• ACCURACY AND PRECISION

We know that accuracy of measurement is very important for manufacturing

a quality product.
Accuracy is the degree of agreement of the measured dimension with its true
magnitude. It can also be defined as the maximum amount by which the
result differs from the true value or as the nearness of the measured value to
its true value, often expressed as a percentage.
True value may be defined as the mean of the infinite number of measured
values when the average deviation due to the various contributing factors
tends to zero.

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• Precision is the degree of repetitiveness of the measuring process. It
is the degree of agreement of the repeated measurements of a
quantity made by using the same method, under similar conditions.
In other words, precision is the repeatability of the measuring
process.

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Figure 1.1 also clearly depicts the difference between precision and
accuracy, wherein several measurements are made on a component
using different types of instruments and the results plotted.

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• Accurate and precise: If a weather thermometer reads 75oF outside
and it really is 75oF, the thermometer is accurate. If the thermometer
consistently registers the exact temperature for several days in a row,
the thermometer is also precise.
• Precise, but not accurate: A refrigerator thermometer is read ten
times and registers degrees Celsius as: 39.1, 39.4, 39.1, 39.2, 39.1,
39.2, 39.1, 39.1, 39.4, and 39.1. However, the real temperature inside
the refrigerator is 37 degrees C. The thermometer isn’t accurate (it’s
almost two degrees off the true value), but as the numbers are all
close to 39.2, it is precise.

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Practice Questions
Q1) The volume of a liquid is 26 mL. A student measures the volume and finds it to be
26.2 mL, 26.1 mL, 25.9 mL, and 26.3 mL in the first, second, third, and fourth trial,
respectively. Which of the following statements is true for his measurements?
A. They are neither precise nor accurate.
B. They have poor accuracy.
C. They have good precision.
D. They have poor precision.

Q2) The volume of a liquid is 20.5 mL. Which of the following sets of measurement
represents the value with good accuracy?
A. 18.6 mL, 17.8 mL, 19.6 mL, 17.2 mL
B. 19.2 mL, 19.3 mL, 18.8 mL, 18.6 mL
C. 18.9 mL, 19.0 mL, 19.2 mL, 18.8 mL
D. 20.2 mL, 20.5 mL, 20.3 mL, 20.1 mL

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Repeatability
Repeatability is the ability of the measuring instrument to repeat the
same results during the act of measurements for the same quantity.
Repeatability is random in nature and, by itself, does not assure
accuracy, though it is a desirable characteristic.

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Error
The difference between the true value and the mean value of the set
of readings on the same component is termed as an error.
Error can also be defined as the difference between the indicated
value and the true value of the quantity measured.

where E is the error, Vm the measured value, and Vt the true value.

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Accuracy and Cost
It can be observed from Fig. 1.2 that as the requirement of accuracy
increases, the cost increases exponentially.

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• GENERAL MEASUREMENT CONCEPTS
Different quality requirements, such as permissible tolerance limits, form, surface finish, size,
and flatness, have to be considered to check the conformity of the component to the quality
specifications.
The three basic elements of measurements (schematically shown in Fig. 1.3), which are of
significance, are the following:
1. Measurand, a physical quantity such as length, weight, and angle to be measured
2. Comparator, to compare the measurand (physical quantity) with a known standard
(reference) for evaluation
3. Reference, the physical quantity or property to which quantitative comparisons are to be
made, which is internationally accepted

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• Measurement error
• Measurement error is the difference between the actual size of the
work piece and the measured value. If the same work piece is
successively measured with an instrument each successive
measurement will show differences in dimension.
• Now what are the reasons for this?
• Due to instrument error such that calibration error or hysteresis,
backlash, misalignment of the instrument.
• Due to environmental effects like vibration or temperature changes.
• Due to human error, that means sense of feel or it may be due to
reading error like a parallax error or it may be due to fatigue of
operator

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• ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS
• Two broad categories of errors in measurement have been identified:
systematic and random errors.

