Exploring The Lived Experience

EXPLORING THE LIVED EXPERIENCES OF GHANAIAN IMMIGRANT
STUDENTS IN COLLEGE: A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY
by
Daniel Dickson Kwame Boateng
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Keiser University
April, 2020
ProQuest Number: 27957833
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© Daniel Dickson Kwame Boateng, 2019
ii
by
Daniel Dickson Kwame Boateng
April, 2020
iii
Abstract
Ghanaian immigrant students are among immigrant students who constitute most of the
population of students in colleges in the United States. Due to rapid growth in the
community of Africans in the last four decades, African immigrant students have
increased in numbers in schools throughout the United States. Gambino, Trevelyan and
Fitzwater (2014) asserted that African immigrants have higher educational attainments.
In the background of their more top accomplishments, Rowland (2014) postulated that
immigrant students face challenges that are unique to them because they are students who
have come from different countries into the United States. Ipso facto, Ghanaian
immigrant students, like all other immigrants who face different challenges, also face
challenges and difficulties that are peculiar to them. In this study, the researcher studied
the lived experiences of Ghanaian immigrant students, employing a Modified Van Kaam
method as defined by Moustakas (1994) to analyze the data collected through an
Interpretive Phenomenological Approach, as used in Qualitative studies. The results
revealed that Ghanaian Immigrant students face unique challenges in their educational
experience: financial constraints, language issues, immigration issues, technology issues,
and emotional stress, which adversely impact their education.
iv
Dedication
To God Who is Almighty, to God Who is All-Sovereign, and to God Who is Lord
of all. To God Whose mercy and grace is over-abundant on me. To God Who endows
wisdom, knowledge, strength and power. To God Who gave the anointing of the power
of the Holy Spirit for the endurance and perseverance towards accomplishing this
research study. To the Lord Jesus Christ, our God be Glory and Honor Forever.
To my beloved wife, Henrietta, whose support in all forms, spiritually, morally,
materially, and psychologically has propelled me this far; who encouraged me, who
believed in me, who inspired and lifted me even when I felt I could go no longer. To you
my beloved Abena, the Lord bless you for being a supportive wife in this journey until its
final end.
To my father, Dr. Samuel Stevens Boateng, whose grooming and encouragement
of a son(me), whose intercessions for me, and whose inspirations lifted me, has brought
me this far. To my mom, Alice Ama Boateng, a mother of much love, a mother whose
hard work and belief in a son set me ablaze to reach for the best. Whose perseverance
through the crucible of sickness is worthy of praise to God. To Mom and Dad who both
respect the light of education and whose leading me into the gates of education has made
me who I am.
Finally, to my children, Homeda Ama Boatemaa, Dorothy Affia, Dillyn
Frimpong, Tristyn Agyemang, and Glory Akua Agyekumwaa, whose presence in my life
has always inspired and propelled me on. Whose lives are a blessing and joy to my life.
v
Acknowledgments
That I have life, even at these times when the pestilence of COVID-19 Saturates
the air, is a miracle; and to God Almighty I give thanks for life and for the ability to
complete this research study. My gratitude to You O Sovereign God. I cannot dispense
that fact the great contributions, support, and relentless efforts of very important
individuals in the course of my journey have brought me this far. Like a climbing plant
who sees the sun by climbing a tree, these important individuals held my hand into the
threshold of success in accomplishing this dissertation successfully.
I give you many thanks Dr. Richard Dietzel, my dissertation committee chair and
faculty mentor. Your honesty, truth, supervision, sharp eyes to details, your high-level
intelligence, your patience and fatherly guide, your sacrifice of many hours for me has
led to the completeness and fullness of this dissertation.
I wish to express my deepest gratitude to Dr. Jan Saeger, my dissertation
committee member. You were honest with your suggestions; you provided me directions
and guidance; your feedback was prompt and worthy; your encouragements propelled me
on in my journey. I am most grateful to you.
To you Dr. Steve Roth, my dissertation committee member, I express my sincere
appreciation and gratitude for all your honest suggestions and comments that came
together to shape this dissertation successfully. Your encouragements and your
directions have brought this dissertation to its completion. I am most grateful to you.
I cannot forget you Dr. Brian Keintz, chair of graduate programs in education.
You were there all along from my proposal defense to my dissertation defense,
encouraging and inspiring me. You injected me with confidence and empowered me.
vi
To you Dr. Ashley Robertson, I am most grateful for your support during all the
times you had time to assist me. Above all, you stood by me during my defense,
encouraging and supporting me. Again, I am most grateful to you.
Finally, to all the participants who availed themselves, sacrificing their busy
schedules for this study, to you I say I am most grateful, and May God bless you for
sharing your experiences to make this dissertation successful.
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Table of Contents
List of Tables ................................................................................................................... xvi
List of Figures ................................................................................................................. xvii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1
Background to the Study ............................................................................................... 1
Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................. 3
Purpose of Study ........................................................................................................... 5
Research Questions ....................................................................................................... 6
Significance of the Study .............................................................................................. 6
Conceptual/Theoretical Framework ............................................................................ 7
Bronfenbrenner’s Human Ecology Theory ............................................................. 7
Ecological Framework and Lived Experiences of Ghanaian Immigrant Students . 9
Maslow’s Theory of Needs ................................................................................... 10
Maslow’s Needs Theory and the Lived Experiences of Ghanaian Immigrant
Student .................................................................................................................. 12
Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 13
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study ................................................................ 13
Limitations in Qualitative Research...................................................................... 13
Limitations ............................................................................................................ 14
Delimitations of Qualitative Research .................................................................. 14
Delimitations of the Study .................................................................................... 15
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................... 16
Overview ..................................................................................................................... 16
viii
Migration and Education............................................................................................. 17
Defining the Term ....................................................................................................... 18
Immigrant Students in the United States .................................................................... 18
African Students among Immigrant Students in the United States............................. 19
African Immigrant Students ........................................................................................ 20
Ghanaian Immigrant Students in the United States .................................................... 22
Ghana .................................................................................................................... 22
Ghanaian Immigration/Ghanaian immigrant students in the United States.......... 22
Previous Studies on the Experience of Immigrant Students ....................................... 25
Social Challenges and Educational Issues .................................................................. 26
Other Similar Studies on the Experience of Immigrant Students ............................... 30
Loneliness and Homesickness .............................................................................. 33
Social Support Issues ............................................................................................ 35
Struggles with Cultural Experience ...................................................................... 36
The Theoretical Framework and the Study ................................................................. 39
Summary ..................................................................................................................... 40
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY .................................................................................... 43
Research Design.......................................................................................................... 43
Phenomenological Designs in Qualitative Research ............................................ 45
Descriptive Phenomenological Designs ............................................................... 45
Interpretive Phenomenological Designs ............................................................... 46
Rationale for Selection of Interpretive Phenomenological Designs ..................... 47
Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Design .................................................... 48
ix
Population and Sampling ............................................................................................ 49
Demographics of Population................................................................................. 49
Sampling ............................................................................................................... 49
Snowball sampling .......................................................................................... 50
Strengths of purposeful sampling ............................................................. 52
Weaknesses of purposeful sampling ......................................................... 52
Rationale for the use of purposeful sampling ........................................... 52
Criteria for Sampling of Participants .................................................................... 53
Rationale for Selecting Sample Size ..................................................................... 53
Data Collection Tools/Methods .................................................................................. 55
Recruitment of Participants................................................................................... 55
Interviewing .......................................................................................................... 56
Rationale for Selecting the Interview Method for Data Collection ...................... 56
Types of interviewing methods ....................................................................... 57
Highly structured interviews ..................................................................... 57
Semi-structured interviews ....................................................................... 57
Unstructured interviews ............................................................................ 58
Rationale for Selecting Semi-structured Interviews and Unstructured Interviews58
Semi-structured interviews ............................................................................. 58
Unstructured interviews .................................................................................. 58
Strengths of semi-structured interviews.................................................... 59
Weaknesses of semi-structured interviews ............................................... 59
Data Collection Procedure .......................................................................................... 60
x
Ensuring Excellent Interview Attitudes: Listening and Questioning ................... 60
Eliminating Biases ................................................................................................ 60
Interview Site ........................................................................................................ 61
Review of Interview Questions............................................................................. 61
Institutional Review Board ......................................................................................... 62
Informed Consent Letter ....................................................................................... 62
Invitation ............................................................................................................... 63
Risks...................................................................................................................... 63
Rights .................................................................................................................... 63
Possible Benefits ................................................................................................... 63
Confidentiality of Records .................................................................................... 64
Dissemination ....................................................................................................... 64
Contact Information and Copies of the Form ....................................................... 64
Data Analysis .............................................................................................................. 65
Horizontalization......................................................................................................... 66
Reduction and Elimination for Invariant Constituents ......................................... 67
Constructing Individual Textural Descriptions ..................................................... 67
Constructing Individual Structural Descriptions .................................................. 67
Constructing a Textural-Structured Description ................................................... 68
Final Composite Description of the Meanings and Essence of all the Participants
............................................................................................................................... 68
Validity and Reliability ............................................................................................... 68
Researcher Bias/Researcher Role ............................................................................... 69
xi
Preventing Researchers’ Bias in Data Analysis .......................................................... 69
Trustworthiness ..................................................................................................... 71
Credibility ............................................................................................................. 71
Strategies to ensure credibility ........................................................................ 71
Mistakes that affect credibility negatively ...................................................... 72
Dependability ........................................................................................................ 72
Ensuring dependability ................................................................................... 72
Mistakes that negatively affect dependability................................................. 73
Confirmability ....................................................................................................... 73
Ensuring confirmability .................................................................................. 73
Mistakes that can negatively impact confirmability ....................................... 74
Transferability ....................................................................................................... 74
Ensuring transferability ................................................................................... 74
Mistakes that can negatively impact transferability........................................ 75
Ethical Considerations ................................................................................................ 75
Ethical Consideration and Data Collection ........................................................... 75
Ethical Consideration and Data Analysis ............................................................. 76
Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 76
CHAPTER 4. RESULTS .................................................................................................. 78
Research Questions ..................................................................................................... 78
Demographics and Setting .................................................................................... 78
Presentation of Findings ....................................................................................... 79
Discussions on Major Themes and Sub-themes ......................................................... 85
xii
Major Theme 1: Ghanaian immigrant students have language difficulties (MT 1)
............................................................................................................................... 85
Major Theme 2: Ghanaian immigrant students experience alienation and
depression (MT 2) ................................................................................................. 87
Sub-Theme 1: Ghanaian immigrant students get confused in the classroom (ST) 89
Major Theme 3: Lack of or no knowledge of technology use (MT 3) ................. 90
Major Theme 4: Ghanaian Immigrant Students Face Financial Difficulties (MT4)
............................................................................................................................... 93
Major Theme 5: Ghanaian immigrant students face immigration issues (MT 5) . 95
Major Theme 6: Ghanaian immigrant students struggle with work and school (MT
6) ........................................................................................................................... 97
Individual Textual Description ................................................................................... 99
Summary of Textual Descriptions for Participant A ............................................ 99
Summary of Textual Descriptions for Participant B........................................... 101
Summary of Textual Descriptions for Participant C........................................... 103
Summary of Textual Descriptions for Participant D .......................................... 104
Summary of Textual Descriptions for Participant E ........................................... 106
Summary of Textual Descriptions for Participant F ........................................... 108
Summary of Textual Descriptions for Participant G .......................................... 110
Summary of Textual Descriptions for Participant H .......................................... 111
Individual Structural Descriptions ...................................................................... 112
Structural Description for Participant A ............................................................. 112
Structural Description for Participant B ............................................................. 113
xiii
Structural Description for Participant C ............................................................. 113
Structural Description for Participant D ............................................................. 113
Structural Description for Participant E .............................................................. 114
Structural Description for Participant F .............................................................. 114
Structural Description for Participant G ............................................................. 114
Structural Description for Participant H ............................................................. 114
Textural – Structural Descriptions ............................................................................ 115
The Experiences of Ghanaian Immigrant Students ............................................ 115
Challenges of Ghanaian Immigrant Students in College .................................... 117
Challenges Outside College Life ........................................................................ 119
Composite Textural Structural Description .............................................................. 121
The Educational Experience of Ghanaian Immigrant Students .......................... 121
Challenges Faced by Ghanaian Immigrant Students .......................................... 121
Challenges Outside College Life ........................................................................ 121
Summary ................................................................................................................... 122
CHAPTER FIVE. SUMMARY, DISCUSSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................................ 123
Summary of Findings ................................................................................................ 123
Discussions ............................................................................................................... 124
Research Question 1 ........................................................................................... 124
Issues of language difficulties ....................................................................... 124
Ghanaian immigrant students experience alienation and depression ........... 125
Ghanaian immigrant students get confused .................................................. 126
xiv
Ghanaian immigrant students lack or have no knowledge in the use of
technology ..................................................................................................... 127
Ghanaian immigrant students face financial difficulties .............................. 128
Ghanaian immigrant students face immigration issues ................................ 128
Ghanaian immigrant students struggle with work and school ...................... 129
Implications for Practice ........................................................................................... 130
Workshops for Professors/Professional Development........................................ 130
Orientation Programs .......................................................................................... 131
Home Country Preparation ................................................................................. 131
Legal Advising and Counselling on Immigration ............................................... 132
Support Programs................................................................................................ 132
IT Workshops...................................................................................................... 132
Limitations ................................................................................................................ 133
Limitations Based on Data Collection/Analysis ................................................. 133
Recommendations for Further Research ................................................................... 134
Recommendations Developed from the Data ..................................................... 134
Recommendations Based on Delimitations .............................................................. 136
Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 137
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 139
xv
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1. Annual Number of Ghanaian Immigrant Students Enrolled in U.S. Schools.... 24
Table 2. Demographics of Ghanaian Immigrant Students Sampled for the Study .......... 79
Table 3. Responses from Major Theme 1, Major Theme 2, and Sub-Theme 1............... 80
Table 4. Responses from Major Theme 3 and Major Theme 4 ....................................... 81
Table 5. Responses from Major Themes 5 and Major Theme 6 ...................................... 84
Table 6. Individual Responses of Participants for MT1 .................................................. 85
Table 8. Individual Responses of Participants for ST1.................................................... 89
Table 10. Individual Responses of Participants for MT4 ................................................ 93
xvi
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory. .................................................. 8
Figure 2. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory. ............................................................ 11
Figure 3. African countries with more than 1,000 students in the U.S. ........................... 24
Figure 4. Snowball sampling illustrated. ......................................................................... 51
xvii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
In the United States, the objective of education has evolved in relation to the
needs of society. For this reason, one of the primary purposes of American education is
to assimilate immigrants into the mainstream society (Sloan, 2012). Educational
institutions in America seek to educate in order to groom students to fit into the American
society, which includes the objective to satisfy the educational goals of diverse
students—immigrants from all over the world including Africa. It is confirmed as
Dimmock and Walker (2005) mentioned “it is a government imperative that schools
achieve academic learning targets set for their students” (p. 92). Immigrants by
definition are individuals who are not citizens or nationals of the United States
(Department of Homeland Security, 2015). Immigrant students are students who attend
schools in the United States but were born in foreign countries and are not citizens of the
U.S. and neither are their parents (OECD, 2015).
Background to the Study
The administration of Obama has encouraged institutions in the United States to
attract and admit students from all backgrounds and experiences and to support and keep
these students once, on campus (Advancing Diversity and Inclusion in Higher Education,
2016). Today, students in college are more diverse in relation to race and ethnicity as
well as socioeconomic background.
In higher educational institutions, according to Hume (2008), African immigrant
students in colleges are a large portion of the student population. Hume avowed that in
the United States, African immigrant students began being part of higher educational
institutions since 1990 and have increased yearly. It is also confirmed that of all the areas
1
in the world that bring influx of immigrants to the United States, Africa is one area that
carries the most immigrants (Bean, Edmonston, & Passel, 1990).
Among the population of African immigrants are Ghanaians. McCabe (2011)
asserted that in recent times, Africans make up 3.9% of the United States’ 38.5 million
immigrants with one of the top countries being Ghana. According to the Migration
Policy Institute (2015), 235,000 Ghanaians live with their children in the United States,
with the greater percentage of this population residing in New York. According to the
UNESCO Institute of Statistics (2018), 3,142 Ghanaian immigrant students were enrolled
in 2015, which means there is no disputing that Ghanaian immigrants are mostly enrolled
in higher education.
In the wake of the influx of African immigrants in the country, a consequent
increase in African immigrant students in colleges is evident; thus, also including
Ghanaian immigrant students. With the constant increase in the population of African
immigrants, there are concerns and important topics that come with educating African
immigrant students in colleges. For example, the questions:
1. Do Ghanaian immigrant students in colleges understand the English language
spoken by professors?
2. How do Ghanaian immigrant students who work cope with their studies?
3. Do they have any issues of cultural shock that could impact their studies?
How do they fit in their school environment in relation to their identities?
4. How do they perceive their educational experience in college?
5. How do they perceive and describe their educational experience in Ghana?
2
Given their background as Africans, and having found themselves in an
unfamiliar educational environment, Ghanaian immigrant students will face challenges
like all other immigrant students who have emigrated to live in the United States.
Immigrant students are affected by not just cultural differences in relation to the
differences between their country and the host country, but they are also affected greatly
by how the community and the schools they attend help them in dealing with their day to
day problems such as living, learning, and communication (Organisation for Economic
Cooperation and Development, 2015). A perfected example of this situation is
mentioned in terms of academic performance. Arab-speaking student immigrants do
better in “Netherlands than they do in Finland, but they express a stronger sense of
belonging in Finland than they do in the Netherlands. In France, immigrant students have
both academic difficulties and report the weakest sense of belonging” (OECD, 2015).
However, it is important to note that existing research has not given enough information
on Ghanaian immigrant students in relation to their lived educational experiences.
As educational institutions struggle with the quest to reach all students’ academic
goals, a study to explore the educational experiences of Ghanaian immigrants enrolled in
college will help to have a deeper understanding of the educational experiences of
Ghanaian immigrant students and put measures in place to support them. In light of this,
further research is of great vitality.
Statement of the Problem
According to Gambino, Trevelyan, and Fitzwater (2014), immigrants from Africa
are a lower percentage of the population compared to immigrants from other parts of the
world. However, the African immigrant population has experienced rapid growth in the
3
last four decades, including 36% that are West Africans, and the majority are Ghanaians.
Gambino et al. asserted that African immigrants have higher educational attainments.
This confirms what was mentioned earlier — that Africans are increasing daily in
numbers in schools like all other immigrants. In spite of their increasing population in
schools, Ghanaian immigrant students in higher education face challenges and obstacles
as immigrants in a different educational cultural environment, which likely impact their
educational goals. Rowland and Davis (2014) postulated that immigrant students face
challenges which are unique to them and they are students who have come from different
countries into the United States. Ipso facto, Ghanaian immigrant students, like all other
immigrants who face different challenges, also face challenges and difficulties that are
peculiar to them. According to Fuligni, Witkow, and Garcia (2005), ethnic minority
groups and immigrants enrolled in American schools are stereotyped in relation to their
values and behaviors concerning academic achievement. In effect, students from other
countries who come to attend school in the U.S. hold their own cultural values in relation
to education, which might impact their academic endeavors directly or indirectly.
Thusly, there could be instances of cultural shocks that could impact studies. For
example, even though Ghana is an English speaking country, there could be issues of
English becoming a language barrier as Rowland and Davis (2014) mentioned that
language barrier could be one of the impediments that immigrant students have to deal
with. There could also be problems such as course subjects studied which are unfamiliar
to immigrant students due to unfamiliar cultural orientation.
There are challenges unique to immigrant students, which makes it important to
reckon since it is the objective of every educational institution to work towards achieving
4
students’ academic goals and that Ghanaian immigrant students face their own unique
challenges and difficulties. Researchers have studied most ethnic groups. However, the
gap still remains where not enough information is available on the lived educational
experience of the Ghanaian immigrant student. Therefore, a study to explore the
educational experience of Ghanaian immigrant students in college is of great relevance.
Purpose of Study
In educational institutions in America, it is important for educational leadership to
be able to understand the problems, the needs, and the barriers that diversity creates in
schools, especially higher education. Howard (2007) observed that schools are
constantly experiencing rapid growth in the population of students of color, with
culturally and linguistically diverse students “as diversity grows, so must we” (p. 17).
Considering the population of Ghanaian immigrants increases annually in the country, it
is important to take cognizance that the population of Ghanaian immigrant students is
rapidly rising as the silent increasing minority. In spite of numerous studies done on
African immigrants in American, there is not enough research that looks into Ghanaian
immigrant students’ educational experience. According to Harushimana and Awokoya
(2011), African immigrant students have been underrepresented in relation to the United
States school system. This alludes to there is not enough research on African immigrants
students, and for that matter, Ghanaian immigrant students. Assertions have been made
that immigrant students are likely at risk due to their backgrounds and ethnicity, leaving
them at a great disadvantage. Jamieson and Stewin (1987) mentioned that immigrant
students have a certain uniqueness (e.g., culture, language, etc.) which have been ignored
or not paid any attention to and have placed students at an educational disadvantage,
5
which could also lead to failure. “A student's failure in school can result from a teacher's
failure to consider the unique background of the student” (Jamieson & Stewin, 1987). It
is therefore important to reckon that immigrant students go through myriads of challenges
because of their unique backgrounds. Ghanaian immigrant students, like other African
immigrants, have their own uniqueness. This study sought to explore the lived
educational experiences of Ghanaian immigrant students enrolled in three community
colleges in the Bronx, New York, with focus on their challenges and barriers unique to
them as immigrant students.
