ISSN: 2278 – 7798
International Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology Research (IJSETR)
Shallow Foundations for Low-rise
Residential Buildings in Nigeria
M. Alhassan and I. L. Boiko
Department of Geotechnics and Ecology in Civil Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Belorussian National Technical University, Minsk, Belarus
Abstract—The paper present the basic types of shallow
foundations use for the construction of low-rise residential
buildings in Nigeria, the predominant soil types on which
these foundations are constructed, conditions and the
processes of formationof these soils and their basic
engineering properties. The bases for the design approach
for these types of foundations, the methods and technology
of their construction.
Keywords:Bearing capacity, Residential building,
Settlement, Shallow foundation,Tropical
residual soil.
I. INTRODUCTION
Nigeria is a developing country still battling
to provide houses for its ever increasing population.
The demands for buildings for both commercial and
residential uses are high, particularly in the country’s
many states capitals and other major cities. While
trying to meet up with this demand, sure is made in
ensuring proper designs of the buildings components,
thusensuring that the buildingsare able to perform
their functions satisfactorily. The foundation systems
must be able to support the applied loads through safe
transfer of same to the underlying soil.
Foundation is an integral part of a building
whose stability determines the stability of the entire
structure. It acts as a medium through which loads are
transmitted to the soil or rock below. The stability of
a foundation depends on its proper design based on
the structural loads of the building it carries, the
geology of the area and condition of the subsoil base.
Depending on the depth of load-transfer from the
structure to the ground, foundations are classified as
shallow and deep foundations. The definition of
shallow foundations varies in different publications.
While BS 8004 (1986) adopts an arbitrary
embedment depth of 3 m as a way of defining
shallow foundations, many consider shallow
foundation as one in which the embedment depth of
the foundation is less than or equal to its width [1].
Many recent studies conducted have shown that, for
shallow foundations, Df/B can be as large as 3 to 4
[2]-[4]). EAG [5] states that, foundation elements are
All Rights Reserved © 2013 IJSETR
Volume 2, Issue 3, March 2013
considered to be shallow when the depth to breadth
ratio is less than 5 (Df/B<5).
Most residential buildings in Nigeria,
especially the low-rise types are founded on shallow
foundations, with the most widely used of them as
strip and pad foundations. This is perhaps because of
the prevalent types of residential buildings
(bungalows) and the soil conditions i.e stable tropical
residual soils. Understanding the rationale behind the
prevalent usage of these types of foundations can
therefore not be over emphasized. Traditional
foundation design practice in Nigeria relies largely,
on the British Code of Practice for Foundations BS
8004of 1986 [6], and a little of empirical rules
formulated from local experience with foundations in
weathered rocks. A thorough understanding of the
geology and soil conditions of an area, in which
foundation is to be sited, is a pre-requisite to the
success of a foundation project.
II. CHARACTERISTIC SOIL CONDITIONS
AND PROPERTIES OF SOILS IN
NIGERIA
Nigeria is one of the African countries
located within the tropical region of the world (fig.
1). The country lies close to the equator between
latitude 4o N and 14o N and longitude 2o E and 15o E.
The country therefore, has characteristic hot and
heavy rainfall climatic conditions which are typical
of tropical region. The geology of Nigeria is
dominated by sedimentary and crystalline basement
complex formations which occur in almost equal
proportions all over the country [7]-[9] (fig. 2). The
sediment is mainly Upper Cretaceous to recent in age
while the basement complex rocks are thought to be
Precambrian. Sedimentary rocks found within
Nigeria include: sandstones, shales and mudstone,
limestones, siltstones, ironstone, e.t.c. While
migmatite-gneiss-quartzite complex, younger
metasediments, charnokitic-gabbroic and dioritic
rocks, older granite suite and volcanics and
hypabyssalrocks groups have been identified within
the crystalline basement complex[8].
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 ISSN: 2278 – 7798
International Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology Research (IJSETR)
Volume 2, Issue 3, March 2013

genetically related horizons are a reflection of the

weathering process. The soil profile also has a
weathering aspect that gives rise to a vertical
weathering profile that is a critical aspect from the
engineering perspective. The weathering profile
Niger
ia reflects the state of weathering along the soil profile
or vertical soil section from the bedrock (unaltered
parent rock) to the ground surface. It consists of
materials that show progressive stages of
transformation or ―grading‖ from fresh rock to
completely weathered material towards the ground
surface. The weathering profile portrays considerable
Fig. 1:Regions with tropical climate [10] variation from place to place due to the local
variation in rock type and structure, topography and
rates of erosion because of regional climatic
variation, particularly rainfall [11]. The entire
as
in
weathering profile, generally, indicates a gradual
o

