defined by ASHRAE guideline 14-2002, respectively, +/- 5 % and +/-
15 %.
As shown in Figure 40 and Figure 41, both consumption profiles are quite well reproduced by the
calibrated model.
Figure 42 shows a comparison between the thermal signature based on 5 years of recorded data and
the one generated by the calibrated model (dotted line). Once more, the results are satisfying and the
thermal behavior of the building and its system are well represented. The slope of both recorded and
computed signatures, respectively 50 and 55 kW/K, are in good agreement with the building global
heat transfer coefficient mentioned here above (52 kW/K).
Page 48
Figure 42: Computed and Recorded Thermal Signatures
The computed thermal signature (dotted line) is characterized by a better correlation coefficient
(R²=98%). This indicates that, with strictly well defined occupancy, corresponding internal gains and
simplified HVAC control, the fuel consumption is mainly correlated to the outdoor temperature. So,
as supposed above, the discrepancies observed with the recorded data (R²=66%) should be mainly
due to the variations in occupancy rate, internal gains and control strategy.
Even if the calibration has not been performed for a given year because of the reasons previously
discussed, the simplified model used here seems to be able to represent the “average” behavior of the
building and its system.
After calibration, the simulation tool is used to disaggregate the electricity consumption and to
identify the main energy consumers.
As it appears in Figure 43, an important part of the monthly electricity consumption is due to lighting
and plug loads (appliances). An important part is also due to ventilation fans, pumps and basement
utilities (extraction fans to basement parking zone and parking lighting). Only 10% of the annual
electricity consumption are due to the chillers.
Page 49
4.3.3 Retrofit options
Some retrofits were already made on the plant and on the AHU’s. The replacement of existing
induction units by more efficient devices (new induction units or fan coils, if fitting in the small
space available) should make possible to run the system with higher chilled water temperature and
therefore better chiller COP.
Many other retrofit opportunities can already be identified:
1. A better fresh air management is certainly achievable. The air renovation time period could
be reduced from 75 h to 50h per week, in order to fit with the full occupancy. In heating
period, the night set back of the thermostat is here uneconomical: it’s much better to shut
down the primary air supply and to use the induction units in static heating mode. From other
part, the primary air flowrate migth be reduced in mid season, according to the actual cooling
demand of the offices.
2. A direct energy recovery system might be installed between supply and exhaust air circuits.
3. Some air re-circulation would be welcome, whenever the induction units require more
primary air than what is needed for indoor air quality.
4. Variable speed might help in reducing fans and pumps consumptions.
5. Variable chilled water temperature might also be introduced.
6. The possibility of using such installation in free chilling mode (i.e. with production of chilled
water by the cooling towers only) should be always considered. Actually, an attempt of free
chilling was even done sometime ago, by adding a water-to-water heat exchanger between
the condenser and the evaporator circuits (in parallel to the chillers). For reasons which
couldn’t be found back, this experience failed and the system was dismanteled!
7. An optimal control of cooling towers should allow to reduce the electrical consumption of
their fans.
8. A more careful analysis of the space and time distributions of heating and cooling demands
would help in identifying the opportunities of heat pumping and reversible air conditioning:
- During almost all the heating season, the extracted air represents a “free” heat source of
more than 600 kW for a heat pump, whose evaporation temperature would be fixed
around 5°C.
- The air-cooled condensers of the auxiliary chillers, used all the year for the data
processing offices, are other free heat sources.
This last retrofit opportunity is studied in details in the frame of the IEA-ECBCS Annex 48 (Lebrun
and André, 2008) project (“Heat Pumping and Reversible Air Conditioning”).
Once again, adapted simulation models are badly needed to evaluate the selected ECO’s. Among the
ECOs identified here above, only a few ones are evaluated here.
The simplest retrofit opportunity is certainly the implementation of a better fresh air management. It
is proposed to reduce the air renovation time period from 75h to 55h per week, in order to fit better
with the occupancy period.
The second retrofit option is to to increase air recirculation, whenever the induction units require
more primary air than what is needed for IAQ. Currently, the fresh air flow rate per occupant is about
170 m³/h. It is proposed to reduce it to about 72 m³/h (corresponding to “high indoor air quality” as
defined by prEN standard 13779).
The third retrofit option envisaged here is to install a classical air-to-air recovery system on the fresh
air intake.