Research Questions
In the quest to explore the lived educational experience of Ghanaian immigrant
students, this study sought to answer the following research questions:
1. How do Ghanaian immigrant students describe their educational experience?
2. What challenges do Ghanaian immigrant students face in college?
3. What challenges outside college life affect Ghanaian immigrant students’
educational experience?
Significance of the Study
In light of the background that little literature exists with respect to the lived
educational experience of Ghanaian immigrant students in the higher educational levels
in the United States, this study is important as it provides much information on how
Ghanaian students experience education; thus, it paves the way for educational leadership
and higher educational institutions to put measures of intervention in place to help
navigate towards achieving the goals of immigrant students and for Ghanaian immigrants
who also form a sect of the student population. Again, this study is relevant as the
6
minority of Ghanaian immigrant students must have their voices heard. Furthermore, as
the trends of the number of Ghanaian immigrant students increase, this study becomes a
source of relevant information for the preparation of new Ghanaian immigrant students
yet to be enrolled in higher education.
Conceptual/Theoretical Framework 
Two theories propel this study. They are theories that advocate that human
development is dependent on the developing person’s environment. The theories are
Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) human ecology theory and Abraham Maslow’s (1954)
Hierarchy of Needs Theory. Stebleton (2011) avowed that the complexity of the unique
needs and issues of immigrant students is unknown, meanwhile the population of
immigrant students continues to increase. It therefore leaves a puzzle of a great challenge
to solve, as educational leadership continues to work on the ultimate goal of education in
America - the quest to satisfy all students’ academic goals irrespective of race or color in
the background of diversity. It is important to point out that whether immigrant students
succeed in the quest to reach academic goals or fail is dependent on what experiences
they go through in their environment. Bronfenbrenner (2009) asserted that human
development has to do with a lasting change in relation to how a person perceives and
deals with his or her environment. In effect, the environment of Ghanaian immigrant
students has a great impact on their development as students. In this research, the
researcher contends that the two theories mentioned above, underline the study.
Bronfenbrenner’s Human Ecology Theory
Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) theory of ecological systems postulates that human
behavior is directly influenced by the immediate environment in which the person lives.
7
In other words, a person is affected by everything within the surrounding environment in
which the person lives. Bronfenbrenner identified five main levels which are the
microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem, and the chronosystem.
Figure 1. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory.

According to Bronfenbrenner (1979), the microsystem refers to institutions and
groups which affect a person directly or immediately (e.g., the family, schools, religious
institutions, neighborhood, and friends or peers). The second level, which is the
mesosystem consists of the interactions that exist between the different parts of the
microsystem in relation to the person (e.g., the relationship between teachers and the
family, the church and family and family and peers). In the third level, identified as
exosystem, Bronfenbrenner believes it consists of the connections between a social
setting in which the individual does not constitute active participation and the
individual’s immediate context. For example, decisions that have been taken in relation
to an individual, but the individual is not part of the decision making process.
8
Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) fourth level, the macrosystem, consists of the composite
of the way of life of the people among whom the individual lives, in effect, it refers to the
culture in which the individual lives.
Finally Bronfenbrenner (1979) asserted that the fifth level makes the dimension of
time one of the elements in the environment which bears much on an individual. This
levels shows the influence of change and constancy in the individual’s environment.
Thus, it constitutes any change in the society that affects the individual (e.g., a change in
address, a change in economic cycle, etc.).
The discussion of Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory brings to bare that diverse
influences connected together are apt to affect an individual’s development. The
researcher contends that the philosophy of ecological framework could be a perfect one
that underpins the study of the lived experiences of Ghanaian immigrant students
Ecological Framework and Lived Experiences of Ghanaian Immigrant Students
Ghanaian immigrant students, like all other immigrants, have the objective of
reaching academic goals. As immigrants who have transitioned from one environment to
the other, Ghanaian immigrant students no doubt, stand the highest propensity to face
challenges. These could be challenges of language barrier, discrimination, financial
problems, cultural conflicts, and so on. This is confirmed in the discussions of Erisman
and Looney (2007) who pointed out that immigrant students face peculiar challenges
ranging from work and family obligations, financial needs, struggling with lack of
information of what college choice to make, making academic preparations, low reading
and writing proficiency, to even other matters which relate to achievement. These
challenging factors that may do or undo a student’s development in relation to achieving
9
academic success. Drawing from the Human Ecology theory, the lived experience of
Ghanaian immigrant students will be explored, bringing into focus areas in the
environment that make their development as immigrant students more difficult. In effect,
exploring the experiences of Ghanaian immigrant students through the perspective of
ecology projects credibility to the interactions in the environment that bother Ghanaian
immigrant students’ experiences.
Maslow’s Theory of Needs
The second theoretical framework that propels this study is Abraham H.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory. Maslow (1954) propounded this theory in his
work Motivation and Personality. According to Viorel, Aurel, Virgil, and Stefania
(2009) even though the theory has been criticized by most scholars it has also received
acceptance. Maslow’s theory, beautiful and so simple, focuses on human development
just as Bronfebrenner’s (1979) Human Ecology theory. Maslow (1954) described human
development categorized into five stages, which is conceptualized as a pyramid.
10
Figure 2. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory.
Maslow (1954) asserted that human development is dependent on needs, a
principle which is universal and that the lower levels of the needs are mandatorily
satisfied before the higher needs are activated to begin to affect and motivate behavior.
Maslow pointed out that in the event when the need is satisfied, it reduces its dominance
on behavior and gives way to another need. The categorized levels of Maslow’s
Hierarchy of Needs include physiological or basic needs, which comprises needs to
satisfy hunger, thirst, sex, shelter, and other bodily needs. According to Maslow,
physiological needs make the most basic human need their fulfillment of which is
essential for human survival. The second need is what Maslow called safety needs. This
includes an individual’s need for security and protection from any physical and emotional
harm. It is a person’s need for freedom from threat, danger, deprivation, and self-
11
preservation. The third stage of the hierarchy is belongingness and love needs. This
stage has to do with a person’s desire for affection, belongingness, acceptance, and
friendship. In effect, the third stage is concerned with a person’s ability to live and exist
cordially with others. In the fourth stage, Maslow identifies esteem needs, a level that
has to do with a person’s need for self-respect, competence, self-confidence,
achievement, autonomy, status, recognition, attention, appreciation, and dignity. When
an individual has the needs of the fourth stage satisfied, a state of adequacy is achieved;
on the other hand when these needs are not met, an individual is plunged into a state of a
feeling of inferiority and helplessness. Finally, Maslow identifies stage five of the needs
hierarchy as the self-actualization level. Maslow believed that it is a level of one’s need
to be all that one is capable of becoming to reach one’s fullest potential.
Maslow’s Needs Theory and the Lived Experiences of Ghanaian Immigrant Student
Maslow’s Theory of Needs is parallel to this study since the various stages of the
theory encapsulate the overall educational experience of students in the quest to reach
their academic goals. Applying Maslow’s theory to this study, applies to the belief that
every student’s aim is to graduate with a degree. Thus, a student works towards the need
to achieve a degree. In doing so, certain needs have to be met in order to reach set goals.
The journey a student makes to reach a set academic goal is a composite of needs to be
met. Kilbride and D’Arcangelo (2002) postulated that many immigrant students in
universities and colleges have major needs (e.g., developmental education, English
reading and writing proficiency issues, food, housing, clothing, transportation, financial
support, family support, information on other issues and services like immigration
support, legal assistance, and employment). Capturing this on the lens of Maslow’s
12
theory, it is clear that the only way the Ghanaian immigrant student can establish a
positive educational experience is to satisfy all such needs. In effect, drawing from this
theory of Maslow’s lays the pathway into a better understanding of this study.
Conclusion
In this study, the two conceptual/theoretical frameworks chosen are all parallel
one to the other since both bother on human development, in this case the development of
Ghanaian immigrant students in college. The Human Ecology theory asserts that an
individual’s (the Ghanaian immigrant student) development is dependent on five levels in
the environment. Thus, if the Ghanaian immigrant student will succeed in the
educational experience of reaching set academic goals, then the ecology of the student
should be taken a look at. Maslow also asserted that the five levels of needs are crucial to
the development of an individual, thus the immigrant student can reach the self-
actualization of academic success should all needs be met accordingly. The two theories
chosen are the right ones for this study as they provide a better understanding of the
complex dynamics and many factors that affect and influence immigrant students directly
and indirectly in relation to the experience of the pursuit of academic achievement.
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study
Limitations in Qualitative Research
According to Merriam (2009), factors that get beyond the control of the
researcher and can affect the study’s outcome or the interpretation of its results are
limitations. Simon and Goes (2013) referred to limitations as “matters and occurrences
that arise in a study which are out of researcher’s control.” Being that limitations could
devalue the worth of a study, it is important that the limitations are stated. It gives
13
readers the opportunity to identify with problems or interpretation errors that may appear
in the study. Furthermore, declaring limitations in the study helps to give readers a more
natural and realistic understanding of the study. Stating limitations in a study allows the
opportunity to make suggestions for future research (USC, Libraries, n.d.) and shows
how the research findings can help focus additional research in the field. Besides “other
authors can make suggestions for minimizing or eliminating weaknesses in future work”
(Connelly, 2013. p. 326).
Limitations
The limitation of this study is in the method of sampling. Since the researcher
intends to use purposeful sampling and snowball sampling, it might cause situations
beyond control. For example, in a case where a participant fails to show up for an
interview, the researcher cannot control the situation. When participants fail to tell the
actual truth, the researcher will have no control. If participants exaggerate the
information presented in the interview, the researcher will not be able to decipher.
During the interview, any emergency situation could happen on the part of the participant
or the researcher (i.e., unforeseen circumstances) that cannot be controlled by the
researcher. For example, there could be death in a participant’s family or the researcher’s
family and that could thwart the entire research process or an interview scheduled.
Delimitations of Qualitative Research
Simon and Goes (2013) asserted that factors that could affect an entire research
study which the researcher has control over are the delimitations of the study. Merriam
(2009) also asserted that situations that can affect a research study and can be controlled
by the researcher are delimitations. Baron (2008) avowed that the delimitations of a
14
research study define the parameters within which the study is established in relation to
the extent of the study and its study timeline.
Delimitations of the Study
In considering delimitations, this study’s findings are delimited to one college of
the City University of New York (CUNY) in the Bronx, New York City. The
participants in this study were recruited from one college under the umbrella of the City
University of New York. Thus, this study’s transferability might be questionable because
it might not be transferable to Ghanaian immigrant students in other colleges in the
United States.
15
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Overview
In the United States’ education system, there are records of the achievement of
many international or immigrant students in high graduation and attainment rates,
especially those of Sub-Saharan Africa and other parts of Africa (Gambino et al., 2014).
Also worthy of mention is the economic impact that international students have on the
economy of the United States. “International students contributed $39.4 billion to the
U.S. economy in 2016, according to the U.S. Department of Commerce” (Institute of
International Education, 2017). This includes African immigrant students and for that
matter, Ghanaian immigrant students. Notwithstanding, few studies have documented or
explored the challenges or the experiences of African immigrant students. In cases where
researchers have attempted studies on African immigrants, or where any study even
mentions Africa, such studies have been put into larger homogenous groups, which
involves international blacks, African-Americans, Sub-Saharan Africans, and
international students. These studies overlook the experiences of specific groups like
Ghanaian students or other immigrant students from other countries in Africa.
Meanwhile, it is an important objective for the United States’ education system to help all
students, immigrant or non-immigrant, black or white, and for that matter, all immigrant
students to achieve their educational goals. Thus, studies on students from Africa,
especially with specificity placed on students from different African countries, like
Ghana, is of merit because it will enhance assisting immigrant students in achieving their
academic goals. This literature review discusses literature on the experience of Ghanaian
immigrant students in the United States. Since there is none or not enough literature on
16
the subject, discussions in this literature review will revolve around the overview of
migration, African immigrant students and international students in the United States, the
historical background of Ghanaian students in America, and other research works and
articles on immigrant students from other countries. These are discussed in relation to
the experience of Ghanaian immigrant students.
Migration and Education
One of the most common happenings in our world today is migration, which
seems to affect every area of life given the world has become a global village. It has
become a phenomenon of usual experience, and norm for many today. Kuo (2014)
pointed it out in the assertion that the rhythm and tempo of today’s contemporary modern
society is punctuated by globalization and migration. Moving from one region of the
world to another for the purpose of education, trade or business, and greener pastures has
become the drive that propels migration. Castles, Haas, and Miller (2014) noted that
population movements have been a characteristic of the world since time immemorial.
Castles et al. (2014) avowed that international migration is a part of a transnational
revolution that is reshaping societies and politics around the world, noting that the
phenomenon of migration from one nation to the other has affected the regions of the
world, like the United States, in different ways.
Therefore, it is evident that what has become popular today is movement and
mobility of people from across regional boundaries, nations, and continents. Thus, the
International Organization for Migration (2013) confirmed that out of the world’s
population, one out of every 33 persons is a migrant. In the background of the
astounding continuous increase of movement in respect to people migrating globally, the
17
result has not only been many exciting and beautiful opportunities, but it has also brought
about very unprecedented challenges yet to be dealt with. The phenomenon of
globalization and migration are an important phenomenon that inevitably characterizes
the United States’ education system today. Students from all over the world migrate to
America to study in its schools.
Defining the Term
Key terms that will be used in the study are:
Immigrant: refers to any alien in the United States (Department of Homeland
Security, 2015). Thus, every alien who is enrolled in the United States’ school system is
an immigrant student.
Immigrant student: a students who was not born in the United States, and whose
parents are also foreign born, and previously attended schools in their countries before
enrolling in the United States’ school system (Department of Education, n.d.). The above
two definitions make it clear that any individual who is not an American and was not
born in America, and was a student previously in their home country of origin is an
immigrant. First-generation immigrant students are foreign-born students whose parents
were also foreign-born (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development,
2015). The study will refer to all people from other nations who come to study in
America as immigrant students, which includes international students and aliens who
have gained permanent residency to settle in America.
Immigrant Students in the United States
Historically, the United States is the most popular destination for international
students due to its quality education system, open labor market, and its welcoming
18
culture (Alberts & Hazen, 2016; Kigotho, 2015; Zong & Batalova, 2018). Obst and
Forster (2005) reported that the United States is host to about one quarter of all
internationally mobile students. Chow and Marcus (2008) recorded that international
(nonresident alien) students were part of the United States’ student population since 1976
and IIE’s Open Doors’ report records international students enrolment in the United
States showing periods from 1949 with a gradual to rapid increase through 2018.
The indication above makes it clear that students from other nations have been
part of the populace of U.S. students for over seven decades. As of 2017, international
students enrolled in the United States made up 1.1 million students out of 4.6 million
international students enrolled worldwide (Zong & Batalova, 2018). According to IIE’s
Open Doors Report (2018), the total number of international students increased by 1.5%
to reach a new high of 1,094,792 in 2018. Among the migrating people from the world
who come to study in America are Africans.
African Students among Immigrant Students in the United States
The 1980s have been identified as a time which began the new period of African
immigration into the United States (Hamza, 2005; Roberts, 2005). Meanwhile, it is
important to note that the coming of Africans into the United States began before the
1980s. Immigrants from Africa have migrated into the United States since, and are still
migrating into the United States today, with many of them from Ghana and many other
African countries, particularly those of the Sub-Saharan Region.
Harushimana and Awokoya (2011) observed that African immigrants are
continuously changing the demographics of the minority because the African population
increases continually in the communities and in schools. According to reports and the
19
U.S. Census as of year 2000, there were about one million African immigrants in the
United States (Dixon, 2006; Frasier, 2005; Grieco, 2004; Hamza, 2005; Wilson, 2003).
Statistics on post-slavery African immigrants show that from the year 1960 through to
year 2000, the number of African immigrants took a galloping increase from 30,000 to
80,000 in the 1970s, to a high of 176,000 in the 1980s, and to one million in 2000
(Frasier, 2005; Hamza, 2005). Until today the number of Africans migrating to the
United States continues to increase. It is confirmed as McKinnon (2001) observed that
Africans now represent six percent of all the immigrants to the United States, with Sub-
Saharan Africans making up five percent of the African-American population. The
discussion above gives clear evidence that the demographics of the schools in the United
States will definitely be affected the increasing African immigration, hence the increasing
population of Africans studying in the schools of the United States.
African Immigrant Students
Given the background that African immigration into the United States has grown
rapidly, it consequently affects the U.S. education system. In effect, African students are
an increasing populace in U.S. schools. Between the 1960s and 1970s, most Africans
who entered the United States came into the country as students (Harushimana, 2007).
Ralston (1971) mentioned the increasing presence of African students among the
population of foreign students 47 years ago. At that time, Ralston asserted that the
annual number of foreign students of which Africa’s students were a part was 40,000 to
50,000 students. Ralston’s assertion gives a clear hint that not only did other foreigners
study in America, but also Africans studied in the United States five decades ago. Arthur
(2000) avowed that outmigration from Africa into America and other nations in the West
20
after World War II was due to migrants responding to the pull of educational
opportunities and jobs. Africans are propelled to migrate into the United States for the
sake of education is confirmed strongly as the Open Doors (2008) report on international
students avowed that Africans were six percent of the entire population of American
students in the United States.
Education USA (2018) recorded that between 2016 and 2017, 37,735 Africans
studied in the United States, reflecting an increase of 6.7%, with West Africa
representing 51% of Africa’s total population of students studying in the United States.
According to Education USA, African students are enrolled in all 50 states and are in
2,300 institutions today. Meanwhile, Texas has become the most popular state, with
almost 15% of the total populace being Africans, followed by New York, Massachusetts,
California, Florida, Pennsylvania, Georgia, Minnesota, Illinois, and Ohio (Education
USA, 2018). It is evident that the above mentioned cities have higher records of African
students.
Alberts and Hazen (2016) further added that African students represent about five
percent of the international enrollees in the United States with a total of 37,062 in 2009
and 2010 and 36,890 in 2011. Schulmann (2017) also recorded that African students
make up 10% of Africa’s international students around the world with the top destination
being the United States with 35,518 students for the 2017 year. The presence of African
students in the United States is even more evident as records show “African students in
the United States spend more than $1 billion per year on their education. U.S. HEIs are
increasingly willing to invest in African students to get the best talent the region has to
offer” (Education USA, 2018). Meanwhile, other researchers have also noted that
21
policies in African countries allow students to study abroad (Gürüz, 2011), in effect, the
migration of Africans to study abroad is a very common phenomenon.
One of the countries that represents a significant number of African students is
Ghana. This research focuses on the lived experience of Ghanaian immigrant students.
Having established the reality that African immigration affects the schools in the United
States, it becomes extremely important to focus on Ghanaian immigrant students in the
U.S. education system.
Ghanaian Immigrant Students in the United States
Ghana
Ghana is a country in West Africa, and was formerly called Gold Coast. It has a
population of approximately 24 million people. The average per capita income is about
$18,015, making it categorized within the middle income sect. Ghana is an English
speaking country that shares boundaries with francophone West African neighboring
countries like Togo to the Eastern border, La Cote d’Ivoire to the Western border, and
Burkina Faso to the Northern border. To the south is the Gulf of Guinea as well as the
Atlantic Ocean. Ghana became independent from the British in 1957 and a member of
the Commonwealth of Nations. The climate of Ghana is tropical and the major economic
activities include industry (15%), agriculture (60%), and services (25%; Adutwum, 2009;
Rominski & Lori, 2014; Tindana & Boateng, 2008).
Ghanaian Immigration/Ghanaian immigrant students in the United States
Ghanaian migration into the United States dates back to before the country
attained independence. James Emman Kwegyir Aggrey, a Ghanaian, travelled in 1898 to
the United States to study for his Bachelors and master’s degrees from Livingstone
22
College and a Doctor of Divinity degree from Hood Theological Seminary. Aggrey also
completed a Doctor of Philosophy degree at Columbia University (Adutwum, 2009;
Columbia University Libraries, n.d.; Jones, 1922). The first president to lead Ghana after
the country gained independence from the British in 1957, studied in the United States.
Kwame Nkrumah studied for his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1939 and he also studied for
a Bachelor of Theology in 1942 from Lincoln University. Nkrumah continued with a
Master of Philosophy and a Master of Education between 1942 and 1943 (Adutwum,
2009; Drew, 2011; Stanford University, 2018). The former and the late UN Secretary
General, Kofi Annan, studied in the United States in 1972 (Kofi Annan Foundation,
2018).
Given the background that Ghanaians began migrating into the United States
years before the nation gained independence, immigration records of Ghanaian
immigrants and Ghanaian immigrant students establish the presence of Ghanaians as a
silent growing minority in the United States. The Migration Policy Institute recorded
235,000 Ghanaian immigrants in the United States, which consequently affects the
number of the enrollment of Ghanaian immigrant students in schools. The reflection and
the impact of increasing migration of Ghanaians into the United States using the U.S.
education system shows in the increasing number of Ghanaians enrolled in schools. Ruiz
(2014) recorded that between 2008 and 2012, Ghana ranked 33rd of 74 countries with
5,227 students migrating to study in the United States. Schulmann (2017) also recorded
that in 2010 and 2014, Ghana sent 11,116 students abroad with the U.S. being a top
destination country, attracting more than 3,142 students.
23
The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (2015) records the
following in the table below.
Table 1
Annual Number of Ghanaian Immigrant Students Enrolled in U.S. Schools
Year 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2012

Students 3288 3252 3272 3026 3898 3898 2925 2682
Source: OECD report 2015
From the table above, it can be deduced that every year more than 2,000
Ghanaians come to the United States to study.