nB
ot
ok

de
.S

me Chad
change from fresh rock to a completely weathered
R

e
L ull Kano Basin

g ola
soil as illustrated in fig. 3[12].
n
Go

d un
a
R.
Residual soils are usually preferred to
Ka
R.
Bid
ab
support foundations as they tend to have better
Abuja
as
R.
Nig
er
in engineering properties than transported soils [13].
n
si
Ba
e
nu

R. Ben
Be

ue

asin
Daho bra B
me y
Basi An a m
n
Lagos
e
idg

Nig
er
aR

De
lta
up

B
itip

as Crystalline Rocks
in
Ok

Sedimentary Rocks

Fig.2: Geological formation of Nigeria

Due to the climatic conditions in the tropical

region (Nigeria), soil formation from the parent rocks
(igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic), is mainly by
process of chemical weathering[11]. Although,
mechanical process of weathering is also encountered
within the tropics (Nigeria). The weathered material
is untransported residue of both chemical and
physical process of rock weathering. The most
important end products are the clays and the resistant
Fig.3: Typical Tropical (Nigerian) soil profile
minerals, quartz. Other end products depend very
much on the type of rock. In this part of the world,
In addition to the residual soils, weakly
however, iron oxides are also common residues. They
developed and hydromorphic soils are also found in
impart the reddish, brownish and yellowish
Nigeria especially along rivers banks and coastal
coloration on the weathering residues, which are
area, though in terms of coverage, but not necessarily
generally referred to as ―laterite‖ [7]. Most abundant
in the order of significance, they are less in extent
residual soils in Nigeria are mainly Ferruginous
than the residual soils. Vertisol, which is also a
tropical soils and Ferralsols.
tropical residual soil group, having distinct
Under the humid tropical climate of Nigeria
engineering properties are also found in the North-
and the extensive gentle slopes of the terrain, deep in-
eastern part of Nigeria. Fig. 4 shows the major soil
situ weathering takes place. The depth of weathering,
groups in Nigeria[14].
though variable, is generally about 30m below the
As shown on fig. 4, there are basically four
surface, and may be greater in highly jointed and
major groups of tropical soils in Nigeria: Weakly
fractured rocks. In the more arid part of Northern
developed soils, Vertisols, Ferrallitic soils and
Nigeria, the depth of weathering is reported to be less
Ferruginous tropical soils. Of these, the ferruginous
than 15m. The composition and characteristics of the
and ferrallitic tropical soils are the most abundant and
weathered materials would depend very much on the
most stable under engineering structures. The
parent rock from which they were formed [7].
vertisols and weakly developed soils occur less in
In addition to the influence of parent rocks,
Nigeria and are generally weak bases for engineering
residual soils in the tropics (Nigeria), have a vertical
structures, especially those founded on shallow
soil section, called the soil profile, which consists of
foundations.
a distinct layering, termed the soil horizons formed
almost parallel to the ground surface. These