Page 50
As shown in Erreur ! Source du renvoi introuvable. a better management of the ventilation
schedule and the air recirculation allows a reduction of about 60% of the fuel consumption and
causes only a slight increase of the electricity consumption (less than 2%, due to additional pressure
drops in the economizer). The installation of an air-to-air recovery system leads to a smaller
reduction of fuel consumption (15%) but causes a bigger increase of electricity consumption (6%).
Of course, other retrofit options, such as replacement of lighting and appliances by less-consuming
devices or replacement of the induction units by units requiring a smaller primary air flow rate
should also be studied.
4.3.4 Conclusion
In this case study One of the main difficulties comes from the too many lacks of information. Filling
these lacks would require, more detailed energy records on site and more detailed information about
the actual installation.
However, monthly energy bills and quick inspections allow a first and rough analysis of the
behaviour of the building and of its HVAC system.
Simulation models are used to allow a better interpretation of the available data. Differente models of
HVAC equipment are used at different stages of the energy audit. The most simplified models with
very few parameters are of great help for benchmarking purposes. They allow the auditor to get a
first impression about energy saving potentials.
A fully heuristic calibration method has been used to calibrate the tool to averaged fuel and
electricity consumptions. The use of averaged data has allowed us to avoid the effect of the variable
use of the building and its system.
Calibrated but still simplified simulation models are then used to disaggregate the electricity
consumption and to allow a better interpretation of on site records.
Finally, more detailed and specific simulation tools should be used to allow a safe identification and
an assessment of the most promising retrofit opportunities.
Page 51
Conclusion
To be continued…
Page 52
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Masy, G. (2008). Modeling and validation of a simplified multizone dynamic building model
connected to heating system and HVAC unit. PhD Dissertation. Université de Liège, Belgium.
Visier, J.C., Jandon, M. (2004). International Energy Agency – Energy Conservation in Buildings
and Community Systems - Annex 40: Commissioning of Building HVAC Systems for Improved
Energy Performances. Synthesis Report.
Page 55
Appendix
External Walls
External walls
Insulation U C
Description
thickness weighted
from indoor to outdoor
cm W/m²K J/m²K
External vertical walls
5 0.55
hollow concrete block + insulation + air layer strongly
7 0.42
ventilated
9 0.34
150000
5 0.50
clay block + insulation + air layer strongly ventilated 7 0.39
9 0.32
massive wood + insulation + air layer strongly ventilated 7.5 0.32 100000
cellular concrete block + insulation + air layer strongly
5 0.34 80000
ventilated
5 0.51
Hollow concrete block + insulation + air layer weakly
7 0.39
ventilated + bricks
9 0.32
290000
5 0.46
clay block + insulation + air layer weakly ventilated +
7 0.37
bricks
9 0.30
cellular concrete block - 0.47 110000
fermacell wood + insulation + panel OSB + insulation +
18.6 0.16 70000
celit + air between battens + wood
massive wood + insulation + air layer weakly ventilated +
7.5 0.30 240000
bricks
plywood + insulation between rafters + plywood + air
6 0.59 15000
layer strongly ventilated
insulation + multiplex + air layer strongly ventilated 7.5 0.40 25000
panel OSB + insulation + celit + air layer strongly
20 0.15
ventilated 70000
panel OSB + insulation + celit 20 0.15
plywood + insulation between rafters + plywood + air
6 0.53 150000
layer weakly ventilated + bricks
insulation + multiplex + air layer weakly ventilated +
7.5 0.37 160000
bricks
air between battens + insulation + stone 9 0.32 1035000
insulation + panel OSB + insulation + concrete block 14 0.17 230000
Roofs
6 0.47
heavy : hollow concrete floor + concrete + insulation 8 0.37 460000
12 0.26
Page 56
light : insulation between purlins + air layer strongly
18 0.28 20000