Between 2016 and 2017, 3,111 Ghanaian students were enrolled in 630 tertiary
institutions in the United States (U.S. Embassy in Ghana, 2018; Education USA, 2018).
Other statistics show the annual record of Ghanaian students enrolled in the United States
education system. Education USA (2018) asserted from statistical records that as of
2018, Ghana is ranked as the third African nation with the highest number of students
enrolled in the United States schools as shown below.
Figure 3. African countries with more than 1,000 students in the U.S.
Source: Education USA. Global Guide 2018.
Deducing from the above records, it is clear that the number of Ghanaians
enrolled in United States’ schools will continue to increase annually. This is because the
24
pursuit of education abroad by Ghanaians is an increasing trend. Professionals and
intellectuals seek to expand their education and skills’ training by applying to
international fellowships (Ministry of Interior, 2016). Thusly, the United States has
become one of the number one western nations which welcomes Ghanaian students to
enroll in schools. Graduate education is thriving in the United States and 45% of the
Ghanaian students enrolled in the United States are graduate students, which makes
Ghana ahead of world and regional averages. The innovative programming effected by
Education USA Kumasi Branch encourages graduate study-abroad (Education USA,
2018).
Previous Studies on the Experience of Immigrant Students
Ghanaian immigrants form a section of the population of students in colleges in
the United States, and no matter how small or large their number might be, they also form
a part of the nation’s expected work force now and in the future. The success or failure
in achieving the academic goals of immigrant students will leave questions of the value
of American education, given that America is the world’s leading nation. Like all other
immigrants who migrate into the United States, Ghanaian immigrant students also
become assets to the nation’s economy. In the quest to explore the experience of
Ghanaian immigrant students, and given the background that not much literature is
available on Ghanaian immigrant students, the experience of students from other nations
will help inform this research writing. Students from other nations who come to study in
the United States are like Ghanaian immigrants who also leave their country to immerse
themselves in a totally different cultural and educational setting.
25
Stebleton (2011) asserted that immigrant students have complex needs which are
relatively unknown. In effect, students from other nations studying in the United States
have challenges and experiences that have not been explored and remain unknown to
mainstream. Okpala (2018) confirmed it by asserting that immigrant students are apt to
go through various experiences in the course of adapting to the environment of their
destination country. The experiences of immigrant students come in various forms
ranging from their own personal problems, problems related to culture, financial issues,
family issues, academic issues, depression, and emotional problems, including lack of
information and services (Erisman & Looney, 2007; Evivie, 2009; Mwangi, 2016; Tas,
2013).
Social Challenges and Educational Issues
It is common to hear of discrimination and rejection among most aliens who come
to the United States to study or for any other reason. This is very common for
immigrants in schools. Some testimonies given by some African born students attest that
African immigrant students endure rejection and humiliation from their African-
American counterparts and other popular minority groups (Clemetson, 2003; Obiakor,
Obi, & Grant, 2000; Traoré, 2004). According to Traoré (2004), students in the study
testified of their profound frustrations, disappointments, and rejections with their
schooling experience, with these coming from teachers and colleagues due to their non-
western accents. Clemetson (2003) mentioned issues of culture shock that African born
immigrant students suffer, such as struggling with keeping their own values as Africans
against the lifestyle of their peers in the United States.
26
Goodwin (2002) mentioned that the American society is not a platform that can
grow the crop of fulfilling the American dream for the culturally and linguistically
different. Goodwin’s assertion is a common theme in the United States since the English
accent one has is mostly the determining factor for discrimination; thus, the next thing
that comes after an immigrant speaks a few sentences is a question⎯“where are you
from?” African born immigrant students who integrate into the United States’ school
system do not get the equitable education and care that they deserve (Goodwin, 2002).
African born immigrant students suffer a lot of challenges in relation to education.
Obiakor et al. (2000) pointed out the problems that African born immigrant students face
(e.g., overall adjustments, discriminatory generalizations, prejudicial perceptions, and
xenophobia).
Essandoh (1995) stated that the American educational system does not have
personnel that are multi-culturally trained to address the problems of counselling that
African born students in the American school system have. Harushimana (2007)
postulated that when African born students encounter a teacher of a different race, they
experience culture shock. Harushimana pointed out that students embrace their classes
for the first time showing optimism and determination, with the hope that their teacher
will be patient, accommodating, and understanding. Unfortunately, the demands of the
curriculum do not allow the patience that the teachers and administrators need to provide
to African born immigrant students (Harushimana, 2007). Life becomes frustrating and
overwhelming for the African born immigrant student who turns silent because of the
teacher⎯one who is seen as having a higher authority and feared. They develop a silent
attitude throughout, whether they understand what is being taught or not (Lamping,
27
2006). What makes it worse is when white, female, monolingual, and middle-class
teachers are intolerant in their attitudes (Goodwin, 2002).
Kamya (1997) conducted a quantitative study in which 300 immigrants were
sampled. The study’s purpose was to determine the correlation or relationship between
spiritual well-being, hardship, and opening resources. The sampled participants, 58%
men and 42% women, had lived in the United States for at least three months and were
born or had lived in Africa for at least 10 years. They had all come from nine African
countries, and 85% of the entire sample had immigrated to the United States from Africa
to study. In effect, 85% of them were immigrant students. Kamya’s (1997) study found
that the participants experienced problems with adjustments, most of which were
conflicts with self and conflict with family. Kambutu and Nganga (2014) sought in their
study to explore the impact of multi-cultural immersions on students—immigrants and
host American students. Participants took formal lectures, assignments, online
discussions, and other sessions to help inform participants about Kenya before they went
on a visit to Kenya. According to Kambutu and Nganga (2014), before the visit, the
results from an interview conducted reflected misconceptions that participants had about
Africa. Participants thought that Africa was a country instead of a continent with many
countries. They thought that Africa was a place where people had no formal education.
Kambutu and Nganga mentioned that the misconceptions were diffused after the
participants visited Kenya. But for the visit to Kenya, the host students’ attitudes towards
Africa and African students were guided by their misconceptions, hence, that explains the
negative attitude of most host students towards African immigrant students. According
to Kambutu and Nganga (2014), African students in the study experienced many
28
challenges as students in the United States, some of which were language based
discrimination because they had “heavy accents” and their cognitive abilities were
questioned.
Immersing themselves in the culture and the interactions of the host country is
one of the most difficult things in the life of most immigrants. Thus, it is a common
phenomenon for newly arrived students to look for acceptance among their peers, the
African-American students. This leads them to the possibility of losing their identity.
Goldstein (2004) asserted that the stress of looking to be accepted by peers in their new
environment leads African immigrant students to compromise their identity and values.
It shatters their dreams and aspirations, thereby crashing the “I want to become
somebody” dream⎯a doctor, a banker, a professor. Instead, these precious dreams turn
into the fleeting idea of stardom in music or sports (Goldstein, 2004).
Many immigrant students in America’s higher education system have major
needs, such as: (a) developmental education, problems with English reading and writing;
(b) food, housing, clothing, and transportation; (c) emotional and moral support; (d)
financial assistance; (f) family involvement; and (g) informational issues (Kilbride &
D’Arcangelo, 2002; Gildersleeve, 2010). Stebleton (2007) pointed out that even though
there is very scanty data on immigrant students, the little available indicates that they face
significant barriers. Some of their challenges leave the possibility that immigrant
students have more than twice the likelihood of dropping out of college (Chen & Carroll,
2005). The immigrant students’ experience in the United States could be a very stressful
one when it comes to language (Brilliant, 2000; Rodriguez & Cruz, 2009). Most of the
immigrants, especially Africans or those from third world countries who are even
29
English-speaking countries, struggle with the English language in America. The accent
they hear is different and they find it difficult to understand the American accent. The
issues of language and other problems frustrate immigrant students and affect their
emotional and psychological well-being, causing related issues such as isolation,
depression, and so on (Chhuon & Hudley, 2008; Do, 1996).
The interaction with the new environment of the destination of the immigrant
student results sometimes in transitions that affects their home identity, which also leads
to family frictions (Brilliant, 2000). Some students are likely to face problems with
immigration documentation, which also leads to problems with financial aid
(Gildersleeve & Ranero, 2010; Ortiz & Hinojosa, 2010). Porter (2011) avowed that
students from other countries who come to study in America experience challenges and
obstacles in their interactions with their unfamiliar American environment, especially in
the first college year. Students struggle with reconciling the differences between their
own cultural norms, customs, values, and tenets which become barriers as they deal with
the environment of the host country. Hwang, Wood, and Fufimoto (2010) mentioned that
immigrant students do not only struggle with language, but also interpersonal
relationships.
Other Similar Studies on the Experience of Immigrant Students
Adjustment into the host environment is one of the unpleasant experiences that
immigrant students struggle with. Colleges organize orientation sessions to help new
students make transitional adjustments (Okpala, 2018), and to support their efforts to
success (Chan, 2010). According to Hegarty (2014), orientations help immigrant
students to interact with their peers, administrators, faculty, and staff. Unfortunately,
30
studies show that the interactions the new student experiences during these sessions are
precipitated by the parameters of their cultural backgrounds and their ethnicity; thus,
there remains the existence of a lack of a more personal and academic adjustment for
immigrant students than host students (Evive, 2009; Tas, 2013).
Andrade (2006) asserted that when students face pressure which they are unable
to overcome, they become disoriented academically. Even though Klein (2005)
postulated that orientations enable first year students to adapt in their host environment
more quickly, as Andrade asserted, they could be disoriented as the pressures gallop at
them. In effect, the experience of orientation is not enough to help immigrant students
adjust.
A qualitative study observed that the experience of orientation by new students,
international students’ orientation, ought to be done throughout the school year, since the
process of adjusting and acclimatizing should be one that must be continuous from the
time the student enrolls until graduation (Wu, Garza, & Guzman, 2015). There is no
doubt that the process of the immigrant student grafting into the American environment is
a daily experience over-time.
Andrade (2006) asserted that in the event international students experience a
successful adjustment, their academic success is effective. It is true to assert that if the
immigrant student is comfortable in the environment of the host country, the pursuit of
academic goals will be a success. Andrade (2006) in his studies postulated that the
success and persistence of students is propelled by their cultural integrity as well as
integration. They struggle with previous ways in relation to grafting the cultural ways of
their host institution to their lives. Since Andrade (2006) did not study a large group but
31
only a sample, the study cannot relate to larger or specific immigrant populations
(Okpala, 2018).
Compared to students who hail from the host country, immigrant students
relatively struggle with much stress as they have to deal with the stress of course loads as
well as other issues that arise for them as immigrants. Some students get overwhelmed as
many things come as new things to them. They are exposed to mostly less known
academic curriculum in relation to various career opportunities (Misra, Crist, & Burant,
2003). Things that are so different from what they experienced in their country of origin.
Some problems leave immigrant students facing challenges in respect of choosing
courses, which are all done on the school black board or website. Most African born
students who come from developing countries struggle with navigating the Internet. All
these pose much stress for the student, which slows down or affects their adjustment
process (Tas, 2013).
Studies have shown that immigrant students suffer language discrimination from
their professors, their peers, as well as people that they interact with outside of school
(Barnes & Chemerinsky, 2010; Kuo, 2011; Lee & Rice, 2007). The issue of
communication happens to be a major obstacle for immigrant students. It poisons their
morale as students and draw them behind in many respects (Erozkan, 2013; Wu et al.,
2015). Wu et al. (2015) confirmed it in the assertion that American English
pronunciations, jargons, slangs, and style of imparting knowledge in the United States
could be a setback for immigrant students since they are not familiar with it, thereby
causing learning shock and other problems for them in their new environment (Banjong,
2015). In a study conducted by Barnes and Chemerinsky (2010) using a mixed methods
32
design, they used a focus group. In their sessions in the study, participants were asked
questions as a measure to determine their communication level in terms of proficiency.
The result of the study showed that immigrant students found it difficult to figure out or
understand the sophisticated vocabulary of their teachers. Kuo (2011) avowed that
immigrant students have difficulty with comprehension and oral proficiency. In his
study, Kuo (2011) mentioned that teachers spoke too fast and it is difficult for immigrant
students to understand what is taught in class. The study also asserted that socializing
with other students from the host country is more of a difficulty (Kuo, 2011). Immigrant
students have no one to look up to other than their teachers who they see as the deities of
knowledge, but if the teacher cannot be understood in his language, then the fate of the
poor immigrant student is undefined.
Gunawardena and Wilson (2012) pointed out that in order to help reduce the lack
of confidence with verbally communicating, immigrant students should be well prepared
with language proficiency tests. Thus, making it a very important need before immigrant
students are enrolled. According to Obiakor and Afoláyan (2007), most of the immigrant
students who face problems with communicating in school keep quiet to avoid the trouble
they might encounter. Thusly, whether they understand what is being taught or not, the
supposed solution is to keep quiet. The above discussion attests to one of the experiences
that impedes the progress of immigrant students is language proficiency. Language
proficiency affects performance in the classroom and adds to the frustrations they face.
Loneliness and Homesickness
Loneliness and homesickness have been experienced by numerous immigrant
students. Constantine, Anderson, Berkel, Caldwell, and Utsey (2005) mentioned that it is
33
a common thing to note that immigrant students experience feelings of loneliness, which
in turn brings about depression, uneasiness, and anxiety. People need people. Yates and
Nguyen (2012) also asserted that immigrant students suffer loneliness and culture shock.
Studies have shown that immigrant students experience different forms of homesickness
in relation to how long they have stayed in the destination country (Kegel, 2009; Poyrazil
& Lopez, 2007; Tochkov, Levine, & Sanaka, 2010). In a survey, the study took response
from 439 students. The results found that the immigrant students among the respondents
experienced higher levels of homesickness than their American host counterparts. Kegel
(2009) avowed that homesickness has a negative impact on the performance of immigrant
students. Kegel asserted that in some cases they lose their appetite and their sleep is
jeopardized. Kegel (2009) concluded that about 30% of immigrant students studying in
America experienced homesickness regularly. They grieved for loved ones left back
home in their countries, and places they missed. Kegel (2009) pointed out that this
experience of homesickness led to depression. Tochkov et al. (2010) studied the
determinants of homesickness among Indian immigrant students and their American
student counterparts using a quantitative approach. In their findings they concluded that
Indian immigrant students experience homesickness, which had a positive correlation
with anxiety and depression (Tochkov et al.).
Okpala (2018) used a quantitative approach to study the challenges of Nigerian
immigrant students. Okpala concluded in her study that one of the experiences of
Nigerian students studying in America is loneliness and homesickness, which leads to
psychological effects. Transitioning from leaving their homes to settle for studies abroad
is a significant change for immigrant students (Scopelliti & Tiberio, 2010; Wilcox, Winn,
34
& Fyvie‐Gauld, 2005). When immigrant students struggle to have their needs met in a
foreign land with results not coming, they are plunged into intense homesickness
(Scopelliti & Tiberio, 2010).
According to Wilcox et al. (2005), students in college who live closer to their
homes get comfortable dealing with transitions since they are closer and have social
support. Russell, Rosenthal, and Thompson (2010) conducted a study and found that
homesickness, culture shock, or perceived discrimination were a result of high levels of
stress in 41% of the immigrant students in the study. In regards to Nicpon et al.’s (2007)
study, Russell et al. (2010) found a significant problem in relation to immigrant students,
there still remained a gap in the study, in that Russell et al. (2010) sampled only white
students. Thus, the study is unable to account for immigrant students who come from
African origins.
Social Support Issues
Immigrant students have been known to have challenges with social support.
Studies done by researchers that have investigated challenges of immigrant students
indicate that immigrant students have the challenge of the need of social support (Atri,
Sharma, & Cottrell, 2007; Dao, Lee, & Chang, 2007; Johnson, Batia, & Haun, 2008;
Misra et al., 2003; Mittal & Wieling, 2006; Sümer, Poyrazli, & Grahame, 2008; Yeh &
Inose, 2003). In a quantitative study conducted by Johnson et al. (2008), 12 graduates
were studied with a focus on roles, responsibilities, and social support. The study
indicated that changes in their social support affected the students’ negatively, and this
led to stress and consequently made them consider withdrawing from the academic
program they pursued, having not graduated (Johnson et al., 2008). The level of
35
depression in an immigrant student is directly connected to social support, which is a
major contributing factor (Sümer et al., 2008).
Sümer et al. (2008) used a quantitative approach which studied 440 immigrant
students studying in the United States. The study focused on predicting the role of
gender, age, and race/ethnicity, length of stay, social support, and proficiency in English,
on immigrant students’ level of depression. The study found that immigrant students
with higher levels of social support had less levels of depression. Sümer et al. (2008)
observed it in a study which also found that social support enhances the entire
development of an immigrant student, and thus, it is a booster that spices up students to
effectively face challenges encountered during their stay in the United States as
immigrant students.
Dao et al. (2007) studied the relationship between acculturation, perceived
English proficiency, perceived social support, and depression in immigrant students. In
the study, 112 graduate Taiwanese students studying in America were sampled. The
purpose of the study was to create awareness on adjustment levels of immigrant students
and its relation to depression. The result of the study showed that students who had
lower or no perceived social support were at risk of having depression as well as lower
acculturation levels (Dao et al., 2007).
Struggles with Cultural Experience
One very important thing worthy of mention is that every immigrant students’
cultural identity has a great influence on the entire educational experience as they study
in a foreign land. Having come to the host country from different cultural backgrounds,
the lens that they see through in the perception of their new environment and their
36
response to it an entirely different experience, which affects the immigrant student in
many ways. Thus, the immigrant student is entirely different in relation to the way the
host student sees or views things. Mills (2000) avowed that we dwell within the
parameters of our own milieu, thus, the way we view things falls within the limitation of
the learning of the group to which we belong. There is no doubt that it is not completely
material for immigrant students to comfortably process their exposure to the way of life
and the new environment they find themselves in. Culture is the way of life of a group of
people. According to Pai and Adler (2001), the patterns of knowledge, skills, behaviors,
attitudes, beliefs, and material artifacts produced by a human society which is transmitted
from one generation to the other is culture. In effect, culture has to do with the composite
of the way of life of a people. Immigrant students have their own culturally shaped
thinking, interceptions, beliefs, and behaviors; they have their own standards and values
(Pai & Alter, 2001). It is therefore true that immigrant students come into the host
country with their own mindsets, expectations, and behaviors.
It is important to note that because of globalization, most countries have their
educational institutions inspired by Western standards and practices. However, it is also
equally important to register that western standards are interpreted through cultural
lenses. This means the western standards are interpreted based on the way of life of the
people who adopt western practices. Thus, there is always the disposition to have most
western standards clash with traditions (Anderson-Levitt, 2003). In this light, immigrant
students who sojourn into foreign lands to study, experience challenges propelled by their
cultural backgrounds, in that their perceptions, mindset, and communications are shaped
by their traditions.
37
Brooks and Waters (2011) asserted that culture has the disposition to imprint
patterns in our brains and dissolve others. In effect, what makes meaning to one person
might not be seen as meaningful to another. For example, in a study Brooks and Waters
(2011) noted that whereas about a quarter of a group of Americans might be scared of
saying wrong things, comparing this to the Japanese, this number could be more than the
quarter when it comes to Americans by 65%. This presupposes that a great number of
Japanese will keep quiet because it is culturally appropriate for their traditions. A
Japanese student, propelled by culture, might find it extremely difficult to express an idea
in a class discussion, whereas the opposite is true of the American student. Nieto and
Zoller Booth (2010) observed that culture could affect student learning. This may happen
in a situation where the teacher or professor in class might think an immigrant student is
lazy and dull because they are unwilling to participate in class. However, it might also
bear the meaning that the immigrant student comes from the culture of a collectivist
society where instructions are followed instead of questions being asked. When
immigrant students come to interact with the host environment, problems may come up
with communication and learning. Answers to questions might not be present in their
cultures.
In the background of diversity in America, there is the presence of diversified
culture, especially with populations in higher education. The complexity of cultural
surroundings create a complicated experience for immigrant students, thus plunging them
into a culture shock due to changing cultures during the period of studies in the United
States (Andrade, 2006; Amiot & Aubin, 2013; Carol & Ryan, 2005; Gunawardena &
Wilson, 2012; Janjua, Malik, & Rahman, 2011; Liao & Wei, 2014).
38
Many immigrant students struggle with culture changes. This situation,
consequently, may set the stage for failure in their academic pursuit (Fischer, 2011).
Wang, Wei, Zhao, Chuang, and Li (2015) described a cultural concept which they called
cross-cultural loss, as a process by which immigrant students give up their culture for the
culture of their host country. As immigrant students struggle to gain acceptance and
personal relationships, the cultural norms and the educational system they are familiar
with, fade away. In light of their confrontation with unfamiliar cultural patterns,
immigrant students experience culture shock, thus, leading to frustrations, anger, sadness,
confusion, anxiety, and depression (Gebhard, 2012; Kelly & Moogan, 2012; Smith &
Khawaja, 2011).
The Theoretical Framework and the Study
The theoretical framework that propels this study is the ecology of human
development proposed by Bronfenbrenner (1979) and Maslow’s (1987) Hierarchy
Theory of Needs. Bronfenbrenner asserted that human development is a direct product of
the growing organism’s interaction with the environment. Thus, for a human being to
develop and make progress in every area of life is a result of interaction with the
environment. This theory also connects Maslow’s assertion that the complete
development of a person is dependent on the needs that affect their entire life, in effect,
the experience of immigrant students in the course of the pursuit of academic goals.
