Standards of philosophy

1. Idealism refers to the world of mind and ideas, where reason is primary. Mentally constructed where it is dependent upon the mind rather than
independent of the mind.
- Say for example you believe that you can save the world so its like believing to something that is impossible, possible.

Now here are the following leading proponents of idealism:

A. Socrates (Greek Philosopher)

One leading thinker of ancient Greece was Socrates (469–399 B.C.E.), who challenged the material concerns of his contemporaries. Socrates went
about Athens questioning its citizens, particularly the Sophists, about their “unexamined” way of life. Socrates saw himself as a kind of gadfly who
prodded people into thinking. He was later brought to trial in Athens and was executed for his beliefs. Although Socrates’ ideas were only transmitted
orally through a dialectical question-and-answer approach, Plato wrote them down and detailed both the Socratic Method and Socrates’ thinking. The
general view is that Plato added a great deal and put the dialogues in a literary form that has had enduring value. Because the ideas of Socrates and
Plato are considered almost indistinguishable today, scholars generally refer to these writings as Platonic philosophy.

B. Plato (Greek philosopher, “Father of idealism”)

Platonic Idealism: Eternal truths exist in the realm of Ideas ("Idealism" = "Ideas") rather than in what we would call the natural, physical world. These
eternal Truths can exist in your mind, but they cannot be observed or perceived out in the physical world (think for a minute what "physical world"
refers to: that world that operates on the laws of physics, or that world of objects with mass); that is to say, Truth does not exist in the world that we
can see with our senses: sight, sound, etc. Plato calls this not true world the "sensible" world, meaning "the world perceived by the senses".

One way to understand this theory is to grasp that it is in most ways the opposite of scientific thinking, which is founded on the assumption that the
natural, physical world is the "real" world and the only one that we can truly understand.

Here's a good way of understanding why Platonists believe this:

Every person you see and spend time with will some day die, but the concept or idea of “person” is unchanging or (relatively) eternal. Thus the
physical, living people we see in the natural world are transitory but the concept -- the idea of -- "people" is eternal.

There is no single person who encapsulates the entire concept or idea person or “human being” – yet the idea “human being” describes all human
beings: so the idea is more complete and thus “truer” and everlasting, compared to the people who live and die in the natural world.

This is true of everything else in the physical world: there is no one example of any thing (a tree, a piece of fruit) that perfectly represents all trees or
fruit) and every physical thing is transitory: it changes. Meanwhile the concept of tree or fruit are eternally unchanging. (I'll make more sense of this,
below, with circles and triangles, so hold tight and read on if you're confused.)

The Sensible and the Intelligible:

Our knowledge is divided between that which we gain through our senses, or sensible [or sensory] knowledge – what I can see and hear etc. – and
that which we know intellectually, intelligible knowledge or the realm of ideas, that which I think. In Plato’s hierarchy, sensible/sensory knowledge is
faulty and a mere shadow or representation of True knowledge.

"The Allegory of the Cave": what we see in the physical world, compared to true, intelligible knowledge, is like shadows compared to the "reality"
outside the cave, but even this reality is a mere shadow of the sun itself.Augustine (theologian of the 4th and 5th centuries)

Augustine was greatly concerned with the concept of evil and believed that because man inherited the sin of Adam, he was engaged in a continuous
struggle to regain the kind of purity he had before the fall. Augustine readily accepted Plato’s notion of the “divided line” between ideas and matter,
but he referred to the two worlds as the World of God and the World of Man. The World of God is the world of Spirit and the Good; Augustine, like
Plato, believed that people do not create knowledge: God already has created it, and people can discover it through trying to find God. Augustine’s
ideas about the nature of the true Christian found more acceptance among those who leaned toward a monastic conception of Christianity.

C. Rene Descartes

Certainly, much of his philosophy can be characterized as idealism, but he also contributed much to philosophical realism and other thought systems.
For current purposes, the significant works of Descartes to be considered are his celebrated Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy.
Principally in Discourse, Descartes explored his “methodical doubt,” whereby he sought to doubt all things, including his own existence. Principally in
Discourse, Descartes explored his “methodical doubt,” whereby he sought to doubt all things, including his own existence. He was searching for ideas
that are indubitable, and he thought that if he could discover ideas that are “clear and distinct,” then he would have a solid foundation upon which to
build other true ideas.