ventilated
6 0.49
light : air layer weakly ventilated + insulation 12 0.27
18 0.18 15000
light : insulation between purlins + air layer strongly 6 0.56
ventilated 12 0.35
6 0.45
light : air layer weakly ventilated + agglomerates panel +
8 0.36 40000
insulation
12 0.25
light : air between battens + insulation + air layer strongly
10 0.31 20000
ventilated
6 0.44
heavy : insulation + hollow concrete floor + concrete 460000
8 0.35
light : air between battens + insulation + celit + air layer
17.5 0.17
strongly ventilated 50000
light : air between battens + insulation + tightness 10 0.28
Floors on outdoor environment
4 0.64
heavy : tiled floor + mortar + insulation + concrete +
6 0.47 365000
hollow concrete floor
8 0.37
light : wood + insulation + panel OSB + insulation + air
15.7 0.20 70000
between battens + wood
heavy : tiled floor + mortar + concrete + hollow concrete 6 0.47
370000
floor + insulation 8 0.37
Floors on crawled space
heavy : tiled floor + mortar + insulation + concrete +
4 0.59 360000
hollow concrete floor
heavy : tiled floor + mortar + concrete + hollow concrete
6 0.44 370000
floor + insulation
heavy : tiled floor + mortar + insulation + reinforced
4 0.61
concrete slab
390000
heavy : tiled floor + mortar + reinforced concrete slab +
6 0.45
insulation
Floors on cellar
heavy : tiled floor + mortar + insulation + concrete +
4 0.59 360000
hollow concrete floor
heavy : tiled floor + mortar + concrete + hollow concrete
6 0.44 370000
floor + insulation
heavy : tiled floor + mortar + insulation + reinforced
4 0.61
concrete slab
390000
heavy : tiled floor + mortar + reinforced concrete slab +
6 0.45
insulation
Ground contact floors
heavy : tiled floor + mortar + insulation + reinforced 4 0.68
390000
concrete slab 6 0.49
heavy : tiled floor + mortar + insulation + concrete ( +
7 0.43
sand + ballast)
430000
heavy : tiled floor + mortar + reinforced concrete slab +
4 0.68
insulation
Page 57
Ground contact vertical walls
3 0.83
hollow concrete block + mortar + insulation 5 0.56 320000
7 0.43
Party or indoor vertical walls in contact with unheated rooms
hollow concrete block + insulation + concrete block 2 0.93
300000
clay block + insulation + clay block 2 0.69
cellular concrete block + insulation + cellular concrete
2 0.29
block
150000
hollow concrete block + insulation 6 0.48
clay block + insulation 6 0.44
cellular concrete block + insulation 6 0.31 80000
Party or indoor vertical walls in contact with heated rooms
hollow concrete block + insulation + concrete block 2 0.93
300000
clay block + insulation + clay block 2 0.69
cellular concrete block + insulation + cellular concrete
2 0.30 150000
block
External walls
Description
φ θ
from indoor to outdoor
External vertical walls
concrete block + insulation + air layer strongly ventilated
clay block + insulation + air layer strongly ventilated
1
massive wood + insulation + air layer strongly ventilated
cellular concrete block + insulation + air layer strongly ventilated
concrete block + insulation + air layer weakly ventilated + bricks
clay block + insulation + air layer weakly ventilated + bricks
cellular concrete block 0.70
0.10
fermacell wood + insulation + panel OSB + insulation + celit + air between
battens + wood
massive wood + insulation + air layer weakly ventilated + bricks
plywood + insulation between rafters + plywood + air layer strongly ventilated
insulation + multiplex + air layer strongly ventilated 0.50
panel OSB + insulation + celit + air layer strongly ventilated
panel OSB + insulation + celit
plywood + insulation between rafters + plywood + air layer weakly ventilated +
0.15 0.49
bricks
insulation + multiplex + air layer weakly ventilated + bricks 0.13 0.28
air between battens + insulation + stone 0.49 0.26
insulation + panel OSB + insulation + concrete block 0.25 0.13
Roofs
heavy mass : hollow concrete floor floor + concrete + insulation 1
0.10
light mass : insulation 0.85
heavy mass : insulation + hollow concrete floor floor + concrete 0.20 0.40
light mass: air between battens + insulation + celit + air layer strongly ventilated 0.45 0.08
light mass : air between battens + insulation + tightness 0.59 0.06