However they are seen, their academic development will be dependent upon whether
their needs are met or the environment of interaction is favorable.
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Summary
The United States as a nation is galloping daily past in its demographic change. It
is a transformation that has taken place and is still taking place in its racial and ethnic
frame. This has been a result of migration and the open arms of America to people of
foreign lands. Thusly, one of the areas affected by these changes is diversity in
education. As many aliens migrate to study in the United States, the challenges that
come with their transitions are numerous and some not yet known. One of the challenges
that come with the diversity in education is the need to look at the experiences of
immigrant students who contribute immensely to the United States’ economy. This
literature review examined the lived experiences of Ghanaian immigrant students by
reviewing the literature from different spectrums or perspectives. Ghanaian immigrant
students stand the greater likelihood as African immigrants to face their own complex,
unique experiences and/or challenges.
Many studies were examined, all bringing up the experiences of immigrant
students as they pursue higher education in the United States. This study sought to
explore the lived experiences of Ghanaian immigrant students. However, given the
background of scant literature on West African or Sub-Saharan immigrant students, the
literature review revolved around literature on the experiences of international students,
the large group which also includes Ghanaian immigrants.
As mentioned earlier in this writing, immigrant students are of a vital role in the
education system of the United States as they are a source of revenue to the country’s
economy. Immigrant students also come with diverse experience, which enriches the
overall experience of students in America. This literature review has given a great
40
insight into findings of the experience of immigrant students, especially of African
immigrant students. The common recurring theme in the literature reviewed mostly has
to do with challenges and difficulties that are faced by immigrants in the higher education
level. The studies brought up the details of the difficulties that immigrant students face in
the United States. Challenges mentioned included adjustment problems, the result of
which are depression, rejection, culture shock, family support (or lack thereof),
loneliness, homesickness, discrimination, and language barriers.
On another spectrum, this literature review brings to light that the challenges of
the various groups of immigrants are not similar or identical. The experience of a group
of immigrants might be different as propelled by the origin of the group. For instance,
African immigrants from Togo might have a different experience as immigrants as
compared to African immigrants from Ghana. It is important to acknowledge that even
though some groups of immigrant students might be facing similar challenges, it is
equally important for researchers and educational leadership to take cognizance that
Africans and for that matter all Ghanaians of the Sub-Saharan regions of Africa, cannot
be put in the same category as all other immigrants since this group is special by virtue of
cultural, religious, linguistic, social, economic, geographical, and historical differences.
Even among various African groups there are different tribes. The researcher contends
that this study is of significance since there are few other studies on specific groups of
Africans. Thus, with the gradual increase in the population of Ghanaian students
annually, who purport to pursue education, there is every need they form part of the
population of students who are immigrants and study in the United States, to study their
experiences. In effect, as Ghanaian immigrant students continue to increase annually on
41
the campuses of the United States schools, especially in higher education, a study on their
experiences is of merit.
42
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY
This study sought to explore the lived experiences of Ghanaian immigrant
students in the United States’ colleges and universities. The participants in this study
were students from the City University of New York. Given the background that several
studies have confirmed that immigrant students go through complex experiences that
need to be documented (Stebleton, 2011), this study gives a mouthpiece to Ghanaian
immigrant students, bringing to light information on their experiences, some of which are
challenges and various issues that affect the academic course of pursuit of Ghanaian
immigrant students in the United States. This study will be of immense essence and
usefulness to students, faculty, the United States Department of Education, and the Ghana
Education Service. The study will lay down a platform for agencies in Ghana that steer
the affairs of Ghanaian students who want to travel to the United States and other parts of
the world to develop the appropriate orientation to Ghanaian students who desire to travel
to the U.S. to study.
As the United States Department of Education deals with students of diversity and
of different backgrounds and ethnicity, this study presents the appropriate information on
Ghanaian immigrant students. With records showing that the number of Ghanaian
immigrant students in the United States will continually increase (Education USA, 2018),
this study will be crucial for informing culturally sensitive decisions in relation to
educational curriculum.
Research Design
The primary objective of this research study was to understand the essence and
meaningfulness of the lived experiences Ghanaian immigrant students in the colleges and
43
universities in the United States. The methodology deemed appropriate was a qualitative
study. Denzin and Lincoln (2005) asserted that the sole aim of qualitative researchers is
to study things in their natural settings and attempt to make sense of it, thus, interpreting
phenomenon in respect of what meanings people give to it. Therefore, in this study the
researcher sought to interpret what Ghanaian immigrant students perceived of their
experience as alien students in the United States.
The aspect of qualitative methodology chosen for this study was phenomenology.
Using this methodology is justified because it resonates with the assertion made by
Merriam (2009) that the phenomenologist depicts “the essence or basic structure of
experience” (p. 25). In effect, the primary objective of the researcher who uses a
phenomenological approach is to describe or interpret an experience in relation to
depicting its essence and meaningfulness. Further, Moustakas (1994) and Giorgi (2009)
postulated that using the phenomenological approach gives the researcher the scope to
describe the lived experiences of individuals in relation to a phenomenon being studied as
described by participants. This description caps off in the essence of the experiences for
several individuals who have all experienced the phenomenon. Relating it to this study,
the researcher sought to describe the lived experiences of Ghanaian immigrant students as
they lived their lives as students in the United States, away from their home country.
Finally, Schram (2003) made it clearer as he avowed that phenomenology has to do with
studying conscious experiences in relation to their life-world, talking about their day to
day life, and social activities. The discussions above makes it worthy to project that this
study on the experience of Ghanaian immigrants is a typical example for which using the
phenomenological approach is appropriate.
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Phenomenological Designs in Qualitative Research
Two types of phenomenological approaches are identified in qualitative research,
descriptive, and interpretive phenomenological designs. The descriptive and interpretive
designs are identified with the philosophies of Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger,
respectively (Connelly, 2013; Hussin, Folkestad, & Makela, 2013; Sorsa, Kikkala, &
Astedt-Kurki, 2015).
Descriptive Phenomenological Designs
In descriptive phenomenology, the researcher describes a phenomenon just as
they are presented or as they appear to an individual in their own experience (Connelly,
2013; Tuohy, Cooney, Dowling, Murphy, & Sixmith, 2013). With descriptive approach
in phenomenology, description is done in relation to experiences being lived through very
carefully, and once the raw data have been obtained, a thorough phenomenological
analysis of the data takes place. The next step in this method of qualitative research after
researcher gets the raw data is to apply reduction and bracketing. Bracketing is the
process when the researcher identifies, and keeps in check any beliefs, opinions or
notions preconceived about the phenomenon being researched. In the process, the
researcher is expected to “brackets out” any presupposed concepts in order to approach
the study from an unbiased perspective. Bracketing is important to phenomenological
reduction, which is the process of isolating the phenomenon and separating it from what
is already known about it (Giorgi, 2009; Pringle et al., 2011; Sorsa et al., 2015; Tuohy et
al., 2013;). Descriptive phenomenology requires a quality on the part of the researcher
which is called intuition. It requires the researcher to totally immerse in the study and to
45
do everything possible to remain open to the meaning of the phenomenon described by
participants that experienced it.
Interpretive Phenomenological Designs
Interpretive phenomenological designs come from the heart of psychology.
Interpretive phenomenological designs are basically subjective in nature and allow the
researcher to delve into the inner world of the participants’ cognition in order to draw
conclusions and advance interpretations on a phenomenon (Heinonen, 2015; Murray &
Holmes, 2014; Pringle, Hendry, Drummond, & McLafferty, 2011). Chan (2010) pointed
out that interpretive phenomenology deals with embodied experience where scholars of
this qualitative method believe that the meaning of an experience is embedded in the
context of place, time, and others. Thus, interpretive phenomenological researchers
believe that interpretive phenomenology comes with different variables which even
embodies participants as well as researchers as they complement each other (Sorsa et al.,
2015). Researchers respect time in relation to the past and present experiences of
participants during interactions. This enables researchers to establish understanding
(Pringle, Drummond, & Hendry, 2011; Sorsa et al., 2015; Tuohy et al., 2013). In this
study, the researcher focuses on not only describing the experiences of Ghanaian
immigrant students as they are related. Thus, descriptive phenomenology was not used
as a methodology.
The researcher deems interpretive phenomenological design the best fit for this
study because it focuses primarily on not only describing facts of a phenomenon as
presented from the participants’ point of view, but also understanding how their
46
experience is connected to the present and the past in relation to their environment (Sorsa
et al., 2015).
Rationale for Selection of Interpretive Phenomenological Designs
Interpretive phenomenological is deemed appropriate for this study by the
researcher since this method of qualitative analysis not only has interpretive elements, but
descriptive as well. Using this the interpretive method of analysis provides the scope to
incorporate diverse phenomenological processes and procedures in one approach (Pringle
et al., 2011). Since the theoretical frame work bothers on human development and
ecology, using interpretive phenomenology is suitable as data are described and
interpreted in relation to multi variables in the environment that affect human
development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979), as in this study, the experience of Ghanaian
immigrant students.
To add, Kruth (2015) and Murray and Holmes (2014) posited that the use of
interpretive phenomenology allows the researcher the opportunity to gather more than
facts about the phenomenon being studied, thereby providing more insight into
participants’ lived experiences. It gives the researcher the scope to approach participants’
perceptions and lived experiences in relation to context (Kruth, 2015; Murray & Holmes,
2014).
It is important to note that scholars of interpretive phenomenological analysis
recognize that it is very convoluted to understand human experiences without first
realizing that the experiences related to participants are in themselves being interpreted
(Kruth, 2015; Murray & Holmes, 2014). Descriptive phenomenology merely tells what a
phenomenon is just as they appear. Using the interpretive approach not only just tells
47
phenomenon as they are, but it also affords researchers the scope to acquire an in-depth
understanding of the phenomenon (Kruth, 2015; Pringle et al., 2011). For this study,
interpretive phenomenological analysis is most vital as regards the population for this
study, in that it will enable the researcher to interact with the various narratives of
Ghanaian immigrant students, thereby establishing fresh understandings and
interpretations of their lived experiences and the phenomenon (Pringle et al., 2011; Sorsa
et al., 2015).
Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Design
The chosen research design comes with its flaws and strengths. Maxwell (2013)
mentioned that using phenomenological studies gives the researcher the scope to propel
the study through motivation and personal interest. The researcher’s interest in the topic
enables sustaining work towards completing the study. Furthermore, as the researcher
engages in interacting with participants through data collection, much first-hand
knowledge is acquired in relation to the experience of participants on the phenomenon
being studied (Maxwell, 2013; Patton, 2002; Rudestam & Newton, 2015).
Even though phenomenological study is noted for its impressive data, Patton
(2002) observed that the human factor could be a great weakness. One such human
factors is the tendency of bias to harm a research study (Creswell, 2014; Janesick, 2010;
Patton, 2002). For example, a researcher who is an adjunct conducting a study on the
lived experiences of adjuncts might be infected with a bias. Again, much time and labor
is needed for analysis in the use of phenomenological studies and this could be a great
disadvantage as it could be so exacting for the researcher (Creswell, 2014; Janesick,
2010; Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2014).
48
Another very clear observation in relation to phenomenology being a
disadvantage is the circumstances under which participants’ or individuals’ data are
gathered cannot be used as a generalization (Maxwell, 2013; Patton, 2002). The same
situation cannot be repeated of all others, should similar studies be conducted elsewhere.
Population and Sampling
Demographics of Population
In this research study, the researcher used one college of the City University of
New York (CUNY), which is the Bronx Community college in the Bronx where
Ghanaian immigrant students are mostly populated. According to Gonzalez (2018), the
population of Africans in the Bronx continues to increase, thus the population of African
students in the colleges of CUNY in the Bronx has increased consequently. CUNY is a
public university system that consists of colleges that award various degrees and are
located in all five boroughs of New York City. For the study, six to ten Ghanaian
immigrant students were the target population for the study.
Sampling
To gather data on the lived experiences of Ghanaian immigrant students in higher
education would have required investigating the entire population of Ghanaian students
in all colleges throughout the United States. However, Gall, Gall, and Borg (2007) have
asserted that “educational researchers rarely can investigate the entire population of
individuals that interest them” (p. 163). In effect, it will be a work load that will be
almost impossible to accomplish. Thusly, it is important to select a sample few
individuals for the study. The researcher has chosen to use non-probability sampling, a
method of choice best suited for most qualitative research (Merriam, 2009). Merriam,
49
agreeing with Honigmann (1982), asserted that the use of nonprobability sampling is
logical as long as the researcher is not answering the questions such as "how much," and
"how often," and that in the case where the researcher purports to solve qualitative
problems such as discovering what occurs, the results of what occurs, and the
relationships that are in relation to what occurs, the nonprobability sampling, commonly
called purposeful sampling (Patton, 2002) is the most appropriate. As much as this
research sought to explore the lived experiences of Ghanaian immigrant students, it is
expedient and the choice of the researcher to use non-probability sampling or purposeful
sampling.
Snowball sampling. Snowball sampling is a form of purposeful sampling. It is a
technique for finding research subjects in which one subject gives the researcher the
name of another subject, who in turn provides the name of a third, and so on (Vogt, 1999;
Merriam, 2009). The researcher in this study chose this form of purposeful sampling to
govern the process of sampling participants. The researcher found this appropriate in
sampling Ghanaian immigrant students. Gall et al. (2007) asserted that snowball or chain
sampling “involves asking well situated people to recommend cases to study” (p. 79). In
effect, snowball sampling involves selecting study participants recommended by other
study participants who might likely know other people. For example, Ghanaian
immigrant students in a school could recommend other mates who are also Ghanaian
students.
Again, the researcher found that snowball was the most appropriate sampling to
use since the target population was not only in one school, but from three schools in the
same city, and given the background that immigrant students from Africa form clubs and
50
associations in higher education, Ghanaian immigrant students among African immigrant
students lead the researcher to recruit other Ghanaian immigrant students in the college.
Given the background that this study purported to reach out to a select target population
(i.e., Ghanaian immigrant students), snowball sampling falls in place as the most
appropriate sampling method. Qualitative methodologist asserted that snowball sampling
can be applied for two primary purposes⎯as an ‘informal’ method to reach a target
population. In the case where the objective of the study is primarily explorative,
qualitative, and descriptive, then snowball sampling is of a practical advantage
(Hendricks, Blanken, & Adriaans, 1992). Snowball sampling is also used to conduct
qualitative research, basically through interviews. In the second purpose, snow ball
sampling can be used to make inferences about populations that are difficult to enumerate
(Faugier & Sergeant, 1997; Snijders, 1992).
Figure 4. Snowball sampling illustrated.

As seen from the figure above, when the researcher recruits one Ghanaian
51
immigrant student, the student brings in one or two friend(s) who in turn brings other
mates. Thus, as the name suggests, once the ball is set rolling, it coils up more snow
along its path and becomes bigger and bigger.
Strengths of purposeful sampling. Purposeful sampling has the following
strengths:
1. Purposeful sampling is a cost-effective and time-effective sampling method in
qualitative research.
2. When dealing with a particular set of population, purposeful sampling is
easier to use
3. This sampling technique can be effective in dealing with lived experiences
which have to do with an intuitive approach (Dudovskiy, 2017).
Weaknesses of purposeful sampling. Purposeful sampling has the following
weaknesses:
1. The researcher is unable to generalize findings when using purposeful
sampling since only a set of groups is used. For example, in this study, the
researcher will use only English language adjunct from only CUNY colleges.
The findings cannot be generalized in relation to private colleges or other
higher institutional levels in the country.
2. The researcher could make errors in his sampling as result of using personal
judgements in sampling (Dudovskiy, 2017).
3. There could also be higher levels of low reliability and high bias (Black,
2010).
Rationale for the use of purposeful sampling. The researcher deems purposeful
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sampling most expedient and appropriate for this study. Leedy and Ormrod (2010)
mentioned that in using purposeful sampling the researcher selects participants for a
particular purpose. In this study, the researcher dealt with Ghanaian immigrant students.
Again, the use of purposeful sampling will enable the researcher to register a criterion
which will govern the selection of the appropriate participants the researcher will need
for the study (Gall et al., 2007; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Furthermore, the use of
purposeful sampling will enable the researcher to use diverse perspectives in exploring
and understanding the lived experience of Ghanaian immigrant students in higher
education (Suri, 2011). According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), the use of purposeful
sampling is an effective strategy that is used to address problems in qualitative research.
Criteria for Sampling of Participants
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) observed that in the use of purposeful sampling,
criteria is a determining factor, thusly, it demands the researcher to basically decide what
conditions samples chosen should have in order to be fit for recruitment in the study.
Two measures were used to select the participants for this study. Firstly, each participant
was a Ghanaian, was a student in Ghana before coming to the United States, was enrolled
in college in the United States by the time of this study, and was willing to participate in
the interviews designed for the study.
Rationale for Selecting Sample Size
This study sampled at least six to ten Ghanaian students in the Bronx community
college. Scholars of qualitative research do not have specificity in respect of what
sampling size should be used in qualitative research, as it is still an issue of debate.
Mason (2010) and Merriam and Tisdell (2016) have asserted that many researchers
53
believe that until data collection has reached its point of saturation, it must continue.
Many qualitative methodologists argue that data collection needs to continue until the
point of theoretical saturation (Mason, 2010; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Thus, all data
needed must be collected until it is not needed and not of relevance (Marshall, Cardon,
Poddar, & Fontenont, 2013; Mason, 2010; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; van Rijnsoever,
2017).
Data collection in qualitative research depends on interpretation and depth of the
meaning of data collected, which is not like quantitative research which basically deals
with generalized statements of hypothesis and population validity. Thus, methodologists
of qualitative research assert that there are no special rules on the specificity of particular
appropriate sample sizes in the collection of data in qualitative research (Gall et al., 2007;
Mason, 2010; van Rijnsoever, 2017). Thusly, it behooves on the researcher to determine
the appropriate sample size using creativity and critical thinking in the selection of a
sample size (Mason, 2010; van Rijnsoever, 2017).
Based on the assertions of qualitative methodologists, the proposed sample size of
nine for this study is in line for phenomenological studies. Merriam and Tisdell (2016)
avowed that in purposeful sampling, the sample size is determined by considering
information available. That indicates that the research sites chosen for the study as well
as the number of interviews to be scheduled are determined by the kind of interview
questions, resources available to support the study, as well as how the researcher will be
able to analyze the data collected, observing the highest point saturation where data are
enough and no more than necessary. Qualitative researchers believe that generally the
appropriate sample size could be 6 to 8 and 6 to 10 in the case of phenomenological study
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(Marshall et al., 2013; Mason, 2010). In other studies of qualitative research, Marshall et
al. (2013) avowed that the appropriate sample size could generally contain 15 to 30
interviews.
Data Collection Tools/Methods
Recruitment of Participants
In order to gain access to the chosen research site, researchers are expected to
acknowledge the challenges in relation to organizational culture and structures
established by the gatekeepers (Creswell, 2015). Thusly, in order to recruit participants
who were deemed eligible for this study, the researcher liaised with the appropriate
authorities of the three colleges chosen, Hostos Community College, Lehman College,
and Bronx Community College so permission was sought to use the schools as data
collection sites for the study. The researcher sought appointment to discuss with
authorities concerned.
The following criteria for eligibility were observed by the researcher in
recruitment of participants:
1. Each participant should be a Ghanaian;
2. Should have been a student in Ghana before coming to the United States;
3. Should have been enrolled in college in the United States by the time of this
study; and
4. Must be willing to participate in the interviews designed for the study.
Participants recruited were sent informed consent forms either through email or in person
and were requested to sign and return the consent form by email or to be collected by
researcher in person. The informed consent form explained the details of the study to the
55
participants, that is the purpose of the study, methodology, risks, rights, possible benefits,
confidentiality of records, dissemination, contact information, and copies of the form
(Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Creswell, 2015; Gall et al., 2007; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016;
Seidman, 2013).
Interviewing
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) defined interviewing as “a process in which a
researcher and participant engage in a conversation focused on questions related to a
research study” (p. 108). In interviews, the researcher gathering data made contact with
participants through presenting verbal questions, and participants gave verbal responses
to questions. The researcher recorded and transcribed responses given by participants for
analysis (Connaway & Powell, 2010; Gall et al., 2007; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The
researcher’s objective for using interviews was to gather data through participants’
thoughts, feelings, perceptions and experiences which cannot directly be observed
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Seidman, 2013).
Scholars of qualitative research believe that using interviews is the most
appropriate method for interpretive phenomenology data collection because it is a
powerful data collection technique (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Pringle et al., 2011). In
this study the researcher will attempt to answer the research questions by interviewing the
participants more than once (Pringle et al., 2011).
Rationale for Selecting the Interview Method for Data Collection
The researcher chose interviews as a data collection tool for the following reasons
as asserted by scholars of qualitative research (Connaway & Powell, 2010; Creswell,
2015; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016):
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1. Qualitative researchers assert that interviews reveal unobservable, useful, and
personal information.
2. Interviews are cost effective and gather relevant and enough data in relation to
other data collection methods.
3. Researchers have the opportunity for flexibility, creativity, and can deal with
participants on a friendly level.
Types of interviewing methods. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) identified three
interview types: highly structured interviews, semi-structured interviews, and
unstructured interviews. These were categorized according to how they were
constructed.