D. Immanuel Kant

Kant’s idealism comes from his concentration on human thought processes. The rationalist, he held, thinks analytically, whereas the empiricist thinks
synthetically. He worked out a system based on a posteriori (synthetic) and a priori (analytic) logical judgments that he called synthetic a priori
judgments in order to reach a rapprochement with science and philosophy. In short, we would have the best of rationalist and empiricist insights
gathered together in a unified system. This would give science the underpinnings it needed, because Kant understood that science needed an empirical
approach in order to discover universal laws of nature. However, he also recognized the importance of the human self or mind and its thought
processes as a prime organizing agent in accomplishing this goal.
E. George Wilhelm Friedrich Hedgel

One striking characteristic of Hegel’s philosophy is his logic. He thought he had developed a perfect logical system that corrected the inadequacies of
Aristotelian logic. The word dialectic best fits Hegel’s logic and it often has been portrayed as a rather mechanical warring between thesis and
antithesis, with the result being a synthesis. Hegel maintained that his logical system, if applied rigorously and accurately, would arrive at Absolute
Idea. Difference is that Hegel was sensitive to change. Change, development, and movement are all central and necessary in Hegel’s logic.

2. Realism can be considered as the antithesis of idealism; “the Universe exists whether mind perceives it or not.

A. Aristotle(Greek philosopher, “Father of realism”)

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E) believed that people should be much involved in studying and understanding the reality of all things. He also believed that
everything had a purpose and that humans’ purpose is to think.

Realists believe that reality exists independent of the human mind. That the ultimate reality is the world of physical objects and the focus is on the
body/objects.

Truth is objective-what can be observed. Aristotle, a student of Plato who broke with his mentor's idealist philosophy, is called the father of both
Realism and the scientific method. In this metaphysical view, the aim is to understand objective reality through "the diligent and unsparing scrutiny of
all observable data." Aristotle believed that to understand an object, its ultimate form had to be understood, which does not change. For example, a
rose exists whether or not a person is aware of it. A rose can exist in the mind without being physically present, but ultimately, the rose shares
properties with all other roses and flowers (its form), although one rose may be red and another peach colored. Aristotle also was the first to teach
logic as a formal discipline in order to be able to reason about physical events and aspects.

B. Francis Bacon

Francis Bacon His famous work Novum Organum, a treatise arguing the case for the logic and method of modern science, in which he challenged
Aristotelian logic. Bacon opposed Aristotelian logic primarily because he thought that it yielded many errors, particularly concerning material
phenomena.

C. John Locke

Locke was empiricist, a person who supports the theory that all knowledge is based on experiences derived from the senses. He respected the
concrete and practical but distrusted abstract idealisms; consequently, what we know is what we experience. People experience the qualities of objects
whether these are material or ideational experiences.

Believed everybody was born with a blank slate, meaning they were born knowing nothing. he thought that know was first experienced through the
senses and the mind.

He also believed that all men were created equal but how they were raised, shaped who they became.

D. Commenius, Rosseau, and pestalozzi

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, Swiss social reformer and educator, is known as the Father of Modern Education. The modern era of education started with
him and his spirit and ideas led to the great educational reforms in Europe in the nineteenth century.

Jean Jacques Rousseau was a French realist. He thought students could learn through their own learning experiences and experiments. He also
thought that children leaned their consequences. He thought that immersion was a great way for students to learn. For example, to learn Spanish,
students should be immersed in language and to Hispanic food.

The origins of many early childhood education theories and practices today can be traced back in time to early educators and philosophers who had a
passion for the development and education of young children. Theories and practices drawn from such individuals as Johann Amos Comenius, John
Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Johann Pestalozzi, William Froebel, John Dewey, and Maria Montessori still have a strong presence in the philosophies,
instructional strategies and curriculum materials found in early childhood settings today. While modifications and adaptations to the original ideas
proposed by these individual have taken place, the essence of their contributions continue on.

Many scholars argue that it was only in the seventeenth century (Betty, 1995) that childhood was beginning to be recognized as a separate life stage
that may require a unique approach to care, development and education. The early writings and teachings of Comenius, Locke and Rousseau set the
stage for discourse and theories on how to best raise and educate young children. Comenius, Locke and Rousseau wrote treaties that advocated more
child-centered, natural approaches for the development and education of the young. While many of these early educators suggested that early
education of the young take place in the home environment, their fundamental beliefs had applications for formal schooling of the young. Comenius
developed a curriculum for the home consisting of three areas: things young children should know, things they should be able to do, and things they
should be able to say.

Prior to the time of Comenius, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, and others, little thought was given to the development and education of children,
especially the very young. With the exception of harsh discipline, a majority of common children were ignored until such time as they could work and
contribute to the well-being of the family. Infants were usually left to do whatever with care being provided to them by older siblings. By the age of
four or five, they were left more to themselves and were assigned small chores around the house. At the age of about twelve, children were assigned
jobs in the fields. Little parent-child interactions or education took place in most homes which was the norm during this time period. In the years to
come, the thoughts on the nature of young children would be re-evaluated and in the case of some families, change.
3. Contemporary philosophers
- The term ‘contemporary philosophy’ refers to the current era of philosophy, generally dealing with philosophers from the late nineteenth century through to
the twenty-first.
- Contemporary philosophy is often described as divided into two camps: continental and analytic. Though some dispute the usefulness of these terms, they
do provide a good understanding for different approaches to philosophy.