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International Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology Research (IJSETR)
Ferruginous soils Weakly developed soils
Ferrallitic soils Vertisols
Fig. 4: Soil groups in Nigeria
A. Weakly developed soils
These are poorly developed soils, including
young soils as well as lithosols on rocky areas and on
recent deposits. Soils on recent deposit have no
clear differentiation of soil horizons. There are two
types; soils on alluvium at rivers and lake valleys and
soils formed on mangrove swamps and marine
alluvium. The first type is generally heterogeneous
and they vary from sand to silty loam. They are soft
and may be predominantly clayey in parts. They are
found in valleys of many rivers and streams in
Nigeria. The second type has similar granulometric
characteristics as the latter. They differ in the
presence of large quantities of humus and the high
salt content. They have a high concentration of
sulphides and even elemental sulphur.
Both groups contain sands in the form of
quartz and a mixture of clays usually kaolinite and
illite. The physical and engineering properties of
weakly developed soils cover a wide range since they
cover different genetic groups. The soils on recent
deposits, which are the largest member of the group
are soft and sometimes of considerable depth.
Malomo[14] reported the following range of
geotechnical properties for organic clay in Lagos area
of Nigeria:Moisture content: 15-120%, Liquid limit-
20-150%, Plastic limit-10-50%, Undrained shear
strength- 31.4-314 kPa, Cohesion-3.14-31.4 kPa,
Angle of shear resistance-0-7o, Bulk density[15]-
1600-1900kg/m3.
B. Vertisols
These are heavy black clays associated with
calcium rich parent rocks in the relatively dry
savannah climate. They are also called black cotton
soils. They characteristically have a black upper
horizon, which is due to the presence of a black
colored humus-clay complex. They have a heavy
texture and a dominant montmorillonitic clay
fraction.The engineering properties are dominated by
its small particle sizes and the presence of the clay
mineral montmorillonite. These properties impose the
All Rights Reserved © 2013 IJSETR
ISSN: 2278 – 7798
Volume 2, Issue 3, March 2013
low permeability, high plasticity, expansiveness and
shrinkage on the soils.
Ola [16] and Oritola and Moses[17]
recorded the following ranges of properties for
vertisols of the North-eastern Nigeria:Liquid limit-
78-93%, Plastic limit- 21-31%, Plasticity
index-47-72%, Linear shrinkage- 11-21%, Specific
gravity-2.50-2.56, Free swell-50-90%, Swelling
pressure-126.9 kPa, Bulk density [15] -1900-
2100kg/m3.
Building on vertisols using the types of
foundation commonly employed for other types of
soils, develop extensive cracks within a short period
of time even with reasonable precautions taken.
C. Ferruginous soils
As shown in fig. 4, this soil group is most
abundant in Nigeria. They are tropical soils with
defined ABC profile. They frequently have marked
separation of free iron oxides, which may either be
leached out of the profile or precipitated within it in
the form of spots of concretions (a process called
laterization, which is common in the tropics). They
contain mostly kaolinite, residual quartz and free iron
oxides, which have been transformed to the inactive
forms [14]. This group of soils is commonly referred
to as red tropical soils.
The soils are of medium plasticity and
inactive due the clay minerals present in them. S. Ola
[18], Alhassan [19], [20], Alhassan and Mustapha
[21] and Mustapha [22] reported the following
ranges for the geotechnical properties of ferruginous
soil profiles:Natural moisture content-6.55-38%,
Liquid limit-36-50%, Plastic limit-18-44%, Plasticity
index-6-26%, Specific gravity-2.53-2.70, Cohesion-
24-140 kPa, Angle of shear resistance-18-26.5o, Bulk
density [15] -1700-2100kg/m3.
D. Ferrallitic soils
They are formed in the humid to moist sub-
humid parts and areas of dense vegetation in the
southern Nigeria. The soils are often found as deep
profile on a wide range of rock types. The horizons
are slightly differentiated. They have little or no
reserve of weatherable minerals. The clay minerals in
them are predominantly of the 1:1 lattice type and
mostly associated with large quantities of iron
minerals.
This group of soil has almost similar
engineering properties and color with the ferruginous
tropical soils. These two groups are the most stable
under foundation.
A generalized classification of subsoil bases
in Nigeria, presented by Alhassan et al.[23], can
serve as a guide for the selection of foundation type,
depending on the soil condition.
531

International Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology Research (IJSETR)
III. TYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
USED IN NIGERIA
Most of the residential buildings in Nigeria
are low-rise buildings founded mostly on shallow
(pad, strip and raft) foundations. Statistically, more
than 80% of these residential buildings are
bungalows (building with single floor),which are
mostly founded on strip foundations, while most of
A. Pad Foundation
Pad foundations are used to support point
loads from columns. There are a number of different
types of pad foundations available in use in the
country. They include the mass concrete for steel
column, plain reinforced concrete, stepped reinforced
concrete, etc. Types of pad foundations are shown in
Fig.5.
Shallow mass concrete pad consists of a
mass of concrete pad supporting point loads from
Fig.5a: Types of pad foundations[25]
B. Strip Footing
Strip footings are used under relatively
uniform point loads or mostly under walls. The strip
distributes the concentration of the load sideways into
an increased width of sub-strata to reduce the bearing
stress and settlement to an allowable limit [24]. Strip
Fig.6 a: Strip footing
C. Raft Foundation
Raft foundation is also known as mat
foundation. It is a large spread footing that supports
most of the structure loads. A raft foundation spreads
the structural load over a large area to reduce the
bearing pressure [26], [27]. It is more rigid and thus
All Rights Reserved © 2013 IJSETR
ISSN: 2278 – 7798
Volume 2, Issue 3, March 2013
the few multi-floor low-rise residential buildings are
founded on pad foundations. Only few rare cases
occur, were residential buildings in Nigeria are
founded on raft foundations, even in areas with
extremely weak or very troublesome soils. The
following are the different types of shallow
foundations:
columns and piers. They are used for varying
conditions of soil layers where the suitable load
bearing soils exist at shallow depth [24]. Shallow
reinforced concrete pads are similar to the mass
concrete pads but of a smaller thickness because of
the usage of reinforcement on the tensile face of the
pad which increases the pad resistance to bending
moment. Combined pad footings are also used in
cases were individual pad footing are much closed to
each other.
Fig.5b: Houses on pad foundations
footings are also used when rows of columns are
spaced so closely that individual pad foundation will
nearly touched each other. They are the most widely
used shallow foundations in Nigeria for the
construction of low-rise residential buildings.
Fig. 6: Houses constructed on strip footing
reduces the potential for excessive differential
settlements. Raft has greater weight and is able to
resist greater uplift loads. It distributes lateral loads
into the soil more evenly and efficiently. Since most
of the structures require a ground floor slab, it is
always economic to incorporate it with the
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International Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology Research (IJSETR)
foundation into one element. The combination of
floor ground slab and the foundation can be done by
Fig. 7a:Raft Foundation
IV. BASES ON SANDY SOILS
Shallow foundations are generally designed
to satisfy bearing capacity and settlement criteria.
The bearing capacity criterion stipulates that there is
adequate safety against bearing capacity failure
beneath the foundation, and a factor of safety of three
is generally used on the computed ultimate bearing
capacity. Settlement criterion is to ensure that the
settlement is within tolerable limits[29]. According to
Bowles [13], for foundations on sand and silts,the
following requireconsiderations:
1. Bearing capacity.
2. Densification of loose deposits to control
settlement.
3. Placing the footing at a sufficient depth that the
soil beneath the footing is confined. If silt or sand is
not confined, it will roll out from the footing
perimeter with a loss of density and bearing capacity.
Wind and water may erode sand or silt from beneath
a footing that is too near the ground surface.
Foundations on silt or sand deposits may
consist of spread (pad and strip) footings, mats or
piles, depending on the density, thickness, and cost of
densifying the deposit, and on the building loads.
Spread footings are used if the deposit is dense
enough to support the loads without excessive
settlements. Rapid or immediate settlements occur on
noncohesive silt or sand deposits.
It is poor practice to place foundations on
sand deposits where the relative density is not at least
60 percent or to a density of about 90 percent or more
of the maximum density obtained in a laboratory test.
This dense state reduces the possibility of both load
settlements and settlement damage due to vibrations
from passing equipment, earthquakes, or the like.
Inorganic (nearly pure) silt in a saturated
condition cannot be compacted. The compaction
effort produces a wave in front of the compactor and
the entire mass may quiver. When this type of deposit
is encountered, the deposit must be excavated and
replaced with competent soil or else excavated and
dried to a water content that will allow compaction.
Soil replacement is usually impossible so alternatives
All Rights Reserved © 2013 IJSETR
ISSN: 2278 – 7798
Volume 2, Issue 3, March 2013
making the upper surface of the raft foundation
coincides with the top surface of the floor slab[28].
Fig.7b: Construction of raft foundation
consist in drying the silt and encasing it in a
geotextile to control water, mixing it with sand and
gravel sufficient to produce a stable condition when
saturated, or using piles to carry the load through the
deposit to competent soil [30].
A. Bearing Capacity of foundations on sand
In proportioning shallow foundations
parameters, the Terzaghi general bearing capacity
equation as given by equation (1), is generally used.
1
𝑞𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾 (1)
2
where qultisthe ultimate bearing capacity, c is the unit