Highly structured interviews. This is an interview type in which the researcher
designs the same set of questions, in the same format for all responding participants. It is
a standardized form of interviews usually used to gather information on
sociodemographic data (e.g., age, gender, occupation, education, and ethnicity from
participants for census and marketing surveys; Connaway & Powell, 2010; Doody &
Noonan, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Semi-structured interviews. Semi-structured interviews have no predetermined
or predesigned order of questions. The greater part of the interviews are determined by
issues and ideas to be explored (Connaway & Powell, 2010; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Semi-structured interviews allow the researcher the scope to explore new ideas that
emerge during the process of the interview that initially may not have been reckoned or
observed by asking open-ended questions (Gall et al., 2007). The researcher is able to
create questions spontaneously, and also develop flexibility through the informal
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approach during the interview with focus on the phenomenon under study (Doody &
Noonan, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Unstructured interviews. In qualitative research, researchers using unstructured
interviews do not depend on an interview guide. As the name suggests, it is not
structured. They are exploratory and informal in nature (Gall et al., 2007; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The researcher is more flexible and begins with a broad open-ended
question in relation to the phenomenon being studied in an informal conversation-like
mode, which is followed by subsequent questions that depend on the responses received
(Connaway & Powell, 2010; Doody & Noonan, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Rationale for Selecting Semi-structured Interviews and Unstructured Interviews
Semi-structured interviews. Semi-structured interviews allow the researcher the
opportunity to ask probing questions as well as respond to emerging worldviews and new
ideas that participants bring up on the phenomena (Edwards & Holland, 2013; Gall et al.,
2007; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In semi-structured interviews questions are more open-
ended and allow for flexibly, thereby allowing the researcher to gather much information
(Blandford, 2013; Edwards & Holland, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Murray &
Holmes, 2014).
Unstructured interviews. Using unstructured interview will enable participants’
individual lived experiences to come out (Gall et al., 2007). It helps to use unstructured
as the researcher gets the scope to be more flexible, especially as more questions can be
formulated for subsequent research interviews (Connaway & Powell, 2010; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016; Sorsa et al., 2015).
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Strengths of semi-structured interviews. When researchers use semi-structured
interviews, it takes away the problem of ill-preparation because questions are already
framed around what is to be explored. The process of the interview is not a time to think
of questions to ask. Besides, it gives the researcher the confidence as there are no doubts
or uncertainties about what questions are being asked.
In addition, a semi-structured interview has no unwanted interruptions because it
allows a two-way communication between the researcher and the respondent. Time is
allowed for the interviewee to respond even before another question comes since all
questions have already been composed.
Another strength about semi structured interviews is that it allows the opportunity
for learning. This happens because not only does information collected provide answers,
but also gives reasons for the answers provided.
Finally, it is important to note that the researcher gets the opportunity to be
acquainted with respondents, establishing a rapport which not only helps the process of
the study but also fosters credibility and confidence between respondents and the
researcher (Corporate Documentary Repository, n.d.).
Weaknesses of semi-structured interviews. Leedy and Ormrod (2010) asserted
that semi-structured interviews have the propensity to digress from the primary objectives
and it behooves on the researcher to help navigate back to the focus. This makes it clear
that at the spur of the moment, as the interviewee responds, he or she could fall out of
path to talking about what is not relevant to the researcher’s purpose of the study being
conducted.
Blandford (2013) avowed that one weakness of semi-structured interviews is that
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people’s ability to report or tell facts accurately cannot be measured and can be limited.
Thusly, as a weakness, the use of semi-structured interviews could be a weakness to the
entire study as respondents could either give full facts, less facts, or no facts at all.
Data Collection Procedure
Ensuring Excellent Interview Attitudes: Listening and Questioning
During qualitative research, the researcher interviews in order to make sure
enough relevant data have been gathered from participants. The success of this process
requires excellent skills and attitudes. For example, the interviewer must listen more, talk
less, and ask very good questions in an appropriate language (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016;
Seidman, 2013). Listening is a very important skill needed at interviewing since it keeps
the researcher alert and focused enough to monitor the progress of the interview
(Creswell, 2015; Seidman, 2013; Sorsa et al., 2015).
Again, it is important to note that the skill of asking good questions in appropriate
vocabulary is vital to the participants’ understanding since it is crucial for relevant data to
be gathered from interviews (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Seidman, 2013).
Eliminating Biases
Biases are an infection and could destroy the validity. Thusly, the researcher
observed the best practice needed to avoid or minimize interviewer bias. The researcher
will avoid multiple questions and yes-or-no questions (Creswell, 2015; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). In order to gather relevant and sufficient descriptive responses from the
participants, open-ended questions will be used (Creswell, 2015; Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Open-ended questions that probe and are interpretive were administered by the
researcher. The researcher will ensure that voice and tone levels used are a relaxed and
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gentle one to foster additional information and clarifications (Creswell, 2015; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016; Sorsa et al., 2015).
The researcher will put on formal attire. Dressing appropriately is crucial to the
process of interviewing. It brings a positive outlook to the entire process. The researcher
will eschew every overreacting behavior to responses from participants (Connaway &
Powell, 2010; Creswell, 2015; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). All the data gathered were
audio recorded. The transcription was done and data were analyzed and 45 to 60 minutes
were allotted for each interview.
Interview Site
Location for interview was very crucial for gathering information since there was
distortion and distraction. A serene and quiet enclosed environment was arranged for the
various schools selected for gathering data. The researcher was liaised with school
authorities for permission to get a perfect place such as described above.
Review of Interview Questions
Interview questions must be well formulated and well created in order to reach a
meaningful response. The researcher designed questions that stayed in line with
formulated research questions, the problem statement, and the purpose of study.
According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), it is important to lay the foundation for access
into perceptions and lived experiences of the participants by beginning the interview with
basic descriptive information about the phenomenon under study.
Again, to ensure that interview questions perfectly align with research question,
the purpose of study, and statement of the problem, the researcher sought the review of
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three selected experts to give their inputs on constructions, wordings, and propriety of
questions.
Institutional Review Board
This research study went through the approval of the Institutional Review Board
(IRB) as the first step of the process of the study. This is crucial for the credibility of the
study, since the board has the authority to “review proposals, checking that the proposed
research insures proper informed consent and safety for the participants.” (Bogdan &
Biklen, 2007, p. 45). Thus, getting permission to conduct this study was highly
important. It is the role and purpose the Institutional Review Board (IRB) to go through
and review educational research proposals before the study takes off in order to
determine whether the plan and design of research design satisfies the ethical standards of
the American Educational Research Association (Connaway & Powell, 2010; Creswell,
2015; Gall et al., 2007; McLaughlin, Dean, Mumper, Blouin, & Roth, 2013). Thusly, the
researcher submitted a proposal for research review after having reviewed Keiser
University’s IRB regulations and guidelines.
Informed Consent Letter
A letter of informed consent was submitted to the IRB for approval. It was
comprised of the seven major parts of informed consent as mentioned by Seidman (2013)
and Bogdan and Biklen (2007). The informed consent had the following:
1. Invitation,
2. risks,
3. rights,
4. possible benefits
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5. confidentiality of records
6. dissemination, and
7. contact information and copies of the form.
Invitation
The invitation requests participants to voluntarily participate in a study. It clearly
states the purpose of the study, and describes the research design, as well as time line
(Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Creswell, 2015; Gall et al., 2007; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016;
Seidman, 2013).
Risks
The potential risks and social consequences that participants might encounter as
they participate in the study are stated under the risk portion of the letter (Creswell, 2015;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Seidman, 2013).
Rights
This section of the informed consent letter states it is clearly the participants’
rights to decline or withdraw at any given time without any impediments or attracting any
penalty (Creswell, 2015; Seidman, 2013).
Possible Benefits
In this study, there were no benefits or rewards. This was stated clearly. There
should be no possible benefits or rewards such as gifts and stipends for participation that
will also be clearly outlined in the letter (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Creswell, 2015;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Seidman, 2013).
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Confidentiality of Records
For the sake of confidentiality, it was stated clearly in this portion of the letter,
steps that were taken by the researcher to ensure anonymity and privacy of participants.
For example, coding them by numbers or pseudonyms and keeping data in a secured safe
in the researcher’s office (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Connaway & Powell, 2010; Creswell,
2015; Gall et al., 2007; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Seidman, 2013; Unluer, 2012).
Dissemination
For example, through an article, a dissertation or a book were indicated in the
letter. This part of the consent form will indicate how the researcher will report the
results of the study (Creswell, 2015; Seidman, 2013).
Contact Information and Copies of the Form
This is the final portion of the letter where the participants were informed of the
contact information of the researcher and the local IRB and found copies of informed
consent form attached. The researcher will have the language of the informed consent
form written in a language participants are able to read and understand (Gall et al., 2007;
Seidman, 2013). The researcher included interview questions in the informed consent
letter. This final part of the informed consent form will also show the researcher’s
respect and appreciation for participant’s contribution (Creswell, 2015). Lastly, the
researcher will express in the letter, plans to establish a positive professional relationship
with participants as well as ethical consideration as regards to boundaries and
professional relationships (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Creswell, 2015; Delost & Nadder,
2014; McLaughlin et al., 2013; Terrell, 2012).
Merriam (2009) discussed a 13-step plan of qualitative research outline for the
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process of the study. This plan was followed by the researcher.
1. Get a design of the study: audience for study, setting for study, duration for
the study, and decide on how to conduct study;
2. Design research questions: construct open-ended, questions;
3. Apply to and acquire approval from the Keiser University IRB to conduct the
research study;
4. Get permission from colleges of the City University of New York to conduct
study;
5. Sample participants for the study;
6. Conduct a pilot interview (see Appendix A);
7. Schedule meeting times for participants to receive approval forms for the
study;
8. Conduct interviews with participants and collect data necessary;
9. Analyze collected data;
10. Validate data collected;
11. Advance results for the study;
12. Validate advanced results; and
13. Final process-report writing.
The steps above are important as they ensured that the researcher followed a procedure
that was systematic and also fostered validity as well as made the study reliable.
Data Analysis
Data analysis in this study was the modified van Kaam Method as propounded by
Moustakas (1994), with semi structured interview, recorded digitally, and transcribed.
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This method is recognized by most scholars as a method that guarantees data validation
(Omer, 2011). NVivo 10 was used to analyze the interview in order to describe,
understand the lived experiences of Ghanaian immigrant students in colleges. When data
were analyzed by NVivo 10 software, data mining was used to analyze data to identify
any themes from the NVivo 10 patterns drawn. The seven-step Modified van Kaam
method was applied as follows:
1. Do horizontalization.
2. Listing and preliminary grouping of interview transcribed;
3. Apply reduction and elimination to interview transcription;
4. Cluster and put into themes the invariant constituents of transcribed;
5. Conduct final identification of the invariant constituents and themes of
transcribed interview by application;
6. Use the relevant, validated invariant constituents and themes constructed for
each participant individual textural description of the experience;
7. Construct for each participant an individual structural description of
transcribed interview; and
8. Construct for each participant a textural structural description of the
experience (Becho Sullivan & Bhattacharya, 2017; Carter & Baghurst, 2014;
Dincer & Dincer, 2013).
Horizontalization
Using the principle of horizontalization, the researcher treated each and every
participant’s response with equal level of importance. Each transcribed response was
read several times in order to explore and gain a general sense of data. The researcher
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then made brief notes that related to the phenomenon (Becho Sullivan & Bhattacharya,
2017; Creswell, 2015; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The next step in horizontalization is
the researcher will group transcripts into itemized preliminary codes relevant to the
experience of participants (Awosan & Hardy, 2017; Becho Sullivan & Bhattacharya,
2017; Mason, Mayer, Chien, & Monestime, 2017; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Rodriguez
& Gill, 2011).
Reduction and Elimination for Invariant Constituents
This is the stage of data analysis where the researcher analyzes all the codes done
in the horizontalization phase to ascertain whether they are worth including. At this
moment, the researcher removes ambiguous and overlapping descriptive expressions
from participants and then narrows the codes into a list of categories called invariant
constituents (Becho Sullivan & Bhattacharya, 2017; Mason et al., 2017).
Constructing Individual Textural Descriptions
When the invariant constituents have been listed, the researcher uses validated
codes and themes, as well as direct statements made from the interview transcribed to
create textural descriptive themes to paint a reflexive description of the participants’ lived
experiences as Ghanaian immigrant students (Awosan & Hardy, 2017; Becho Sullivan &
Bhattacharya, 2017; Mason et al., 2017).
Constructing Individual Structural Descriptions
This is the next stage in which the researcher combined individual textural
descriptions imaginative variations. The researcher had to suspend all previous
experiences and biases so the structure of the participants’ experiences could be described
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from various perspectives or from different lenses (Becho Sullivan & Bhattacharya,
2017; Carter & Baghurst, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Constructing a Textural-Structured Description
This is the stage where the researcher will put all the descriptions in both the
individual textural descriptions and individual structural descriptions to construct vivid
description of the experiences (Awosan & Hardy, 2017; Becho Sullivan & Bhattacharya,
2017; Carter & Baghurst, 2014; Mason et al., 2017).
Final Composite Description of the Meanings and Essence of all the Participants
The final stage is where the researcher develops a composite description
representing the essence and meaning of the lived experiences of Ghanaian immigrant
students (Becho Sullivan & Bhattacharya, 2017; Carter & Baghurst, 2014; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016).
Validity and Reliability
In all research findings, accuracy, credibility, consistency, and transferability are
crucial, and that is what validity and reliability involve (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Validity and reliability indicate responses gathered from the participants are generally
true and are applicable to others in variant settings (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Connaway
& Powell, 2010; Creswell, 2015; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
In order to ensure validity and reliability in this study, the researcher will
incorporate the following strategies for promoting validity and reliability as
recommended by Merriam and Tisdell (2016). These are “member checks/respondent
validation, adequate engagement in data collection, researcher’s position or reflexivity,
peer review/examination, audit trail, rich thick descriptions, and maximum variation” (p.
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259). In these, there were active engagements of participants in interviews in order to
reach the needed saturation level for data collection. The researcher did what Merriam
and Tisdell (2016) and Creswell (2015) described as respondent validation where
transcriptions were taken back to the participants to verify whether they were plausible or
not. Finally, the researcher did peer reviews where there were discussions on the study
with colleagues whose views and interpretation on the study processed could help
strengthen validity and reliability.
Researcher Bias/Researcher Role
Researcher bias crawls into a research study when interviewer’s or researchers
‘prejudices, presumption, and past experiences influence data collection, data analysis,
and interpretation to increase the propensity of acquiring the desired results (Bogdan &
Biklen, 2007; Connaway & Powell, 2010) in one way or the other. The following may
constitute but not limited to researcher bias:
1. Asking participants leading and multiple questions,
2. expressing of emotions over participants’ responses,
3. the posture of the researcher during interviews, and
4. sharing of opinion over participants’ responses (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016;
Seidman, 2013; Sorsa et al., 2015).
Preventing Researchers’ Bias in Data Analysis
Qualitative research scholars believe that the nature of data in qualitative research
makes it impossible or difficult for the researcher to separate self from the data (Carlson,
2010; Connaway & Powell, 2010; Creswell, 2015; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Thusly, in
order to keep objectivity and avoid bias data analysis of this study, the research will apply
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the following steps (Carlson, 2010; Connaway & Powell, 2010; Creswell, 2015; Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016):
1. The researcher used multiple people to code the data.
In a case where there are consistencies between the researcher’s interpretation and
that of others, then there is the higher likelihood that similar interpretations will establish
that there is some truth by agreement in interpretations.
2. The researcher will make participants review results.
In this case the researcher will ask the participants who provided the data to tell
whether interpretations reflect their beliefs.
3. The researcher will verify through the use of more data sources.
This is also known as triangulation. If other sources of data support the
researcher’s interpretations, it will suffice it to gather confidence in the legitimacy of
results.
4. Checking for possible alternative explanations.
This is where the researcher will consider if there are other reasons for which data
have been obtained. When the researcher has been able to rule out and/or account for
alternative explanations for data collected, then interpretations will be much stronger.
5. Review findings with colleagues or peers.
The researcher will ask colleagues to review reached conclusions. This will
enable a fresh pair of eyes to see things that might have been missed or it will help
identify any gaps in the researcher’s argument that need to be addressed. Reviewing can
establish affirmation that the researcher’s conclusions are sound, objective, and
reasonable in relation to collected data.
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Trustworthiness
When the researcher has established valid and reliable knowledge in an ethical
manner, then the results of the study can be considered trustworthy (Connelly, 2013;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). One thing which is crucial in qualitative research is
trustworthiness. This is because it establishes that there has been some rigor and
transparency in methodology, data collection, data analysis, and data interpretation,
thusly, results can be implemented with all confidence (Carlson, 2010; Connelly, 2013;
Loh, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Trustworthiness is a composite of four important
ingredients namely: credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability
(Connelly, 2013).
Credibility
Creswell (2015) posited that credibility has to do with having confidence in the
findings of a study which is similar to internal validity in quantitative research.
Credibility is of much importance and cannot be overemphasized since scholars
interested in the study will always seek to find out whether standard designs and
procedures accepted by the research community were employed (Connelly, 2013;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Strategies to ensure credibility. To establish credibility in this study, the
researcher used two major strategies.
1. Prolong engagement with participants in the course of data collection to make
sure that data reached a saturated level (Connelly, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell,
2016).
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2. The researcher will purposefully use maximum variation where sample
chosen is taken from diverse backgrounds and locations (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). In this study, after all the interviews had been transcribed and coded,
the researcher conducted member checking with all the participants via e-mail
to authenticate his or her interpretations (Creswell, 2015; Merriam & Tisdell,
2016; Vianden, 2012).
Mistakes that affect credibility negatively. There are two common mistakes
that could negatively affect the credibility of a qualitative research. These are the
absence of audit trail and lack of thick description during data collection and report
writing (Carlson, 2010; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). According to Carlson (2010), the
credibility of a research study could be questionable in the case where auditors come
trailing after field notes, descriptive notes, photographs, and audio and video tapes which
have not been kept for at least five years after the study (Creswell, 2015). To prevent
such mistakes from audit trails, the researcher will keep records gathered from the study.
Dependability
Dependability also means reliability. Thusly, in this research study, the
researcher adopted all necessary steps that ensured that findings were stable and endured
the test of time and circumstances of the study. This is crucial for the study since readers
need to experience the study with confidence (Connelly, 2013). The researcher will also
follow appropriate steps to ensure that research findings are replicable, having the
capacity to produce similar results (Creswell, 2015; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Ensuring dependability. The researcher will totally devote to the study and sort
through the data thoroughly to find themes that are recurring by eliminating overlapping
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areas (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Readers will be given enough details outlined to how
the researcher reached the conclusion of the study in the methodology section of the
study (Ang, Embi, & Yunus, 2016).
Mistakes that negatively affect dependability. Two common mistakes affect
dependability in research. These come when there is the situation of lack of thick
description and enough information on reflexivity as well as a lack of how reflexivity was
managed. When the researcher does not provide much information on the framework of
data collection and analysis, it deprives research study of dependability (Creswell, 2015;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Confirmability
According to Connelly (2013), a research finding is deemed confirmable when it
is neutral, consistent, and is replicable. It is important for the researcher to be
confirmable in qualitative research because it establishes that the findings reached in a
research study are not affected by any bias or prejudice of any kind (Connelly, 2013).
Ensuring confirmability. In order to ensure confirmability, the researcher
utilized the following:
1. member checks/respondent validation;
2. audit trail of analysis; and
3. complete transcription.
The researcher utilized member checking continuously and examine data regularly in
order to establish accuracy of interpretation and verification of reality (Carlson, 2010;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Also important was that the researcher documented a detailed
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account of the methods and procedures with very clear descriptions, making sure that all
information was documented (Carlson, 2010; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Mistakes that can negatively impact confirmability. Carlson (2010) asserted
that condensation of narratives during transcribing, inadequate engagement in data
collection as well as lack of peer review examinations negatively affect confirmability in
a research study. Qualitative research scholars have observed that many times
researchers do not complete transcription of data, instead, they condense the narrative in
order to make it flow. Not employing peer researchers to examine methods and
procedures makes the study void of confirmability (Carlson, 2010; Creswell, 2015;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In this study, the researcher followed every necessary step to
avoid mistakes.
Transferability
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) mentioned that in the case where a study lacks
transferability, its trustworthiness is questionable. Transferability implies that there is the
quality of generalizability (Connaway & Powell, 2010). In effect, the data gathered from
the participants are deemed trustworthy and replicable in relation to other participants in
another setting (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Connaway & Powell, 2010; Merriam & Tisdell,
2016).
Ensuring transferability. Because transferability is a very essential element
needed in a research study, the researcher will take every possible step necessary to
ensure transferability, thus including self-reflexivity and maximum variation (Creswell,
2015; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In this study, the researcher will clearly make known
his assumptions and background that could impact the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
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In effect, the researcher will keep a journal of the record of his reflective feelings, beliefs,
and emotions that might come up throughout the study so the final report can record
conclusions and information that should be changed or avoided in future research projects
(Carlson, 2010). Data were gathered from diverse samples from different locations and
backgrounds for this study, including three colleges and selected for sampling (Carlson,
2010; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Mistakes that can negatively impact transferability. According to Merriam
and Tisdell (2016), mistakes of transferability occur when a research study lacks enough
descriptive data for readers to assess the similarities, and when the researcher does not
pay attention to maximum variation sampling, thereby not having the opportunity to
document diverse cases for identifying similar patterns.
Ethical Considerations
In a phenomenological study, the researcher interacts with individuals who come
from various walks of life with unique ethnic, socio-cultural, socio-economic, and socio-
political backgrounds by exploring their perceptions, feelings, and experiences about a
phenomenon (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Thusly, it is highly important that researchers
utilizing phenomenological approaches take a closer look at ethical concerns that are
potentially harmful to participants of the study before, during, and after the research (Gall
et al., 2007).