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Floors on outside
heavy mass : tiled floor + mortar + insulation + concrete + hollow concrete floor
light mass : wood + insulation + panel OSB + insulation + air between battens + 0.65
0.10
wood
heavy mass : tiled floor + mortar + concrete + hollow concrete floor + insulation 1
Floors on ventilated void
heavy mass 1 0.10
Floors on cellar
heavy mass 1 0.10
Ground contact floors
heavy mass 1 0.05
Ground contact vertical walls
concrete block + mortar + insulation 1 0.10
Party or internal vertical walls in contact with not heated rooms
Insulated symmetrical or asymmetrical 1 0.15
Party or internal vertical walls in contact with heated rooms
Insulated symmetrical 1 0.10
Page 59
Internal Walls
Internal walls
Insulation U C
Description
thickness ζ
from inside to outside of the zone
cm W/m²K J/m²K
Internal vertical walls
Left part 0.50
gypsum board + air + gypsum board - 1.85 20000
Right part 0.50
Left part 0.50
concrete block - 2.51 160000
Right part 0.50
gypsum board + insulation + gypsum Left part 0.50
7 0.42 20000
board Right part 0.50
Internal floors
heavy : carpet + mortar + concrete + higher part 0.60
- 2.00 450000
hollow concrete floor lower part 0.40
heavy : tiled floor + mortar + concrete + higher part 0.60
- 2.22 450000
hollow concrete floor lower part 0.40
heavy : carpet + mortar + concrete + 0.25
higher part
hollow concrete floor + cavity/plenum + - 0.85 460000
lower part 0.75
suspended ceiling
heavy : tiled floor + screed + insulation + 0.25
higher part
hollow concrete floor + cavity/plenum + - 0.89 460000
lower part 0.75
suspended ceiling
Internal walls
Description
ζ φ θ
from inside to outside of the zone
Internal vertical walls
left part 0.50
not insulated
right part 0.50
light mass
left part 0.10
insulated 0.5 1
right part 0.10
left part 0.80
heavy mass not insulated
right part 0.80
Internal floors
not insulated without higher part 0.60 0.85 0.80
suspended ceiling lower part 0.40 0.95 0.75
heavy mass
not insulated with higher part 0.25 0.80 0.80
suspended ceiling lower part 0.75 0.65 0.95
Page 60
Appendix B: List of inputs (BENCHMARK and SIMAUDIT)
Page 61
Appendix C: List of parameters (BENCHMARK)
Page 62
Afloor\occupant m²/occ Floor area/occupant
Occupants activity W/occ Occupants activity (related to metabolic rate)
2. HVAC system description
2.0. Indoor/Outdoor nominal conditions
tout,winter,sizing,n C Sizing winter outdoor temperature
RHout,winter,sizing,n - Sizing winter outdoor relative humidity
tout,summer,sizing,n C Sizing summer outdoor temperature
RHout,summer,sizing,n - Sizing summer outdoor relative humidity
Imax,n W/m² Sizing summer global solar radiation
ta,in,winter,n C Sizing winter indoor temperature
RHin,winter,n - Sizing winter indoor relative humidity
ta,in,summer,n C Sizing summer indoor temperature
RHin,summer,n - Sizing summer indoor relative humidity
ta,ex,AHU,winter,sizing,n C Sizing winter AHU exhaust temperature
ta,ex,AHU,summer,sizing,n C Sizing summer AHU exhaust temperature
2.1. Heating TU
FheatingTU,oversizing - Heating TU sizing factor
tw,su,heatingFCU,n C Nominal heating TU supply water temperature
Δtw,heatingFCU,n K Nominal heating TU water temperature variation
FcoolingTU,oversizing - Cooling TU sizing factor
tw,su,coolingFCU,n C Nominal cooling TU supply water temperature
Δtw,coolingFCU,n K Nominal cooling TU water temperature variation
2.2. Air Handling Unit
nCAV,vol\h,n 1/h Nominal ventilation rate per unit of zone volume
tw,suAHU,heating,n C Nominal AHU heating coils supply water temperature
Δtw,AHU,heating,n K Nominal AHU heating coils water temperature variation
tw,suAHU,cooling,n C Nominal AHU cooling coil supply water temperature
Δtw,AHU,cooling,n K Nominal AHU cooling coil water temperature variation
recovery,n - Sensible passive heat recovery nominal effectiveness
adiabhum,n - Adiabatic humidifier nominal effectiveness
s,mainfan,n - Main fan nominal effectiveness
s,returnfan,n - Return fan nominal effectiveness
ηsteam,generator,n - Electrical steam humidifier efficiency
preturnduct,n Pa Return duct nominal pressure drop