cohesion, q is the surcharge (D𝛾), 𝛾 the unit weight
of soil, D the depth of foundation, B is foundation
width, 𝑁𝑐 , 𝑁𝛾 and 𝑁𝑞 are coefficients that depend on
the effective friction angle of the soil, ϕ. It is
commonly accepted that:
𝑁𝑐 = 𝑁𝑞 − 1 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜙 (2)
1
𝑁𝑞 = 𝑒 𝜋𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 45𝑜 + 𝜙 (3)
2
However, for calculatingNγ, different equations have
been recommended. One of the most popular
equations is that of Brinch-Hansen [26], [27], [30]:
𝑁𝛾 = 1.5 𝑁𝑞 − 1 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 (4)
Values of 𝑁𝑐 , 𝑁𝛾 and 𝑁𝑞 are usually tabulated or
graphically given against ϕ in literatures for easy
reference.
For a granular, non-cohesive (c=0) material,
the ultimate bearing capacity qultof the soil is given
by:
1
𝑞𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾 (5)
2
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International Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology Research (IJSETR)
The ultimate bearing capacity of
foundations, qult in sand can also be determined from
results of plate load test by the following equation:
𝐵𝑓
𝑞𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 𝑞𝑢𝑝
𝐵𝑝
where𝑞𝑢𝑝 is the ultimate bearing capacity of the test
plate, 𝐵𝑓 and 𝐵𝑝 are foundation and test plate widths
respectively.
Recognizing the uncertainties involved,
factors of safety are applied to reduce the estimated
ultimate bearing capacity from equation (5).The
allowable bearing capacity 𝑞𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 is:
𝑞𝑢𝑙𝑡
𝑞𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 =
𝐹𝑆
The factor of safety (FS) is a function of the
importance of the structure, the consequences of
failure, and the uncertainty of the subsurface
investigation.
Footings on granular soils are commonly
proportioned by the use of Standard Penetration N
values [26]. One of the empirical equations, which
determine safe bearing capacity for a specified
maximum total settlement in terms of N values, that
is finding acceptance with geotechnical engineers in
Nigeria, is Bowles’s correlation [13], as presented by
Rao and Ranjan[26]. This is a modification of
Meyerhof’scorrelation.
𝑞𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 0.73 𝑁 𝑅𝐷1 S𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 kN/m2 for B≤1.2(8)
and
𝐵+0.3 2
𝑞𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 0.48 𝑁 𝑅𝐷2 S𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 kN/m2 for
𝐵 consolidation settlements. It should be noted that
B≥1.2 (9)
where𝑁is corrected N values, 𝐵 is foundation width,
S𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 is permissible settlement in mm, while
𝑅𝐷1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝐷2 are depth correction factors given by:
𝐷
𝑅𝐷1 = 1 + 0.2 ≤ 1.2 (10)
𝐵
𝐷 bearing capacity is most often determined using the
𝑅𝐷2 = 1 + 0.33 ≤ 1.33 (11)
𝐵 undrained shear strength as obtained from quality
where𝐷 is depth of foundation in m.
B. Settlement of foundations in sand
The estimation of settlement of shallow
foundations is an important topic in the design and
construction of building and other related structures.
In general, settlement of foundation consists of two
major components: elastic settlement (Se) and
consolidation settlement (sc). For a foundation
supported by granular soil within the zone of
influence of stress distribution, the elastic settlement
is the only component that needs consideration [31].
It is commonly believed that the settlement
criterion is more critical than the bearing capacity one
All Rights Reserved © 2013 IJSETR
ISSN: 2278 – 7798
Volume 2, Issue 3, March 2013
in the designs of shallow foundations, especially for
foundation width greater than 1.5 m, which is often
the case. By limiting the total settlements, differential
settlements and any subsequent distresses to the
structure are limited [29]. Generally the settlements
(6) of shallow foundations such as pad or strip footings
are limited to 25 mm [2].
The general equation for the calculation of
elastic settlement 𝑆𝑒 in sand is given as:
1 − µ2
𝑆𝑒 = 𝑞𝑛 𝐵 If (12)
𝐸
where 𝑞𝑛 is the net foundation pressure, 𝐵the width
of foundation, 𝐸 the modulus of elasticity of soil, µ
the Poisson’s ratio and If is the influence factor for
(7) settlement.
Terzaghi and Peck equation for the
calculation of foundation settlement 𝑆𝑓 in sand from
the result of field plate load test is also commonly
used:
2
𝐵𝑓 𝐵𝑝 +0.3
𝑆𝑓 = 𝑆𝑝 (13)
𝐵𝑝 𝐵𝑓 +0.3
Where 𝑆𝑝 is test plate settlement, 𝐵𝑓 and 𝐵𝑝
are foundation and test plate widths respectively.
V. BASES ON CLAY SOILS
Clay soils may range from very soft,
normally consolidated, to very stiff,
highlyoverconsolidated deposits. Major problems are
often associated with the very soft to soft, deposits
from both bearingcapacity considerations and
"soft" implies that the soil is very wet to saturated.
Consolidation settlements occur in these deposits
with high water contents. Most Nigerian residual
clays are overconsolidated deposits.
In clay soil it is necessary to make a best
estimate of the allowable bearing capacity to control
a shear failure with a suitable factor of safety and to
estimate the probable consolidation settlements. The
tube samples or from samples obtained from routine
SPT. If the soil is highly sensitive, consideration are
given to in situ strength testing such as the vane shear
or the cone penetration test.
Consolidation tests should be made to
determine the expected settlement if the structure has
a relatively high cost per unit area. For smaller or less
important structures, some type of settlement
estimate based on the index properties might be
justified.
In proportioning shallow foundation on clay,
the net ultimate bearing pressure for vertical loads is
normally computed using simplified Terzaghi,
Meyerhof or Hansen equations. For ϕ=0, equation
(1) becomes:
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 ISSN: 2278 – 7798
International Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology Research (IJSETR)
Volume 2, Issue 3, March 2013

𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐶𝑢 𝑁𝑐 (14) VI. TECHNOLOGY AND EQUIPMENT FOR

THE CONSTRUCTION OF SHALLOW
Since𝑁𝑐 = 5.14and 𝑁𝛾 = 1 from table of values of FOUNDATIONS IN NIGERIA
𝑁𝑐 , 𝑁𝛾 and 𝑁𝑞 , when ϕ=0, therefore:
Foundation construction consists of a series of
𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 5.14𝐶𝑢 (15) activities ranging from site preparation, foundation
trench excavation and the actual construction or
For the computation of consolidation installation of the foundation.
settlement, the following equation is generally used Foundation construction for residential
for normally consolidated clays: buildings in Nigeria is still been dominated by
manual methods of construction, using local
𝐶𝑐 P0 + ΔP implements [32] and cast in-situ technology. This is
𝑆𝑐 = 𝐻 log (16) perhaps because most residential buildings in the
1 + 𝑒0 P0
country are constructed by individuals, who have no
sufficient capital to use modern methods and
where H is the thickness of the clay layer,𝐶𝑐 is the
technology of construction. Only few cases occur
compressive index from e-logP graph,𝑒0 the initial
where construction of foundation for residential
void ratio,P0 is the effective overburden pressure and
buildings involves the use of state-of-the-art
ΔP is the increase in the effective stress at the middle
technology.
of the layer due to the foundation load.
For overconsolidated clays,
A. Site preparation
ifP0 + ΔP<Pc
Although in Nigeria, manual methods of site
𝐶𝑠 P0 + ΔP preparation and foundation construction still
𝑆𝑐 = 𝐻 log (17) predominate, thepresent-day foundation construction
1 + 𝑒0 P0 methods involve a high degree of mechanization.
Optimum working speeds of plant are achieved only
and if P0 < 𝑃c < 𝑃0 + ΔP in clear working conditions giving maximum
mobility for the plant and vehicles. Therefore, an
𝐻 Pc 𝑃0 + ΔP efficient and well-maintained system of temporary
𝑆𝑐 = 𝐶𝑠 log + Cc log (18)
1 + 𝑒0 P0 Pc roads is provided on extensive sites in order to
achieve and maintain a rapid tempo of construction in
where𝐶𝑠 is swell index, and can be determined using all weathers. Equally important is attention to site
the following empirical expression: drainage to give dry working conditions and to avoid
unnecessary pumping[33].
𝐿𝐿 It is equally important to make provision of
𝐶𝑠 = 0.0463 𝐺 (19)
100 𝑠 good transportation system relatively clear of the
foundation trench for easy movement of waste and
where𝐿𝐿is liquid limit and 𝐺𝑠 𝑖𝑠 specific gravity of construction materials. The form of construction of
the soil solids. temporary roads depends, of course, on the subgrade
Compressive index 𝐶𝑐 can also be computed soil conditions. On well-drained sandy or gravely
using some empirical relationships with the soil index soils, no construction will be necessary other than
properties [13], [15]. For example: grading to levels and rolling to give a good running
for normally consolidated clay, surface. Sandy surfaces are liable to rutting in very
dry weather or during heavy rain. If required,
𝐶𝑐 = 0.007 𝐿𝐿 − 10 (20) increased stability can be obtained by rolling in
quarry or industrial waste.
and for clay of low and medium sensitivity, Construction traffic can run on a clayey or
silty soil when it is dry. Thus, if it is certain that all
𝐶𝑐 = 0.009 𝐿𝐿 − 10 (21) construction requiring transport over the site can be
completed in the dry season, site roads are
Foundation settlement in clay soils can also unnecessary. However, if the construction
be estimated from the results of plate load test using programme requires work to continue through rainy
the following equation: weather, then some substantial form of temporary
road construction is essential. It is also important to
𝐵𝑓 construct these temporary roads before the onset of
𝑆𝑓 = 𝑆𝑝 (22)
𝐵𝑝 wet weather[33].