A. Pragmatism, is also known as experimentalism or consequentialism. It is called experimentalism because pragmatists believe experiment
constitutes the only criterion of truth. To them 'truth', 'reality', 'goodness' or 'badness' are all relative terms. These concepts are not predetermined
and absolute.
For pragmatists, only those things that are experienced or observed are real. In this late 19th century American philosophy, the focus is on the
reality of experience. Unlike the Realists and Rationalists, Pragmatists believe that reality is constantly changing and that we learn best through
applying our experiences and thoughts to problems, as they arise. The universe is dynamic and evolving, a "becoming" view of the world. There is
no absolute and unchanging truth, but rather, truth is what works. Pragmatism is derived from the teaching of Charles Sanders Peirce, who
believed that thought must produce action, rather than linger in the mind and lead to indecisiveness.

John Dewey applied pragmatist philosophy in his progressive approaches. He believed that learners must adapt to each other and to their
environment. Schools should emphasize the subject matter of social experience. All learning is dependent on the context of place, time, and
circumstance. Different cultural and ethnic groups learn to work cooperatively and contribute to a democratic society. The ultimate purpose is the
creation of a new social order. Character development is based on making group decisions in light of consequences.

For Pragmatists, teaching methods focus on hands-on problem solving, experimenting, and projects, often having students work in groups.
Curriculum should bring the disciplines together to focus on solving problems in an interdisciplinary way. Rather than passing down organized
bodies of knowledge to new learners, Pragmatists believe that learners should apply their knowledge to real situations through experimental
inquiry. This prepares students for citizenship, daily living, and future careers.

* Augustus Comte - French philosopher known as the founder of sociology and of positivism. Comte gave the science of sociology its name and
established the new subject in a systematic fashion.

* Charles Darwin - English naturalist whose scientific theory of evolution by natural selection became the foundation of modern evolutionary studies.

* The Americans: Charles Pierce, William James, and John Dewey - Peirce is often credited with being the father of pragmatism. For Peirce,
pragmatism was primarily a theory of meaning. He intended it to stand in opposition to various strands of idealism—to force mere theorizing to test the
effects of beliefs in the "real" world.

His famous formulation set forth pragmatism as a method for testing the meaning of any belief, idea, or term by means of analyzing the effects of its
adoption on future conduct and belief.

Peirce explicated four methods of "fixing" such beliefs: tenacity, authority, an a priori method, and science, or experimentation. Tenacity and authority refer
to the clinging to old beliefs in the face of present doubt due to, respectively, personal or institutional commitments. An a priori belief is fixed solely by an
appeal to some version of "reasonableness" or other already existing preferences. Experimentation, for Peirce, was the preferred method of fixing belief,
entailing the testing of hypotheses against public and verifiable observations.

For William James, pragmatism was personal and pluralistic. His attention to the affective elements of experience, such as feelings of volition, intention,
and personal identity, mark the breaking point from Peirce's version of pragmatism.

Dewey brought pragmatism to maturity by focusing on the pragmatic method of inquiry as an ever-ongoing, self-correcting, and social process. Dewey used
the scientific method as a paradigm of controlled and reflective inquiry, and referred, in various works, to his version of pragmatism as "instrumentalism" and
"experimentalism." Dewey combined Peirce's community-sense of inquiry with the affective elements of James's work.

B. Existentialism, revolt against the mathematical, scientific philosophies that preceded it.

* Soren Kierkegaard - Danish philosopher, theologian, and cultural critic who was a major influence on existentialism and Protestant theology in the
20th century.

* Martin Buber - German-Jewish religious philosopher, biblical translator and interpreter, and master of German prose style (February 8, 1878- June
13, 1965). Buber’s philosophy was centred on the encounter, or dialogue, of man with other beings, particularly exemplified in the relation with other
men but ultimately resting on and pointing to the relation with God. This thought reached its fullest dialogical expression in Ich und Du (1923; I and
Thou).

* Edmund Husserl - German philosopher, the founder of Phenomenology, a method for the description and analysis of consciousness through which
philosophy attempts to gain the character of a strict science. The method reflects an effort to resolve the opposition between Empiricism, which
stresses observation, and Rationalism, which stresses reason and theory, by indicating the origin of all philosophical and scientific systems and
developments of theory in the interests and structures of the experiential life.

* Martin Heidegger - German philosopher, counted among the main exponents of existentialism. His ground-breaking work in ontology (the
philosophical study of being, or existence) and metaphysics determined the course of 20th-century philosophy on the European continent and exerted
an enormous influence on virtually every other humanistic discipline, including literary criticism, hermeneutics, psychology, and theology.

* Jean-Paul Sartre - French novelist, playwright, and exponent of Existentialism—a philosophy acclaiming the freedom of the individual human
being. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1964, but he declined it.