Ethical Consideration and Data Collection
In this study, the researcher took every step possible to ensure that ethical
considerations were adhered to. Thus, the researcher maintained professionalism in this
study through demonstrating honesty, respect, and openness when soliciting participants
75
for the study (Connaway & Powell, 2010; Creswell, 2015). The researcher ensured that
informed consent forms were discussed and signed by each participant. Participants were
encouraged to keep copies of the signed consent forms before the researchers began data
collection (Creswell, 2015). The researcher abided by all the dictates of the IRB’s
regulations and protocols for research to ensure that participants were well informed and
had given consent for the study (Connaway & Powell, 2010; Creswell, 2015; Gall et al.,
2007). The researcher created a mutually respectful, professional climate for participants.
The researcher also debriefed and interacted with participants before the study started
(Connaway & Powell, 2010; Creswell, 2015).
Ethical Consideration and Data Analysis
The researcher did not allow any previous experience impact the study.
Prejudice, bias, and personally feelings were discarded, and data analysis was approached
with freeness of mind and objectivity (Creswell, 2015; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Sorsa et
al., 2015). Participants will not be made validators of this study (Creswell, 2015;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). As mentioned earlier, the researcher will have discussions
with peers in respect of the entire process of the study, and its tentative interpretations
(Creswell, 2015; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Participants will be made anonymous and
privacy is of high importance (Creswell, 2015; Unluer, 2012). As a duty, the researcher
will protect participants’ privacy through number - coding or with pseudonyms
(Creswell, 2015; Unluer, 2012).
Conclusion
In this study, the researcher purported to explore the lived experiences Ghanaian
immigrant students in the United States. In order to reach the goal of this study, the
76
researcher chose interpretive phenomenological design as an aspect of qualitative
methodology. The researcher deemed this aspect of qualitative methodology very
appropriate, as it aligns with the research questions and weaves into the entire study.
Interview questions were administered to participants, and their response were gathered
as data. Data collected were accorded due respect and confidentiality. The researcher
chose the modified Van Kaaam’s method for data analysis in this study. Every necessary
step or strategy was taken to ensure validity and reliability, and ethical standards were
employed to make this study achieve its fullness and completeness.
77
CHAPTER 4. RESULTS
This interpretive phenomenological study sought to explore and understand the
meaningfulness and essence of the lived experiences of Ghanaian immigrant students in
college. Thus, this chapter presents the results of the study based on the eight-step
approach of the modified Van Kam method propounded by Moustakas (1994). The
researcher selected this approach given that it is revered by most scholars as a method
that guarantees data validation (Welch, 2011, 2014). The results of the study will be
discussed as follows in the following topics: demographics and setting, the data analysis,
presentation of findings, and chapter summary. This research study was guided by three
research questions.
Research Questions
1. How do Ghanaian immigrant students describe their educational experience?
2. What challenges do Ghanaian immigrant students face in college?
3. What challenges outside college life affect Ghanaian immigrant students’
Demographics and Setting
The participants sampled for this study included eight Ghanaian immigrant
students from Bronx Community College. Phenomenological design experts endorse
utilizing small sample sizes and as a result, the researcher chose eight participants for a
deeper understanding of the phenomenon in relation to the meaningfulness and essence of
the lived experiences of Ghanaian immigrant students in college (Kruth, 2015; Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016; Sebem, 2011). The table below shows the demographics of participants
sampled for the study.
78
Table 2
Demographics of Ghanaian Immigrant Students Sampled for the Study
Ghanaian Previous
Immigrant Number of Years in
Gender Educational
Students College
Level in Ghana
Participant A 3 Female High School
Participant B 2 Female High School
Participant C 2 Male Polytechnic
Participant D 2 Male High School
Participant E 3 Female College
Participant F 2 Male High School
Participant G 1½ Female High School
Participant H 3 Male College
Note. Participants were sampled from the Bronx Community College
Presentation of Findings
In this research, findings were assigned into six major themes and one sub theme.
This is based on the invariant constituents (patterns that depict meanings) that emerged
from the analysis made from the study. Similar codes were grouped into major themes
and sub-themes as developed from the research questions of the study. NVivo
transcription was used to transcribe the recorded audio interview files and the researcher
manually coded both the invariant constituents and major themes. This section of the
study presents the major themes, sub-theme, the invariant constituents as well as
frequency count which data analysis derives. In the tables below, the researcher presents
the transcribed data from major and minor themes derived from the three research
questions. Each table presents responses given by eight participants derived from three
research questions.
RQ1. How do Ghanaian immigrant students describe their educational experience?
79
Table 3
Responses from Major Theme 1, Major Theme 2, and Sub-Theme 1
Participant Participant Quotes

A In Ghana we speak English but anytime I speak to my mates in college,
they just keep asking what I said; it is very embarrassing. It is not easy to
live in another person’s country, there are many times I wept because I
had missed my former school, my friends, my family and my brothers. I
felt I was not part of the people around. Everyone is busy, and nobody is
ready to listen if you want to talk to some people. Other Ghanaian
students who are already in the college are either going to work or busy
with something. It was not easy for me. I left Ghana when I won the DV
lottery. I was in the first year in the university; I mean a freshman. When
I started this college, I found things were entirely different, classroom,
out on campus, and interacting with the people I met in the college. I was
totally confused because I could not understand the system. For me, I
could not understand the classroom; I could not understand the entire
environment.
B Sometimes she made me repeat many words because she could not
understand. Sometimes when I raise my hand to ask a question, she
would not ask me to speak just because she could not understand me well.
Those who are born in America and have attended school here have their
friends and mates. If there is no African or a Ghanaian in the class, it is
difficult for me to be with them. Besides, most of them are not receptive
to immigrant students from Africa, I think so.
C For the first semester, I went class depressed and unhappy. I was in the
class, but my mind was absent all because I could not understand what
they were saying. I waited after class to speak to my mates. I was so shy
to speak to the professor.
D It is was not easy for me in the first three semesters. What is good about
American education is that you can go to the professor’s office to ask
him/her about what you don’t understand. At one time I went to my
History professor to ask him about a sentence he underlined, he said the
sentence did not make sense. I lost marks for it. Sometimes the problems
were too many and I did not know who to turn to for help; I felt like I had
been left out. I could stay in my room and cry and did not even feel like
coming to school. They said many things at the freshman orientation, but
I didn’t understand anything, and this got me really disappointed and sad.
You see, Ghana is different, and the way things are done here in America
is different. I even felt like I wanted to stop schooling because the whole
thing was confusing. Even during orientation for freshman, I could not
understand anything, I was just confused and disappointed.
E When I speak in class, they just say ‘Huh! Huh!’ as if I do not speak
English but a different language, so how could I go to their group? And
80
sometimes they speak so fast and the professor too, and I don’t
understand them. I just missed my family, and all I want is for my mom
or my siblings to talk to me when I have too much schoolwork, most of
them difficult for me to understand. I needed comfort from my family.
Sometimes I bought phone cards to call them and that got me okay, but I
could not buy cards every day.
F I always ask questions in class because the professors speak very fast.
My classmates also speak very fast. As a Ghanaian, I find it so difficult to
understand the American English if it is not slowed down. It caused
problems in class, some of my mates complained and murmured that I
was slowing them down. I just did not feel happy, I don’t know why but
I believe that the new school was not getting well with me. I just felt
depressed, in fact, unhappy but I continued to attend classes because I
was determined to study in the United States; not all Ghanaians back
home have the opportunity. Sometimes I was depressed in class because
I did not understand anything because they speak fast; I asked too many
questions when couldn’t understand and my mates would complain. This
got me so depressed. I was really confused because in Ghana teachers
give notes and explain assignments. Here the professor will just ask you
to go to the blackboard; and many times, I don’t understand what they
say, and these bring me a lot of confusion.
G My mates said I have an accent and they would always want to make me
repeat the words I speak in class. It was like, anything I said, they could
not understand. I felt that was very embarrassing. I had tried to get a B
grade in English, but my professor would not give it even though he
could not point out any mistakes. I went to the writing center and had the
paper checked but no matter how I tried, he just would not change the C
grade. He mentioned that English in America is different. I was very
depressed the whole semester because of this. I felt he did not want to
give me the grade because I am Ghanaian.
RQ2. What challenges do Ghanaian immigrant students face in college?
Table 4
Responses from Major Theme 3 and Major Theme 4

A The biggest challenge, in fact I call it the biggest challenge because it
affected me so much, is the use of the computer. You see in Ghana; we
did not type assignments in school. My school did not even have
computers for students; I did not have to register courses online, and I did
not have to go see the course syllabus online. Almost all the professors
assumed I knew how to use the computer. Actually, other Ghanaian
students had the same problem. I did not know how to use the computer
and the professor would not take assignments written by hand. I did not
81
know how to register courses online. Sometimes, I had to reach out to
people in the IT department for help, but it is frustrating when people sit
with you to help you. I had to type with one finger one letter at a time.
When other students were done, I was late. Sometimes we had to post
assignments online; it was difficult and challenging because I did not
know how to do it. No one would want to sit you down to teach you.
They just assume everyone is knowledgeable in the use of the internet
and the computer. When I got to New York, I came to live with my
parents who were already here two years earlier. My Dad said to me that
this place was a place of struggle and that he had filed for me to come so
the rest was for me to fend for myself. I worked to get money to care for
myself and to pay my tuition. Money was a problem for me. When I
started, I could not work full time because of the school, but I found that
if I did not work more, I could not pay my tuition, so I took a full-time
job. It is not easy for me though.
B I am not qualified for financial aid, so I have to work to pay my school
fees. So, this is a great difficulty or challenge for me. When it is getting
to the time to pay fees, I get worried. I try to work and attend classes. In
order to get money for my fees I have to work at night. So apart from
other problems, I always have to deal with the finance aspect also.
Sometimes I sleep in class because I am tired and nothing my professor
teaches is absorbed. Apart from paying my tuition, I have to pay my rent
every month and feed myself. All these require money, so it is a
challenge. Most classmates especially those who are from here do not
have this challenge that I face. They just attend classes free of all
problems such as mine, but I try to overcome this financial challenge by
working hard to combine both school and work.
C I had very little experience in the use of the internet for schooling. In
America, teachers ask you to do everything online. Research online,
assignment online, class discussions online and so on. They call it the
blackboard. It was a difficult time for me. I did not do all that in Ghana.
Other classmates especially those who attended high school in America
or were born here had no problems, I think they did all these in the high
school. In Ghana, we did not do this. I paid tuition by myself until I got
my financial aid. In my first two semesters, I worked on part-time, but it
was not enough, so I had a little support from my parents though not was
not always. This financial obligation got me scared every time because I
had to always think of paying my tuition.
D I think there should be a way to help other Ghanaians like me in college
because I do not know much about how to use computers. I have had to
always ask people to help me. I get late with assignments and most of the
time I lose points because I have to pay people to type assignments for
me. It is not my fault; I just did not use computers. In my class, most of
my American mates have laptops and know how to use the internet and
they know how to do their works on Microsoft office. It is tough for me.
82
Financially, it is not easy for me as a student. Because I am alone, I cater
for myself. I must pay my rent and other things. At the same time, I have
to help people at home. So, you know I must add my job to my school
time. You know in Ghana once you are in America, your family perceive
you as rich. They call you every day with their problems. So, I always
must struggle with financial difficulties, not for my tuition only, but for
my own personal life.
E I did not learn anything about computers in Ghana. When I go to class,
the professors gave assignments to be done typed and printed. I did not
even know how to use an email or have one. Things were difficult. Even
though it’s okay today, I believe the school could have helped in the
beginning. It was a big problem when I delayed turning in my
assignments. It made me miserable going to class. Honestly, I cut
classes. I felt uncomfortable going to ask people for help. When you
don’t have any help financially it is very difficult. When my father lost
his job, it became a great worry. I had to look for a job and work to make
money. At one time I did not take any class during the whole semester. I
just worked to get some money for school. When I made enough money,
I went back to school. Sometimes other mates wondered why you have
not completed school; the financial problems get worse.
F I never schooled in the city. I did my elementary and high school in the
village area. The computer was never my friend. I had not even moved a
mouse until I got to the United States. Using the blackboard was a
problem for me. The professors will always ask us to go to the
blackboard. I knew the blackboard was just the board on which my
teachers wrote. Now I was like: what blackboard is he talking about? I
fall on friends to help me. I always delay my assignments. If I could
hand write assignments, there would be no problems. I was embarrassed
because I worried most friends to help me learn how to use the computer,
navigate the school’s website, write assignments, write discussions and so
on. The issue of technology was a really very big stress for me. In the
first two semesters, I was always stressed and worried about this
computer-blackboard stuff. When I got the opportunity to come to study
in the United States, some people spent on my trip and I was expected to
pay them back when I got to the United States. Even though I had started
school, I had to work to pay these people back and to pay my tuition.
This was a great struggle. I worked to pay my tuition and paid these
helpers at the same time. I had to help my mom back at home. The
responsibility was too much, but I had to work hard. I have deferred two
semesters since I started school because I could not cope with the
financial pressure. I had to take two jobs, but I know I will make it.
H In my experience as a student, I want to say that I feel so happy to have
the privilege to be in America to study in college, but you know one thing
that has been a big problem for me. I mean a major challenge when I
started this college? I just could not handle the use of the blackboard and
using the internet, not to talk about assignments. In class almost every
83
assignment must be sent to the professor online. I did not do this in
Ghana. I am still learning but this is very depressing for me.
RQ3. What challenges outside college life affect Ghanaian immigrant students’
Table 5
Responses from Major Themes 5 and Major Theme 6

A When I began college there were a few problems with my immigration
status and it was a great worry for me. Sometimes, I could not go to
school because I was afraid, I would be arrested. Even when I applied for
scholarship the school authorities needed my complete documents. I did
not have them, it made life very difficult on campus. In America it is not
easy for me. The obligations are many; and as immigrant student on your
own, you must work to pay bills. Doing both is where the problem is.
By the time you come from school, you are tired. Many times, I have
failed to turn in assignments on time. I come back from work tired. I
leave home for work and from work to school. I have very little time to
rest.
B My student visa expired, and I had a problem renewing it. During this
period, there was a lot of stress for me. The college needed that
document for everything. I could not focus on anything but by God’s
grace it went through. It is a lot of stress if you have a documentation
problem
C I have no alternative than to work. As a Ghanaian I have the obligation to
help my family, so I must work. The work and school are a very heavy
challenge. Sometimes I feel like just leaving school and just going to
work
D My immigration papers were being processed when I started college. I
never had any response from the department of USCIS until during my
third semester. When it was denied, it was a big problem for me. I could
not study, and even failed an exam because I could not concentrate. It
was a big problem for me, I was depressed, and needed comfort. When I
come back to school from the night shift, I am exhausted. Apparently, I
doze off while the teacher teaches. It is a big challenge, meanwhile I
can’t stop working. If I do, I would have to stop schooling. I know it is
affecting me, but I have no choice I just keep trying.
E When your papers are not intact, one is not okay. It was a difficulty I had
to work hard on to get things in place. For example; I needed money to
renew my visa, it affected my work. Meanwhile I needed money; this
was a very difficult time.
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F I took two jobs. I had classes from morning to 2 p.m. I worked from 3
p.m. to 11 p.m. and from 12 a.m. to 7 a.m. I am always tired. I can’t pay
my bills if I stop, and I have to go to school. I am sure that if I do
fulltime school like other students who are not immigrants, I should be
one of the best. But it is a wonderful experience and I love the challenge.
G I was always worried about my legal documents. My parents had filed
for me. It was taking too long. Recently we hear that President Trump is
deporting people and this scares me so much, especially when my
documents have not been approved. I do not know who might ask me
anything. Sometimes going to school is scary.
Discussions on Major Themes and Sub-themes
In the tables above data for each research question were put together. The tables
below look at the individual response from participants according to derived themes.
Major Theme 1: Ghanaian immigrant students have language difficulties (MT 1)
Table 6
Individual Responses of Participants for MT1

In Ghana we speak English but anytime I speak to my mates in college,
A
they just keep asking what I said; it is very embarrassing.
Sometimes she made me repeat many words because she could not
B understand. Sometimes when I raise my hand to ask a question, she
would not ask me to speak just because she could not understand me well.
It is was not easy for me in the first three semesters. What is good about
American education is that you can go to the professor’s office to ask
D him/her about what you don’t understand. At one time I went to my
History professor to ask him about a sentence he underlined, he said the
sentence did not make sense. I lost marks for it.
When I speak in class, they just say ‘Huh! Huh!’ as if I do not speak
English but a different language, so how could I go to their group? And
E
sometimes they speak so fast and the professor too, and I don’t understand
them.
I always ask questions in class because the professors speak very fast. My
classmates also speak very fast. As a Ghanaian, I find it so difficult to
F understand the American English if it is not slowed down. It caused
problems in class, some of my mates complained and murmured that I
was slowing them down.
My mates said I have an accent and they would always want to make me
G repeat the words I speak in class. It was like, anything I said, they could
not understand. I felt that was very embarrassing
85
The first research question generated the theme showing that Ghanaian immigrant
students face language difficulties even though they speak English in their home
countries. Participant A described her experience as embarrassing in the beginning of her
first year. Her classmates could not understand her English and kept asking her what she
said. Thus, it was embarrassing to her. Participant B pointed out that because her
professor could not understand most words in her pronunciation; it made her
uncomfortable. For example, in class, the professor made her repeat words because she
(the professor) could not understand what was being said and sometimes the professor
would not ask her to speak even if her hand was raised to contribute in class.
Participant D also experienced issues related to language. He disclosed that some
of the sentences he wrote in essays were underlined as wrong because Americans do not
use them in their vocabulary. Participant D divulged that he went to his history professor
to ask why he underlined a sentence only to be told it was not used in America and that
the sentence did not make sense. In effect, the professor could not give any grammatical
reasons for seeing the sentence unacceptable.
To add, Participant E divulged having issues of language difficulty. She stated
that because of her accent she was not comfortable being with a group the professor had
assigned and preferred to be in the group with other Africans since she knew they were
not going to understand her. Participant E did not want to be in any activity because
classmates’ attitude toward her accent deterred her from taking part.
Participant F pointed it out clearly that language is a problem he faced; and he
struggled to overcome it especially in the first year since it impacted on his studies
especially in group and class work. His classmates always said he had an accent and
86
made him repeat his words. He felt like anything he said was not understood by his
mates. Finally, Participant G lamented that most of her mates looked down upon his
English Language. He divulged that he argued many times with students because most of
his American classmates did not know that Ghana is an English-speaking country.
Major Theme 2: Ghanaian immigrant students experience alienation and
depression (MT 2)
Table 7

It is not easy to live in another person’s country, there are many times I
wept because I had missed my former school, my friends, my family and
my brothers. I felt I was not part of the people around. Everyone is busy,
A
and nobody is ready to listen if you want to talk to some people. Other
Ghanaian students who are already in the college are either going to work
or busy with something. It was not easy for me.
Those who are born in America and have attended school here have their
friends and mates. If there is no African or a Ghanaian in the class, it is
B
difficult for me to be with them. Besides, most of them are not receptive
to immigrant students from Africa, I think so.
For the first semester I went to the class depressed and unhappy. I was in
the class, but my body was absent all because I could not understand what
C
they were saying. I waited after class to ask my mates. I was so shy to
even speak with the professor.
Sometimes the problems were too many and I did not know who to turn to
for help; I felt like I had been left out. I could stay in my room and cry
D and did not even feel like coming to school. They said many things at the
freshman orientation, but I didn’t understand anything, and this got me
really disappointed and sad.
I just missed my family, and all I want is for my mom or my siblings to
talk to me when I have too much schoolwork, most of them difficult for
E me to understand. I needed comfort from my family. Sometimes I
bought phone cards to call them and that got me okay, but I could not buy
cards every day.
I just did not feel happy, I don’t know why but I believe that the new
school was not getting well with me. I just felt depressed, in fact,
F unhappy but I continued to attend classes because I was determined to
study in the United States; not all Ghanaians back home have the
opportunity. Sometimes I was depressed in class because I did not
87
understand anything because they speak fast; I asked too many questions
when couldn’t understand and my mates would complain. This got me so
depressed.
I had tried to get a B grade in English, but my professor would not give it
even though he could not point out any mistakes. I went to the writing
center and had the paper checked but no matter how I tried, he just would
G
not change the C grade. He mentioned that English in America is
different. I was very depressed the whole semester because of this. I felt
he did not want to give me the grade because I am Ghanaian.
The second theme which was addressed in the study expressed by most of the
participants was: Ghanaian immigrant students experience alienation and depression. Six
participants divulged that they experienced depression and alienation in the course of
their studies in college. Participant A stated that everything done in the college was
different from what she experienced in Ghana, and she felt things were difficult and made
her unhappy, homesick and depressed. She mentioned she wept many times because she
had missed her former school, family and friends, observing that everyone in college was
busy and there was no one to talk to.
In relation to the second theme above, Participant B remarked that she walked on
campus as a loner because she did not have friends since other mates had their teams who
were not Africans or Ghanaians and she always felt left out in class and out on the
campus. Participant C stated that he was totally thrown into a depressed state because he
did not know what was going in the classroom. He could not understand what was going
on because everyone spoke so fast in their American slang. He could not understand
them because the English was different.
Participant D expressed that he was not familiar with the environment and did not
know where to go for help when he began the college, and the things they learned at the
88
orientation were not well understood, which consequently led to feelings of depression
and alienation. He mentioned he did not know who to turn to for help.