The maximum settlement allowed for foundations on B. Foundation trench excavation

clay soils is 25mm. Most construction sites in Nigeria for
buildings that are to be founded on either pad or strip

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foundations, uses manual methods and simple
equipment for the foundation trench excavation. The
usual implements used for this operation are mostly
diggers and shovels (fig. 10 a). After the site
clearance and the removal of the top organic soil, the
usual practice for foundation trench excavation, for
the construction of either pad or strip foundations, is
to pile the excavated materials on the unexcavated
portions within the site (fig. 10: b). These materials
are later on used for backfilling after the foundation
construction. But excavating a trench for the
construction of raft (mat) foundation, more
comprehensive operations are required because of the
large quantity of the excavated material that is
usually involved.

a b
Fig. 10: Excavation for strip foundation using diggers and shovels

The choice of plant for bulk excavation is
largely determined by the quantity and by the length
of haul to the disposal point. If the tip area is close to
the excavation, then the earth can be moved by
loading shovel orbulldozer. Longer hauls require
crawler or rubber-tyred tractor-drawn scrapers.
However, the size and depth of the excavation and
the soil conditions must be favourable for economical
use of scrappers; they are unsuitable for deep
excavations covering a small area since the ramp
roads enabling the scrapers to climb in and out of the
cut cannot be conveniently arranged. There must also
be room for the scraper to turn in the cut (trench).
These machines are best suited to fairly large areas of
shallow excavation. They can excavate all soil types
except soft clays and silts. If the haul distance for the
excavated material exceeds about 800-1000 m, then
excavators loading into tipping wagons are required
[33].
To ensure the safety of the workers in the
trench, stability of the trench’s sides is seriously
taken into consideration, especially for relatively
dipper excavations in cohesionless soils. The sides of
the trenches are usually protected by designed sheet
piles.
C. Placement of Shallow Foundations
After the trenches are prepared, for plain
concrete footing (and for reinforced concrete, the
reinforcement arranged, fig. 11-12), the concrete is
carefully poured to the designed dimensions. There
still exist in Nigeria, especially for pad and strip
footings, manual methods of mixing and placing
concrete during foundation construction. For large
scale foundation construction, mechanical methods of
mixing and placements of the concrete foundations
are used (fig. 13).

Fig. 11: A pad footing under construction

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International Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology Research (IJSETR)
Fig. 12: Strip/pad footings under constructionFig. 13:A raft Foundation under construction
VII. CONCLUSION
Shallow foundations are widely used in
Nigeria for the constructions of buildings for both
commercial and residential purposes. Most of the
low-rise residential buildings in Nigeria, which are
mostly bungalows are founded on shallow
foundations especially the strip type.
The selection and usage of these foundations
depends to a large extent on the geological and soil
condition of the area. Nigeria’s territory is
underlained by crystalline and sedimentary rocks,
which on the surface have weathered to form mostly
tropical firm residual soils. These geological and soil
conditions of the country provide good bases for the
use of shallow foundations to support most buildings
in the country.
For the determination of shallow
foundations’ parameters, the Terzaghi bearing
capacity equation, as modified by Brinch-Hansen,
still remains the most often used equation in Nigeria.
Foundation construction for residential
buildings in Nigeria is still been dominated by
manual methods of construction using cast in-situ
technology. This is perhaps because most residential
buildings in the country are constructed by
individuals, who have no sufficient means to use
modern construction methods and technology.
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