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• Systematic or Controllable Errors
• A systematic error is a type of error that deviates by a fixed amount from
the true value of measurement. These types of errors are controllable in
both their magnitude and their direction. And can be assessed and
minimized if efforts are made to analyze them. In order to assess them, it is
important to know all the sources of such errors, and if their algebraic sum
is significant with respect to the manufacturing tolerance, necessary
allowance should be provided to the measured size of the workpiece.
• Examples of such errors include measurement of length using a meter
scale, measurement of current with inaccurately calibrated ammeters, etc.
When the systematic errors obtained are minimum, the measurement is
said to be extremely accurate. It is difficult to identify systematic errors,
and statistical analysis cannot be performed. In addition, systematic errors
cannot be eliminated by taking a large number of readings and then
averaging them out. These errors are reproducible inaccuracies that are
consistently in the same direction.
• Minimization of systematic errors increases the accuracy of measurement.
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Reasons Systematic or Controllable Errors
The following are the reasons for their occurrence:
1. Calibration errors
2. Ambient conditions
3. Deformation of workpiece
4. Avoidable errors

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• Random Errors
• Random errors provide a measure of random deviations when
measurements of a physical quantity are carried out repeatedly.
When a series of repeated measurements are made on a component
under similar conditions, the values or results of measurements vary.
Specific causes for these variations cannot be determined, since these
variations are unpredictable and uncontrollable by the experimenter
and are random in nature.

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• Random errors can be statistically evaluated, and their mean value
and standard deviation can be determined. These errors scatter
around a mean value.
• If n measurements are made using an instrument, denoted by v1, v2,
v3, …, vn, then arithmetic mean is given as

• and standard deviation s is given by the following equation:

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Sources of random errors
The following are the likely sources of random errors:
1. Presence of transient fluctuations in friction in the measuring
instrument
2. Play in the linkages of the measuring instruments
3. Error in operator’s judgement in reading the fractional part of
engraved scale divisions
4. Operator’s inability to note the readings because of fluctuations
during measurement
5. Positional errors associated with the measured object and standard,
arising due to small variations in setting

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• Errors and uncertainities
• Errors
• 𝑉𝑚 = measured value , 𝑉𝑡 = true value or reference , 𝐸𝑠 = error
• 𝐸𝑠 = 𝑉𝑚 −𝑉𝑡
• Relative error is always absolute and percentage:
𝐸𝑠 𝑉𝑚 −𝑉𝑡
• 𝐸𝑟 = × 100 = × 100
𝑉𝑡 𝑉𝑡
• Example 1
• If 𝑉𝑚 = 27.5 and 𝑉𝑡 = 26.5 then 𝐸𝑠 = 27.5 − 26.5 = 1
1
• 𝐸𝑟 = × 100 = 3.774%
26.5
• Static correction 𝐸𝑐 = −𝐸𝑠 = −1
• Example 2
• If 𝑉𝑚 = 25 and 𝑉𝑡 = 28.5 then 𝐸𝑠 = 25 − 28.5 = −3.5
−3.5
• 𝐸𝑟 = × 100 = 12.28%
28.5
• Static correction 𝐸𝑐 = −𝐸𝑠 = 3.5
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• Accuracy and precision
• Accuracy = distance between average and true values
• Precision = distance between lowest and largest values
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• Types of errors
• Gross errors: it is human errors
• Systematic errors or bias errors
• Random errors or precision errors
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• Relative error is an important tool to compare errors between devices
• Example
Two devices have the following data:
Device 1: error = 4% , its range: 0 t0 30 Volts
Device 2: error = 4% , its range: 0 t0 300 Volts
Which one is suitable to measure 18 volts
• Device 1
4
• Max error= × 30 = 1.2
100
1.2
• 𝐸𝑟 = × 100 = 6.67%
18
• Device 2
4
• Max error= × 300 = 12
100
12
• 𝐸𝑟 = × 100 = 66.7%
18
• Then device I is suitable