preturn,recovery,n Pa Recovery coil (return duct side) pressure drop
preturn,economiser,n Pa Economiser (return duct side) pressure drop
psupplyduct,n Pa Supply duct nominal pressure drop
pfresh,recovery,n Pa Recovery coil (supply duct side) pressure drop
pfresh,economiser,n Pa Economiser (supply duct side) pressure drop
pAHUfilter,n Pa AHU filter nominal pressure drop
ppreheatingcoil,n Pa Preheating coil nominal pressure drop
padiabhum,n Pa Adiabatic humidifier nominal pressure drop
psteamhum,n Pa Steam humidifier nominal pressure drop
pcoolingcoil,n Pa Cooling coil nominal pressure drop
ppostheatingcoil,n Pa Post-heating coil nominal pressure drop
2.3. Heat Production
Page 63
tw,ex,boiler,set,max °C Maximal exhaust boiler water temperature set point
tw,ex,boiler,set,min °C Minimal exhaust boiler water temperature set point
tout,low °C Lower limit of water temperature control law
tout,high °C Upper limit of water temperature control law
hotwaterdistr,n - Hot water distribution network nominal thermal efficiency
pw,hotwaterdistr,n Pa Hot water distribution network nominal pressure drop
s,sh,hotwaterpump,n - Hot water pump nominal effectiveness
motor,hotwaterpump,n - Hot water pump nominal electrical efficiency
boiler,n - Gas boiler nominal efficiency
tw,heating,n K Hot water nominal temperature variation
Fheatingplant,oversizing - Heating plant sizing factor
2.4. Cool Production
tw,cooling,n K Chilled water nominal temperature variation
fsizing,chiller - Chiller sizing factor
coldwaterdistr,n - Chilled water distribution network nominal thermal
efficiency
pw,coldwaterdistr,n Pa Chilled water distribution network nominal pressure drop
s,sh,coldwaterpump,n - Chilled water pump nominal effectiveness
motor,coldwaterpump,n - Chilled water pump nominal electrical efficiency
tw,ex,chiller,set °C Exhaust chiller water temperature set point
tw,cooling,n K Chilled water nominal temperature variation
Fcoolingplant,oversizing - Cooling plant sizing factor
coldwaterdistr,n - Chilled water distribution network nominal thermal
efficiency
pw,coldwaterdistr,n Pa Chilled water distribution network nominal pressure drop
2.5. HVAC System Control
ta,in,heating,set,min °C Heating indoor setpoint during unoccupation period
ta,in,heating,set,occ °C Heating indoor setpoint during occupation period
ta,in,cooling,set,occ °C Cooling indoor setpoint during occupation period
ta,in,cooling,set,max °C Cooling indoor setpoint during unoccupation period
tout,max,recovery °C Maximal outdoor temperature for heat recovery
tout,max,adiabhum °C Maximal outdoor temperature for adiabatic humidification
wex,adiabhum,set kg/kg Adiabatic humidifier exhaust humidity ratio set point
Cadiabhum,fbwex - Proportional regulation gain for adiabatic humidification
with feedback on exhaust humidity ratio
RHin,adiabhum,set - Indoor relative humidity set point for adiabatic
humidification
Cadiabhum,fbRHin - Proportional regulation gain for adiabatic humidification
with feedback on indoor relative humidity
Cdehumidif,fbwex - Proportional regulation gain for dehumidification with
feedback on exhaust humidity ratio
RHin,dehumidify,set - Indoor relative humidity set point for dehumidification
Cdehumidif,fbRHin - Proportional regulation gain for dehumidification with
feedback on indoor relative humidity
ta,ex,postheatingcoil,set °C Exhaust post-heating coil air temperature set point
Cpostheating 1/K Proportional regulation gain for postheating
tout,max,postheating °C Maximal outdoor temperature for postheating
Page 64
RHin,steamhum,set - Indoor relative humidity set point for humidification
tout,max,steamhum °C Maximal outdoor temperature for steam humidification
Csteamhum 1/K Proportional regulation gain for steam humidification
tout,max,heatingTU °C Maximal outdoor temperature for heating with terminal units
tout,min,coolingTU °C Minimal outdoor temperature for cooling with terminal units
CcoolingTU 1/K Proportional regulation gain for cooling with terminal units
CheatingTU 1/K Proportional regulation gain for heating with terminal units
Page 65
Appendix D: List of outputs (BENCHMARK)
Page 66
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