Participant E divulged that she missed her family and felt like she wanted to go
back to Ghana because she studied in America alone and the pressures of the educational
experience brought her into unhappiness and loneliness: Sometimes she needed to stay in
contact with relatives in Ghana by buying phone cards to call, but she could not keep
buying phone cards forever.
Participant F pointed out that in the first two semesters he just struggled with
feelings of depression especially after class at the end of the day because he felt that the
sudden change in the educational environment could not just sit well with him. He
mentioned that he just felt unhappy and missed his family. Participant G narrated a
situation that caused him much unhappiness throughout a semester. His professor
refused to give a B grade even after he worked on an essay in the writing center with
experienced tutors of English.
Sub-Theme 1: Ghanaian immigrant students get confused in the classroom (ST)
Table 8
Individual Responses of Participants for ST1

I left Ghana when I won the DV lottery. I was in the first year in the
university; I mean a freshman. When I started this college, I found things
were entirely different, classroom, out on campus, and interacting with the
A
people I met in the college. I was totally confused because I could not
understand the system. For me, I could not understand the classroom; I
could not understand the entire environment.
You see Ghana is different and the way things are done here in America is
different. I even felt like I wanted to stop schooling because the whole
D
thing was confusing. Even during orientation for freshman, I could not
understand anything, I was just confused and disappointed.
89
I was really confused because in Ghana teachers give notes and explain
assignments. Here the professor will just ask you to go to the blackboard;
F
and many times, I don’t understand what they say, and these bring me a
lot of confusion.
As the researcher analyzed data gathered, one sub theme was obvious that
expressed that Ghanaian immigrant students often go through a state of confusion. Three
participants divulged they experienced confusion. Participant A observed that she had
come straight from Ghana after winning the DV lottery. However, she found so many
things were different entirely, and she could not understand the classroom.
Participant D also divulged that he was confused in the first semester because
everything seemed different and he was virtually confused. Meanwhile participant F
affirmed that as a Ghanaian immigrant student he found it extremely confusing the way
things were done in college especially in the classroom.
Major Theme 3: Lack of or no knowledge of technology use (MT 3)
Table 9

The biggest challenge, in fact I call it the biggest challenge because it
affected me so much, is the use of the computer. You see in Ghana; we
did not type assignments in school. My school did not even have
computers for students; I did not have to register courses online, and I
did not have to go see the course syllabus online. Almost all the
professors assumed I knew how to use the computer. Actually, other
Ghanaian students had the same problem. I did not know how to use the
computer and the professor would not take assignments written by hand.
A
I did not know how to register courses online. Sometimes, I had to reach
out to people in the IT department for help, but it is frustrating when
people sit with you to help you. I had to type with one finger one letter
at a time. When other students were done, I was late. Sometimes we
had to post assignments online; it was difficult and challenging because I
did not know how to do it. No one would want to sit you down to teach
you. They just assume everyone is knowledgeable in the use of the
internet and the computer.
90
I had very little experience in the use of the internet for schooling. In
America, teachers ask you to do everything online. Research online,
assignment online, class discussions online and so on. They call it the
C blackboard. It was a difficult time for me. I did not do all that in Ghana.
Other classmates especially those who attended high school in America
or were born here had no problems, I think they did all these in the high
school. In Ghana, we did not do this.
I think there should be a way to help other Ghanaians like me in college
because I do not know much about how to use computers. I have had to
always ask people to help me. I get late with assignments and most of
the time I lose points because I have to pay people to type assignments
D
for me. It is not my fault; I just did not use computers. In my class, most
of my American mates have laptops and know how to use the internet
and they know how to do their works on Microsoft office. It is tough for
me.
I did not learn anything about computers in Ghana. When I go to class,
the professors gave assignments to be done typed and printed. I did not
even know how to use an email or have one. Things were difficult. Even
E though it’s okay today, I believe the school could have helped in the
beginning. It was a big problem when I delayed turning in my
assignments. It made me miserable going to class. Honestly, I cut
classes. I felt uncomfortable going to ask people for help.
I never schooled in the city. I did my elementary and high school in the
village area. The computer was never my friend. I had not even moved a
mouse until I got to the United States. Using the blackboard was a
problem for me. The professors will always ask us to go to the
blackboard. I knew the blackboard was just the board on which my
teachers wrote. Now I was like: what blackboard is he talking about? I
F fall on friends to help me. I always delay my assignments. If I could
hand write assignments, there would be no problems. I was embarrassed
because I worried most friends to help me learn how to use the computer,
navigate the school’s website, write assignments, write discussions and so
on. The issue of technology was a really very big stress for me. In the
first two semesters, I was always stressed and worried about this
computer-blackboard stuff.
In my experience as a student, I want to say that I feel so happy to have
the privilege to be in America to study in college, but you know one thing
that has been a big problem for me. I mean a major challenge when I
H started this college? I just could not handle the use of the blackboard and
using the internet, not to talk about assignments. In class almost every
assignment must be sent to the professor online. I did not do this in
Ghana. I am still learning but this is very depressing for me.
The third major theme in the analysis showed that Ghanaian immigrant students
have no knowledge or lack knowledge in technology use which is a major challenge in
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their educational experience. Six participants expressed their lack of knowledge or
having no knowledge of the use of technology.
Participant A expressed her frustration at how the need to use technology is a
challenge especially at the beginning of the college experience. She acknowledged that
her biggest challenge was how to use technology as a Ghanaian immigrant student
because all professors assumed all students could use the computer.
Participant C also expressed the challenges faced as he struggled with the use of
technology. He pointed out that it was very difficult dealing with the issue of technology
because he knew very little about computers.
Participant D acknowledged that technology use is a great difficulty in his
educational experience. He expressed that it was tough for him since his classmates were
conversant with using the computer and most of them had laptops. He expressed that he
had no idea on how to use Microsoft word because he did not do that in Ghana.
Participant E divulged that difficulties were encountered because of having no
knowledge of use of computers, a problem that affected him in relation to attending class.
He divulged that professors wanted their assignments typed and printed and some wanted
their submitted online. He continued that this was very frustrating for him, making him
miserable and consequently making him cut classes sometimes.
Participant F intimated that one of the biggest challenges he has had in college is
the struggle with using the computer. He stated that he felt embarrassed as he was not a
savvy at using the internet. He could not navigate the school’s website. He divulged that
he had to depend on friends for help since he had never moved a computer mouse before
coming to the
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Participant H stated that even though he had done one year of college in Ghana
before coming into the United States, the college experience in the United States was
totally different and difficult for him because he had very little knowledge of the use of
computers, and had to work very hard to be able to stay normal as every student.
Major Theme 4: Ghanaian Immigrant Students Face Financial Difficulties (MT4)
Table 10

When I got to New York, I came to live with my parents who were
already here two years earlier. My Dad said to me that this place was a
place of struggle and that he had filed for me to come so the rest was for
me to fend for myself. I worked to get money to care for myself and to
A
pay my tuition. Money was a problem for me. When I started, I could not
work full time because of the school, but I found that if I did not work
more, I could not pay my tuition, so I took a full-time job. It is not easy
for me though.
I am not qualified for financial aid, so I have to work to pay my school
fees. So, this is a great difficulty or challenge for me. When it is getting
to the time to pay fees, I get worried. I try to work and attend classes. In
order to get money for my fees I have to work at night. So apart from
other problems, I always have to deal with the finance aspect also.
Sometimes I sleep in class because I am tired and nothing my professor
B
teaches is absorbed. Apart from paying my tuition, I have to pay my rent
every month and feed myself. All these require money, so it is a
challenge. Most classmates especially those who are from here do not
have this challenge that I face. They just attend classes free of all
problems such as mine, but I try to overcome this financial challenge by
working hard to combine both school and work.
I paid tuition by myself until I got my financial aid. In my first two
semesters, I worked on part-time, but it was not enough, so I had a little
C support from my parents though not was not always. This financial
obligation got me scared every time because I had to always think of
paying my tuition.
Financially, it is not easy for me as a student. Because I am alone, I cater
for myself. I must pay my rent and other things. At the same time, I have
D to help people at home. So, you know I must add my job to my school
time. You know in Ghana once you are in America, your family perceive
you as rich. They call you every day with their problems. So, I always
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must struggle with financial difficulties, not for my tuition only, but for
my own personal life.
When you don’t have any help financially it is very difficult. When my
father lost his job, it became a great worry. I had to look for a job and
work to make money. At one time I did not take any class during the
E whole semester. I just worked to get some money for school. When I
made enough money, I went back to school. Sometimes other mates
wondered why you have not completed school; the financial problems get
worse.
When I got the opportunity to come to study in the United States, some
people spent on my trip and I was expected to pay them back when I got
to the United States. Even though I had started school, I had to work to
pay these people back and to pay my tuition. This was a great struggle. I
F worked to pay my tuition and paid these helpers at the same time. I had to
help my mom back at home. The responsibility was too much, but I had
to work hard. I have deferred two semesters since I started school because
I could not cope with the financial pressure. I had to take two jobs, but I
know I will make it.
The fourth major theme revealed from the analysis of this research study showed
that Ghanaian immigrant students face financial constraints, a problem which adversely
affects their experiences as immigrant students in college.
Participant A affirmed that she came to New York to live with her parents who
told her that New York was a place for struggles. She was left to her own fate and she
had to pay her tuition; consequently, she had to work hard to meet financial hurdles.
Participant B also divulged that it was a challenge for her as a Ghanaian
immigrant student to make sure that her tuition was paid. He mentioned that it was a
burden as he had to work in order to pay his tuition. She mentioned that since she was
not qualified for financial aid, it was a worry especially when the time came for her to
pay her tuition
Participant C mentioned the issue of financial constraints in his experience as a
Ghanaian immigrant student. He mentioned that he had to work to pay his own tuition in
the first two semesters even though he had a little help from parents. He affirmed that it
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was a worry for him as he had to think always about making things possible to pay
tuition.
Participant D noted that he lived in the United States alone and studied hard so
one day he could be an asset to society. He added that many folks back home look up to
him, parents, siblings and friends. Even though he was studying, he was also working
hard to make ends meet, pay his rent, help people at home, and cater to himself.
Participant E stated that her parents promised to help her pay for school when she
started college. But things went bad when her father lost his job within the first year of
school. She started to struggle financially, marrying school with job. She mentioned that
there were times she had to two jobs in order to be able to pay tuition.
Participant F confirmed that he was also working hard but struggling with
financial hurdles. He mentioned that he had to pay tuition because he had no one to help.
He mentioned that he had to work two jobs in order to be able to pay tuition.
Major Theme 5: Ghanaian immigrant students face immigration issues (MT 5)
Table 11

When I began college there were a few problems with my immigration
status and it was a great worry for me. Sometimes, I could not go to
A school because I was afraid, I would be arrested. Even when I applied for
scholarship the school authorities needed my complete documents. I did
not have them, it made life very difficult on campus.
My student visa expired, and I had a problem renewing it. During this
period, there was a lot of stress for me. The college needed that document
B
for everything. I could not focus on anything but by God’s grace it went
through. It is a lot of stress if you have a documentation problem.
My immigration papers were being processed when I started college. I
D never had any response from the department of USCIS until during my
third semester. When it was denied, it was a big problem for me. I could
95
not study, and even failed an exam because I could not concentrate. It
was a big problem for me, I was depressed, and needed comfort.
When your papers are not intact, one is not okay. It was a difficulty I had
to work hard on to get things in place. For example; I needed money to
E
renew my visa, it affected my work. Meanwhile I needed money; this was
a very difficult time.
I was always worried about my legal documents. My parents had filed for
me. It was taking too long. Recently we hear that President Trump is
G deporting people and this scares me so much, especially when my
documents have not been approved. I do not know who might ask me
anything. Sometimes going to school is scary.
The fifth major theme identified in the research analysis was that Ghanaian
immigrant students face problems with immigration issues. Five participants expressed
their related experiences how issues on immigration in various ways affected their
education.
Participant A stated that issues on immigration was a great difficulty. She
mentioned that her status as an immigrant needed attention and this was a worry because
the school authorities needed to determine her status in order to make her account active.
She expressed that the issues caused her to fear she could be arrested. She could not
apply for scholarship because her documents were not complete, and this made life
difficult for her on campus.
Participant B revealed that it was a great stress to have immigration problems.
She mentioned problems that came with renewing her student visa after it expired. The
problem caused a lot of stress, which consequently was a big challenge for her as an
immigrant student.
Participant D noted that one of the greatest challenges outside college life which
affected his education experience was his immigration problems. He divulged that when
he started college his immigrant documents were being processed. Participant D
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observed that it was a problem for him when it was denied, causing much stress and his
inability to study and to concentrate on anything. He divulged that the immigration
application denial caused him to fail because he could not study.
Participant E pointed out that she was still in school because of her immigration
papers. She divulged that she struggled with her immigration documents after some
semesters. Until she had renewed her visa, things were not easy for her as there were
difficult times.
Participant G also confirmed that she visited her parents in New York and stayed
to go to college. She stated that parents filed to adjust her status. This was a problem as
it took a while for that to be established. As she attended college, it became scary for her
because she had heard that President Trump was deporting all immigrants who did not
have immigration documents intact.
Major Theme 6: Ghanaian immigrant students struggle with work and school (MT
6)
Table 12

In America it is not easy for me. The obligations are many; and as
immigrant student on your own, you must work to pay bills. Doing both
is where the problem is. By the time you come from school, you are tired.
A
Many times, I have failed to turn in assignments on time. I come back
from work tired. I leave home for work and from work to school. I have
very little time to rest.
I have no alternative than to work. As a Ghanaian I have the obligation to
help my family, so I must work. The work and school are a very heavy
C
challenge. Sometimes I feel like just leaving school and just going to
work.
When I come back to school from the night shift, I am exhausted.
D
Apparently, I doze off while the teacher teaches. It is a big challenge,
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meanwhile I can’t stop working. If I do, I would have to stop schooling. I
know it is affecting me, but I have no choice I just keep trying.
I took two jobs. I had classes from morning to 2 p.m. I worked from 3
p.m. to 11 p.m. and from 12 a.m. to 7 a.m. I am always tired. I can’t pay
F my bills if I stop, and I have to go to school. I am sure that if I do fulltime
school like other students who are not immigrants, I should be one of the
best. But it is a wonderful experience and I love the challenge.
The researcher identified the sixth theme―Ghanaian immigrant students struggle
with the simultaneous duty of going to school and working. Four participants discussed
their experiences with regards to struggling simultaneously with work and school, a
situation encountered as they attended college, and which posed a great challenge.
Participant A stated that working at the same time and attending college is a big
challenge. She observed that it is exhausting and tedious to do both, adding that she
would be an outstanding student should she have enough time for school. She intimated
that she had to work to pay her bills, and that it was tedious to attend college and work at
the same time.
Participant C observed that he had no choice but to work. He noted that it was the
only way to pay tuition and take care of himself. He added that working drained him. He
stated that as a Ghanaian young man in America, he had the obligation to help family at
home, and thus had to work and go to school simultaneously. Participant D confirmed
that his job got him so tired that he slept in class while the professor taught. He divulged
that working and attending school at the same time was a big challenge. He was always
exhausted, but he had no choice.
Finally, Participant F observed that he had no help from anyone, so he had to
work fulltime and attend school too. The result for him was that his focus on school
98
turned weak. He intimated that he could be better a student if he could focus on only his
studies like the other students who probably did not have to work while attending school.
Individual Textual Description
The fifth Van Kam’s method according to Moustakas (1994) requires researcher
employ the construction of individual textual descriptions.
Summary of Textual Descriptions for Participant A
Participant A admitted to an embarrassing experience because of her language or
accent. She described her experience as embarrassing in the beginning of her first year.
She disclosed that even though the official Language in Ghana is English, anytime she
spoke to her mates in college, they just kept asking what she said which made it a very
embarrassing experience for her. She also revealed that everything done in the college
was different from what she experienced in Ghana, and felt things were difficult and
made her unhappy, homesick and depressed. She stated it was not easy to live in another
person’s country. She revealed that there were many times she wept because she had
missed her former school, her friends, family and her brothers. She felt she was not part
of the people around her. She expressed that everyone was busy, and nobody was ready
to listen. She also mentioned that other Ghanaian students who were already in the
college were either going to work or busy with something.
Participant A again observed that she left Ghana when she won the DV lottery.
She was in the first year in the university, a freshman. When she started at Bronx
Community College, she found that things were entirely different in the classroom, out
on campus, and even in interacting with the people she met in the college. She revealed
99
that she was totally confused because she could not understand the system. She could not
understand the classroom, and she could not understand the entire environment.
Furthermore, Participant A expressed her frustration at how the need to use
technology was a challenge especially at the beginning of the college experience. She
acknowledged that the biggest challenge was the use of the computer. She mentioned
that in Ghana assignments were not typed. Her former school in Ghana did not even
have computers for students. She did not have to register for courses online, and neither
did she have to go see the course syllabus online. Participant A stated that almost all the
professors assumed she knew how to use the computer. She revealed that other Ghanaian
students had the same problem. She intimated that she did not know how to use the
computer and the professor would not take assignments written by hand. Participant A
did not know how to register for courses online. Sometimes she had to reach out to
people in the IT department for help. She revealed that it was frustrating when people sat
with her to help her, so sometimes she had to type with one finger one letter at a time.
When other students were done, she was late. Participant A stated that sometimes she
had to post assignments online, which was difficult and challenging because she did not
know how to do it. She intimated that no one would want to sit her down to teach her.
Participant A expressed that it has been assumed that every student is knowledgeable in
the use of the internet and the computer.
Participant A again stated that issues on immigration were a great difficulty. She
mentioned that her status as an immigrant student needed attention and this was a worry
because the school authorities needed that to be established. She revealed that when she
began college, there were a few problems with her immigration status, and it was a great
100
worry for her. She intimated that sometimes, she could not go to school because she
feared being arrested. She mentioned that even when she had applied for scholarship, the
school authorities needed her complete documents. She did not have them and therefore,
it made life very difficult on campus for her.
Participant A finally stated that working at the same time attending college is a
big challenge. She observed that it was exhausting and tedious to do both, adding that
she would be an outstanding student should she have enough time for school. She stated
that life was not easy for her in America as an immigrant student. Participant A pointed
out that her obligations are many and as an immigrant student on her own, she must work
to pay bills. Doing both is where the problem is. She divulged that by the time she came
home from school, she was tired. She mentioned that there were many times that she
failed to turn in assignments on time because she came back from work tired. She
revealed that she left home for work and from work to school with very little time to rest,
and that is her routine as an immigrant student.
Summary of Textual Descriptions for Participant B
Participant B pointed out that her professor could not understand most words in
her pronunciation, and this made her uncomfortable. She divulged that sometimes the
professor made her repeat many words because she (professor) could not understand
words in her sentences. Sometimes when she raised her hand to ask a question, the
professor would not ask her to speak. Again, participant B remarked that she walked on
campus as a loner because she did not have friends because other mates had their teams
and they were not Africans or Ghanaians and she always felt left out in class, and on the
campus. She observed that those who were born in America and had attended school in
101
America had their friends and mates, and that if there was no African or a Ghanaian in
the class, it was difficult for her to be with other classmates. Besides, most of them were
not receptive to immigrant students from Africa, she expressed.
Furthermore, Participant B divulged that it was a challenge for her as a Ghanaian
immigrant student to make sure that her tuition was paid. She mentioned that it was a
burden since he had to work in order to pay her tuition. She divulged that she was not
qualified for financial aid, so she had to work to pay her school fees. She mentioned that
it was a great difficulty or challenge for her. Participant B remarked that when it was
getting to the time to pay fees, she worried. She mentioned that she tried to work and
attend classes. In order to get money for her fees, she had to work at night. So apart
from other problems, she always had to deal with the finance aspect also. Sometimes she
slept in class because she was tired and nothing her professor taught got absorbed. Apart
from paying her tuition, she had to pay her rent every month and feed himself. All those
required money, so it was a challenge. Participant B expressed that most classmates
especially those who were Americans and were born in this country did not have this
challenge that she faced. They just attended classes free of all problems such as hers, but
she tried to overcome this financial challenge by working hard to combine both school
and work.
Finally, Participant B revealed that it was a great stress to have immigration
problems. She stated her student visa had expired, and she had a problem renewing it.
During this period, she suffered much stress. The college needed that document for
everything, so as a result, she could not focus on anything. Participant B intimated that
102
having a problem with immigration documentation was a lot of stress for her as a
Ghanaian immigrant student.
Summary of Textual Descriptions for Participant C
Participant C stated that he was totally thrown into a depressed state because he
did not know what was going on in the classroom. He could not understand what was
going on because everyone spoke so fast in their American slang. He expressed that for
the first semester, he went to the class depressed and unhappy. He revealed that he was
in the class, but his body was absent all because he could not understand what they were
saying. He waited after class to ask some of his mates because he was so shy to even
speak with the professor.
Participant C further expressed the challenges faced as he struggled with the use
of technology. He stated that he had very little experience in the use of the internet for
schooling. He intimated that in America, teachers ask you to do everything online.
Research online, assignments online, class discussions online and so on which they call
the blackboard. He affirmed that it was a difficult time for him because he did not have
any computer experience in Ghana. He observed that other classmates especially those
who attended high school in America or were born in America had no such problems
with navigating the internet or using the computer.