•
• Uncertainty
• The complete statement of a measured value should include an
estimate of the level of confidence associated with the value.
Properly reporting an experimental result along with its uncertainty
allows other people to make judgments about the quality of the
experiment, and it facilitates meaningful comparisons with other
similar values or a theoretical prediction. Without an uncertainty
estimate, it is impossible to answer the basic scientific question:
“Does my result agree with a theoretical prediction or results from
other experiments?” This question is fundamental for deciding if a
scientific hypothesis is confirmed or refuted.
•
• Accuracy is the closeness of agreement between a measured value
and a true or accepted value. Measurement error is the amount of
inaccuracy.
• Precision is a measure of how well a result can be determined
(without reference to a theoretical or true value). It is the degree of
consistency and agreement among independent measurements of
the same quantity; also the reliability or reproducibility of the
result.
• The statement of uncertainty associated with a measurement
should include factors that affect both the accuracy and precision of
the measurement.
• Estimating Experimental Uncertainty for a Single Measurement
• For example, if you are trying to use a meter stick to measure the
diameter of a tennis ball, the uncertainty might be ± 5 mm, but if you
used a Vernier caliper, the uncertainty could be reduced to maybe ± 2
mm or ± 0.2 cm
• Diameter of tennis ball = 6.7 ± 0.2 cm
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• Estimating Uncertainty in Repeated Measurements
• Suppose you time the period of oscillation of a pendulum using a
digital instrument (that you assume is measuring accurately) and find:
T = 0.44 seconds. This single measurement of the period suggests a
precision of ±0.005 s, but this instrument precision may not give a
complete sense of the uncertainty. If you repeat the measurement
several times and examine the variation among the measured values,
you can get a better idea of the uncertainty in the period. For
example, here are the results of 5 measurements, in seconds: 0.46,
0.44, 0.45, 0.44, 0.41.
• The best estimate of the period is the average, or mean, of these N
independent measurements:

• Whenever possible, repeat a measurement several times and

average the results.
• This average is the best estimate of the “true” value. The more
repetitions you make of a measurement, the better this estimate
will be.
• Consider, as another example, the measurement of the width of a
piece of paper using a meter stick.
• Standard deviation
• To calculate the standard deviation for a sample of 5 (or more generally N)
measurements:
• 1. Sum all the measurements and divide by 5 to get the average, or mean.
• 2. Now, subtract this average from each of the 5 measurements to obtain 5
“deviations”.
• 3. Square each of these 5 deviations and add them all up.
• 4. Divide this result by (n-1) and take the square root.
• We can write out the formula for the standard deviation as follows.
• Let the n measurements be called 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … … 𝑥𝑛 . Let the average of the n
values be called 𝑥 .
• Then each deviation is given by 𝛿𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥ҧ for 𝑖 = 1,2, … … , 𝑛
• The standard deviation is:
𝛿𝑥12 +𝛿𝑥12 +⋯+𝛿𝑥𝑛
2 σ 𝛿𝑥𝑖2
•𝑠= =
𝑛−1 𝑛−1
• The deviations are:

• 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 31.19 ± 0.12

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• Fractional Uncertainty
• The fractional uncertainty is given by the ratio of the uncertainty
divided by the average value. For this example,
• Propagation of Uncertainty
• If 𝑓 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) then

• Examples
• Assume 𝑥 = 2.3 ± 0.1 , y= 1.5 ± 0.02

•
• 𝜎𝑓 = 0.12 + 0.022 = 0.102 𝜎𝑓 = 1.5 × 0.1 2 + 2.3 × 0.02 2 = 0.157
• Examples: Assume 𝑥 = 2.3 ± 0.1 , y= 1.5 ± 0.02

• 𝜎𝑓 = 0.12 + 0.022 = 0.102 𝜎𝑓 = 1.5 × 0.1 2 + 2.3 × 0.02 2 = 0.157

0.1 2 2.3×0.02 2
• 𝜎𝑓 = + = 0.07
1.5 1.52
• Example
• Determine the overall uncertainty for the function Ψ = 2.5𝑎𝑏 2 where 𝑎 = 7.5 ± 2% and
b= 3.5 ± 0.8
• Ψ = 𝑓(𝑎, 𝑏)
𝜕Ψ 2 𝜕Ψ 2
• 𝜎Ψ = 𝜎 + 𝜎
𝜕𝑎 𝑎 𝜕𝑏 𝑏
𝜕Ψ 𝜕Ψ
• = 2.5𝑏 2 = 2.5 × 3.52 = 30.625 = 5 × 7.5 × 3.5 = 131.25
𝜕𝑎 𝜕𝑏
2
• 𝜎𝑎 = × 7.5 = 0.15 𝜎𝑏 = 0.8
100
• 𝜎Ψ = 30.625 × 0.15 2 + 131.25 × 0.8 2 = 105.1
• Ψഥ = 2.5𝑎ത 𝑏ത 2 = 2.5 × 7.5 × 3.52 = 229.7
𝜎Ψ 𝜎Ψ 105.1
• ഥ = ഥ × 100 = × 100 = 45.8%
Ψ Ψ 229.7
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 Fractional Uncertainty
• Definition of Fractional Uncertainty:
• The fractional uncertainty is just the ratio of the absolute uncertainty, 𝛿𝑥
to the best value 𝑥𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡 :

• In general, the absolute uncertainty 𝛿𝑥 will be numerically less than the

measured best value 𝑥𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡 .
• Example,

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• Example
𝑃 𝐿 𝜋 2
• Let 𝑚ሶ = 𝐷
𝑅𝑇 ∆𝑡 4
• 𝑚ሶ = 𝑓(𝑃, 𝑇, 𝐿, ∆𝑡, 𝐷)
𝜕𝑚ሶ 2 𝜕𝑚ሶ 2 𝜕𝑚ሶ 2 𝜕𝑚ሶ 2 𝜕𝑚ሶ 2
• 𝜎𝑚ሶ = 𝜎 + 𝜎 + 𝜎 + 𝜎 + 𝜎
𝜕𝑃 𝑃 𝜕𝑇 𝑇 𝜕𝐿 𝐿 𝜕∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 𝜕𝐷 𝐷
𝜎𝑚ሶ
• Fraction =?
𝑚ሶ
𝜎𝑃
• = 0.552 + 0.12 = 0.559%
𝑃
𝜎𝑇
• = 0.552 + 0.42 = 0.68%
𝑇
𝜎∆𝑡
• = 0.012 + 22 = 2% variable Bias Precesion
∆𝑡 P 0.55% 0.1%
𝜎𝐿
• = 0.1% T 0.55% 0.4%
𝐿
𝜎𝐷 ∆t 0.01% 2%
• = 1%
𝐷 L 0.1% 0
270D 1% 0
 𝜕𝑚ሶ 1 𝐿 𝜋 2 𝑚ሶ
• = 𝐷 =
𝜕𝑃 𝑅𝑇 ∆𝑡 4 𝑃
𝜕𝑚ሶ −𝑃 𝐿 𝜋 2 𝑚ሶ
• = 2 𝐷 =−
𝜕𝑇 𝑅𝑇 ∆𝑡 4 𝑇
𝜕𝑚ሶ −𝑃 𝐿 𝜋 2 𝑚ሶ
• = 𝐷 =−
𝜕∆𝑡 𝑅𝑇 ∆𝑡 2 4 ∆𝑡
𝜕𝑚ሶ 𝑃 1 𝜋 2 𝑚ሶ
• = 𝐷 =
𝜕𝐿 𝑅𝑇 ∆𝑡 4 𝐿
𝜕𝑚ሶ 1 𝐿 𝜋 𝑚ሶ
• =2 𝐷=2
𝜕𝐷 𝑅𝑇 ∆𝑡 4 𝐷
𝑚ሶ 2 𝑚ሶ 2 𝑚ሶ 2 𝑚ሶ 2 𝑚ሶ 2
• 𝜎𝑚ሶ = 𝜎𝑃 + − 𝜎𝑇 + 𝜎𝐿 + − 𝜎∆𝑡 + 2 𝜎𝐷
𝑃 𝑇 𝐿 ∆𝑡 𝐷

𝜎𝑃 2 𝜎𝑇 2 𝜎𝐿 2 𝜎∆𝑡 2 𝜎𝐷 2
• 𝜎𝑚ሶ = 𝑚ሶ + −𝑚ሶ + 𝑚ሶ + −𝑚ሶ + 2𝑚ሶ
𝑃 𝑇 𝐿 ∆𝑡 𝐷
𝜎𝑚ሶ 𝜎𝑃 2 𝜎𝑇 2 𝜎𝐿 2 𝜎∆𝑡 2 𝜎𝐷 2
• = + − + + − + 2
𝑚ሶ 𝑃 𝑇 𝐿 ∆𝑡 𝐷
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 𝜎𝑚ሶ
• = 0.559 2 + −0.68 2 + 0.1 2 + −2 2 + 2×1 2 = 2.96%
𝑚ሶ
• If the variables are known then average 𝑚ሶ is known and
• 𝑚ሶ = 𝑚 ഥሶ ± 2.96%

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