Participant C again mentioned the issue of financial constraints in his experience
as a Ghanaian immigrant student, stating that it was a big setback in her academic
pursuit. He stated that he needed to pay his tuition every semester. He intimated that it
was a big hurdle and a setback also for him because most of the time he was not able to
register for all courses because he had no money. He divulged that if he could work to
103
make the money, he signed up for course and if not, he stayed at home. Participant C
revealed that the issue of paying tuition was a burden and he thought much about it
especially when the semester was coming to an end. Participant C observed, adding that
he had no choice but to work if he wanted to go to school to pursue his goals. He stated
that it was the only way to pay his tuition and take care of himself. He added that
working drained him. He pointed out that he had no alternative than to work. Participant
C made it clear that as a Ghanaian, he had the obligation to help his family, so he must
work. He revealed that the work and school were a very tough challenge and sometimes
he felt like just leaving school and just staying in America to work.
Summary of Textual Descriptions for Participant D
Participant D disclosed that some of the sentences he wrote in essays were
underlined as wrong because the professor said Americans do not use them in their
vocabulary. He divulged that it was not easy for him in the first three semesters. He
affirmed that what is good about American education is that a student can go to the
professor’s office to ask him/her about what they do not understand. He revealed that at
one time he went to his history professor to ask him about a sentence he underlined which
he said did not make sense but could not explain why. Participant D affirmed that in the
end it affected his grade.
Participant D expressed that he was not too familiar with the environment and did
not know where to go for help when he began college, and the things they learned at the
orientation were not well understood, which consequently led to feelings of depression
and alienation. He stated that sometimes the problems were too many and he did not
know who to turn to for help. He revealed that he felt like he had been left out. He
104
intimated that he could stay in his room and cry and did not even feel like coming to
school
Participant D also divulged that he was confused in the first semester because
everything seemed different and he was virtually confused. He affirmed that Ghana is
different, and the way things are done in America is also different. He revealed that he
even felt like he wanted to stop schooling because the whole thing was confusing
Furthermore, participant D acknowledged that technology use is a great difficulty
in his educational experience. He pointed out that there should be a way to help other
Ghanaians like him in college because he does not know much about how to use
computers. He mentioned that he had to always ask people to help him. He divulged that
he turned in late assignments and most of the time he lost points. He revealed that he had
to pay people to type assignments for him. He intimated that it was not his fault and that
he just did not use computers. He pointed out that in his class, most of his American
mates have laptops and knew how to use the internet Microsoft word, but it is tough for
him.
Participant D noted that he lived in the United States alone and studied hard so
one day he could be an asset to society. He added that many folks back home looked up
to him: parents, siblings and friends. Even though he was studying, he was also working
hard to make ends meet, to pay his rent, help people back at home and cater to himself.
He noted that financially, it was not easy for him as a student because he was alone and
had to take care of himself. He mentioned that he must pay his rent and other things. At
the same time, he must help people at home, so as a result he had to work while going to
his school. He noted that in Ghana people perceive Americans as rich, and so the family
105
would call every day with their problems. Therefore, he always must struggle with
financial difficulties, not for his tuition only, but for his own personal life.
Participant D also noted that one of the greatest challenges outside college life
which affected his educational experience was his immigration problem. He intimated
that immigration papers were being processed when he started college. He never had
results until during his third semester. When it was denied, it was a big problem for him.
He revealed that he could not study, and even failed an exam because he could not
concentrate. He revealed that the immigration issue was a big problem for him, leading
to his being depressed and in need of comfort.
Finally, Participant D confirmed that his job got him so tired that he slept in class
while the professor taught. He stated that whenever he came back to school from the
night shift, he was exhausted. Apparently, he dozed off while the teacher taught.
Participant D remarked that it was a big challenge, meanwhile he could not stop working.
He mentioned that if he stopped working, he would have to stop schooling; even though
that he knew it was affecting him, he had no choice but just keep trying.
Summary of Textual Descriptions for Participant E
Participant E stated that because of her accent she was not comfortable being with
a group the professor had assigned her to, and she preferred to be in the group with other
Africans since she knew they were going to understand her. She stated that whenever she
spoke in class, her mates responded as if she did not speak English, and she saw no good
reason why she would be assigned to a group that could not understand her English. She
affirmed that sometimes her mates and the professor spoke so fast that she could not
understand them.
106
Participant E divulged that she missed her family and felt like she wanted to go
back to Ghana because she studied in America alone and the pressures of the educational
experience brought her into unhappiness and loneliness. She intimated that she just
missed her family, and all she wanted was for her mom or her siblings to talk to her
especially when she was stressed with too much schoolwork, of which most of them had
difficulty understanding. She divulged that she needed comfort from her family.
Participant E affirmed that sometimes she had to buy phone cards to call them, which
made her feel better. However, these feelings did not last long as she could not afford to
buy phone cards always.
Participant E divulged that difficulties were encountered because of having no
knowledge of computers, a problem that affected this student in class. She stated that she
did not learn anything about computers in Ghana. She mentioned that in class, the
professors gave assignments to be typed and printed. She did not even know how to use
an email, thus, things were difficult. Even though it was okay now, she believed the
school could have helped in the beginning when she started attending the college. She
revealed that it was a big problem when she delayed turning in her assignments. It made
her miserable going to class, so sometimes she cut classes. She felt uncomfortable going
to ask people for help.
Participant E stated that her parents promised to help her pay for school when she
started college. But things went bad when his father lost his job within the first year of
school. She started to struggle financially, marrying school with job. She intimated that
it was very difficult if an immigrant student did not have any help financially. Participant
E divulged that when her father lost his job, it became a great worry. She had to look for
107
a job and work to make money. At one time, she intimated, that she did not take any
classes during the whole semester but worked to get some money for school. She
affirmed that if she gathered enough money, she went back to school. Sometimes other
mates wondered why she had not completed school; the financial problems got worse.
Finally, Participant E pointed out that she was still in school because of her
immigration papers were delayed. She divulged that she struggled with her immigration
papers after some semesters. She mentioned that her immigration papers were not intact,
and it was a difficulty therefore she had to work hard to get things in place. For example,
she needed money to renew her visa, so it affected her work.
Summary of Textual Descriptions for Participant F
Participant F pointed it out clearly that language was a problem he faced. He
struggled to overcome it especially in the first year since it impacted on his studies, even
more so in group and class work. He divulged that he always asked questions in class
because the professors and classmates spoke very fast. As a Ghanaian, he revealed that
he found it so difficult to understand the American English if it was not slowed down.
Participant F affirmed that it caused problems in class since some of his mates
complained and murmured that he was slowing them down.
Participant F pointed out that in the first two semesters he just struggled with
feelings of depression especially after class at the end of the day because he felt that the
sudden change in the educational environment could not just sit well with him. He
expressed that he just did not feel happy and did not know why, but he believed that the
new school was not getting well with him. He intimated that he just felt depressed but
continued to attend classes because he was determined to study in the United States
108
because not all Ghanaians back home would have the opportunity he had. Participant F
divulged that was depressed in class because he asked too many questions when could
not understand, and his mates would complain, making him depressed.
Participant F intimated that one of the biggest hurdles he has had in college is the
struggle with using the computer. He stated that he felt embarrassed as he was not a
savvy at using the internet. He stated he never went to school in the city but did
elementary and high school in the village area. He revealed that the computer was never
a friend and he had not even moved a mouse until he got to the United States, so using
blackboard on the internet was a problem for him. He affirmed that the professors who
taught would always ask students in the class to go to blackboard, but he knew earlier on
that the blackboard was just the board on which his teachers wrote. He mentioned that he
saw it was different and wondered what blackboard was being talked about? He revealed
that he depended on friends to help him and always delayed in turning in assignments.
Participant F divulged that if he were to hand write assignments, there would be
no problems. He mentioned he was embarrassed because he worried most of his friends
who already knew how to use the computer to navigate the school’s website, write
assignments, write discussions and so on. Participant F intimated that the issue of
technology was a really very big stress for him. He mentioned that in the first two
semesters, he was always stressed and worried about this computer and blackboard
issues.
Participant F confirmed that she was also working hard but struggling with
financial hurdles. He affirmed that when he got the opportunity to come to study in the
United States, some people loaned him money and he was expected to pay them back
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when he got to the United States. Even though he had started school, he had to work to
pay these people back and to pay his tuition. He expressed that it was a great challenge, as
he worked to pay his tuition, pay back his loans, and financially support his mom back at
home. He also pointed out that his responsibility was too much, but he had to work hard.
He revealed that he had deferred two semesters since he started school because he could
not cope with the financial pressure and had to work two jobs but he was also optimistic
that he would make it.
Participant F also observed that he had no help from anyone, so he had to work
fulltime and attend school. The result for him was that his focus on school turned weak,
he admitted.
He observed that he worked two jobs and also had classes from morning to 2 p.m.
He worked from 3 p.m. to 11 p.m. and from 12 a.m. to 7 a.m. He divulged that he was
always tired. He mentioned that he was not going to be able to pay his bills if he stopped
working, and he also had to go to school. He expressed that he was very sure that if he
did school fulltime like other students who were not immigrants like him and worked, he
should be one of the best. However, he affirmed that it was a wonderful experience and
he loved the challenge.
Summary of Textual Descriptions for Participant G
Participant G lamented that most of her mates looked down upon her English
Language. She divulged that she argued many times with students because most of her
American classmates did not know that Ghana is an English-speaking country. She
affirmed that her classmates said she had an accent and they would always want to make
her repeat the words whenever she spoke in class. She pointed out that anything she said
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in English was difficult for her friends to understand, and made her feel very
embarrassed.
Participant G observed a situation that caused her much unhappiness throughout a
semester. She revealed that she had tried to get a B grade in English, but her professor
would not give it even though she could not point out any mistakes. She went to the
writing center and had the paper checked but no matter how she tried, the professor
would not change the C grade. She mentioned that the professor had mentioned that
English in America is different. Participant G intimated that she was very depressed the
whole semester any time she went to class.
Participant G also confirmed that she visited her parents in America and stayed to
go to college. Her parents filed to adjust her status. This was a problem as it took a
while for that to be established. She revealed that she was always worried about her
immigration documents which took so long to get approved. She revealed that recently
President Trump was deporting people and that it scared her very much, especially when
her documents had not been approved. She intimated that she was scared because she did
not know who might ask her about her immigration status, so sometimes, going to school
was scary.
Summary of Textual Descriptions for Participant H
Participant H stated that even though he had done one year of college in Ghana
before coming into the United States, the college experience in the United States was
totally different and difficult for him because he had very little knowledge of computers,
and he had to work very hard to be able to stay normal as every student.
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Participant H mentioned that in his experience as a student, he felt so happy to
have the privilege to be in America to study in college. However, the one thing that has
been a big problem for him and his major challenge since he started college was that he
could not handle the use of blackboard and using the internet, and the assignments. In
class, every assignment must be sent to the professor online and he did not do this in
Ghana. He divulged that he was still learning, but this was very depressing for him.
Individual Structural Descriptions
In using the modified Van Kam method by Moustakas (1994), the researcher
applied the sixth step. In this step of the analysis, the researcher employs individual
structural description to create structural descriptions drawn from individual textural
descriptions.
Structural Description for Participant A
Participant A believed her English language and accent caused her to feel
embarrassed because she could not be understood. They kept asking her to repeat most
sentences in her speech. Participant A also believed that the way things were done was
different from her previous experiences, thus making things difficult for her and
consequently making her unhappy, homesick and depressed. Participant A observed that
her biggest challenge was that she could not use the computer, and this frustrated her.
Participant A again mentioned that she had difficult issues with immigration
documentation. Finally, Participant A admitted that she experienced difficulties doing
both school and work at the same time.
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Structural Description for Participant B
Participant B observed that she could not understand most words of her professor,
the professor could not understand her words, and the professor spoke faster, making
understanding difficult. Participant B also divulged that she was a loner and felt left out.
Participant B stated that she faced financial difficulties. Participant B again revealed she
had great stress because of immigration documents and problems.
Structural Description for Participant C
Participant C mentioned he struggled with challenges to use technology because
he had little knowledge of computers. Participant C also stated that he had financial
constraints as he struggled every semester to pay his tuition. Finally, Participant C
observes that work and school were exhausting, but he had no alternative.
Structural Description for Participant D
Participant D stated that he experienced problems with English and that his
professors did not accept them, even though there were no problems with constructions.
Participant D also mentioned that he faced depression and alienation since he did not
understand the environment and did not know where to go for help. Participant D also
mentioned he was confused because everything was different in the first semester.
Participant D also revealed that he faced financial difficulties since he lived alone and
took care of himself. Participant D divulged that his immigration status posed a great
challenge in his educational experience. Finally, Participant D affirmed that his job made
him so tired that it affected his schooling.
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Structural Description for Participant E
Participant E mentioned she experienced language problems because of her accent
and that made her uncomfortable. Participant E divulged that there was too much
pressure on her as an immigrant student studying alone and she felt unhappy and lonely.
Again, Participant E acknowledged she had difficulties as an immigrant student because
she had no knowledge of how to use computers. Participant E stated he had no financial
help and it was difficult to pay tuition. Finally, Participant E revealed that she had
delayed completing school because of her immigration papers.
Structural Description for Participant F
Participant F admitted that language was a problem he experienced because he
felt that his classmates and the professor spoke fast, and he could not understand
American English. Participant F again mentioned that he had feelings of depression.
Participant F stated that his biggest challenge was not knowing how to use the computer.
Participant F mentioned financial difficulty as a hurdle in his educational experience.
Finally, Participant F admitted that his focus and performance in school was weak
because he had to work full time and attend school.
Structural Description for Participant G
Participant G observed that her mates and professor looked down upon her
English language. Finally, Participant G confessed the delayed approval to her
immigration application caused her a lot of stress, thereby affecting her studies.
Structural Description for Participant H
Participant H mentioned having little knowledge of computers which made
studies difficult.
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Textural – Structural Descriptions
According to Moustakas (1994), this final stage involves the researcher
establishing and synthesizing the essence and meanings of the lived experiences of
participants. In this study, the researcher constructed textural-structural descriptions,
integrating all themes of the lived experiences of each Ghanaian immigrant student
sampled for the study. The construction of these descriptions was deduced from the three
research questions of the study.
The Experiences of Ghanaian Immigrant Students
The first research question yielded two major themes and one sub-theme
expressed by participants. In the first major theme, participants expressed difficulties of
communication in English language. All eight participants revealed they experienced
difficulties in English communication.
Participant A observed that her classmates had difficulties understanding the
English she spoke, therefore she found it difficult. Thus, anytime she spoke to her mates
in the college they could not understand her. Participant B also expressed that her
Professor could not understand her English. Participant C affirmed that it was difficult to
understand the Professor’s English, and that the professor spoke so fast that it was
difficult to understand. She also mentioned that almost everyone (professors, classmates
and schoolmates in the college) spoke too fast. Participant D disclosed that some of his
English sentences, according to the professor, did not make sense, so the grade was
reduced.
Participant E also affirmed that her accent made her uncomfortable because her
mates did not understand her, and the professors and classmates spoke too fast:
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Participant F also divulged that it was difficult to understand American English and that
the professors and classmates also spoke very fast. Meanwhile, Participant G observed
that most of his classmates looked down upon his English Language and they said he has
an accent and would always want him to repeat words.
The second major theme revealed that Ghanaian immigrant students experience
alienation and depression. Seven participants acknowledged that they suffered
depression and alienation in their educational experience. Participant A revealed that
there were many times she felt homesick, left out and depressed consequently, he
revealed that many times he wept because he had missed his former school, friends and
family, and felt left out.
Participant B also mentioned that she felt left out because she had no friends; she
expressed her opinion that those born in America have their own friends and mates and it
was easy for them to get along with other peers. Besides most of them were not receptive
to immigrant students from Africa. Participant C also affirmed that he was depressed
because he did not know what was going on since everyone spoke so fast in the American
Slang. He intimated having gone through depression in the beginning when he started
college.
Participant D expressed feelings of depression and alienation because he was not
familiar with the environment. Feeling he was lonely and left out, he could stay in his
room and cry, and did not even feel like coming to school.
Participant E also affirmed that she missed her family and needed comfort as she
was depressed. Participant F divulged that he struggled with feelings of depression due
to the sudden change in educational environment, revealing that he just did not feel
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happy. He believed the new school was not going well for him and that he just felt
depressed.
Participant G mentioned he was depressed because the professor would not give
him the required grade saying that English in America is different. He divulged that the
professor just did not want to change the C grade. He mentioned that English in America
is different. Participant G intimated that he was depressed the whole semester.
The first research question also revealed a sub-theme which Ghanaian immigrant
students go through a state of confusion. Three participants revealed that they went
through a state of confusion. Participant A found that things were entirely different in the
classroom, on campus, and when interacting with the people she met in college.
Participant D intimated that she was totally confused. Participant D also affirmed that
things were so different and confusing. Participant D felt like dropping out of school
because the whole thing was confusing her. Participant F expressed that he found it
extremely confusing the way things were done in the college especially in the classroom,
revealing that he did not understand what professors said in class, which resulted in his
being confused.
Challenges of Ghanaian Immigrant Students in College
The second research question revealed two themes. Under this research question,
the first theme addressed participants’ lack of or having no knowledge of the use of
technology. The second theme addressed Ghanaian immigrant students’ financial
difficulties.
The third major theme revealed that the six participants reported difficulties with
the use of technology. Participant A acknowledged that technology was a challenge at
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the beginning of the college experience: She intimated that her biggest challenge was the
use of the computer. She divulged that it was difficult and challenging because he just
did not know how to do it.
Participant C confirmed that he struggled using technology because he had very
little knowledge in the use of the internet. Participant D revealed that using technology
was a great difficulty in his educational experience which led to him being late with
assignments, and most of the time losing points. He paid people to type his assignments.
He confessed that he just did not use computers.
Participant E confirmed she had difficulties because she lacked knowledge in
using computers and did not even know how to use an email, thus, things were difficult,
making her miserable. Meanwhile participant F divulged that his biggest challenge as an
immigrant student was encountered because he had no knowledge in the use of
computers. He revealed he had not even moved a mouse until he got to the United States.
Thus, the issue of technology was a really big stress for him.
Finally, participant H also revealed that using technology was a big problem for
him. He intimated that when he started the college, the issue was with using the
computer, and he just could not handle the use of blackboard and using the internet.
The fourth major theme revealed the financial difficulties faced by Ghanaian
immigrant students. Five participants reported financial difficulties. Participant A
affirmed that there were financial difficulties as she had to pay her tuition; thus, she
worked to get money to care for herself and to pay her tuition.
Participant B pointed out that it was a challenge for her to make sure her tuition
was paid. She revealed that she was not qualified for financial aid, so she had to work to
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pay her tuition which consequently was a great problem. Again, Participant C mentioned
the issue of financial constraints, stating that sometimes tuition was not paid, and he had
to stay out of class for a semester until fees were paid. Participant C divulged that he
worked hard to make money for tuition. Meanwhile Participant D intimated that he had
to work to care for himself, his family, and pay his tuition. He mentioned that
financially, it is was not easy for him as an immigrant student.
Participant E pointed out that she struggled with financial difficulties thus making
her work and go to school. She intimated that whenever she saved enough money for
tuition, she went back to school. Sometimes other mates wondered why she had not
completed school. She mentioned that her financial problems got in the way of her
education.
Finally, Participant F stated that he struggled with financial difficulties,
consequently he deferred two semesters since he started school because he could not cope
with the financial pressure.
Challenges Outside College Life
The third research question revealed the challenges Ghanaian immigrant students
faced outside college life that affected their educational experiences. From the analyses,
two major themes were revealed. The themes were: immigration issues and struggling
with school and work. The theme on immigration issues is the fifth major theme. Four
participants reported immigration issues. The sixth major theme involved four
participants who reported that Ghanaian immigrant students struggle with work and
school.
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Regarding the fifth major theme, immigration problems, Participant A divulged
that immigration issues caused great difficulty and she worried a lot and that they
affected her school life. She intimated this worried her and sometimes prevented her
from going to school. Participant B also affirmed that having immigration problems was
a great stress. She divulged that her student visa expired, and she had problems renewing
it. She could not focus on studies or anything as a result.
Participant D expressed that his greatest challenge concerned immigration. He
mentioned that his immigration application was denied, making it big problem for him.
He revealed that he could not take the situation, and even failed an exam because he
could not concentrate on studies.
Participant E expressed that she struggled and delayed school because of her
immigration papers. Finally, Participant G intimated that her immigration documentation
process was a worry for her.
The sixth major theme involved Ghanaian immigrant students’ struggling with
work and school. Four participants reported on this theme. Participant A observed that
working and going to school are a great challenge. She divulged that her obligations
were many and as an immigrant student, she had to work to pay bills in addition to
attending school, making it difficult her.
Participant C observed that he had no alternative but to work as it was the only
way to pay bills and to take care of himself. He stated that as a Ghanaian, he had the
obligation to help family back home, thus he had to work. He confessed that work and
school together are a very serious challenge. He revealed that sometimes he felt like
leaving school and going to work.
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Participant D stated that his job got him so exhausted that there were many times
that he dozed off in class while lesson was in progress because he always came back from
his night shift. Participant F noted that he has had to do it all by himself with no help
coming from anywhere that he had to work full time and attend school.
Composite Textural Structural Description
Composite Textural Structural description is the final stage of Moustakas’ (1994)
Modified Van Kam Method of qualitative research analysis. This stage involves
developing composite textural structural descriptions that represent the essences and
meanings of all participants in the study based on research questions that guided the
study.
The Educational Experience of Ghanaian Immigrant Students
The first research question revealed two major themes and one sub-theme in
relation to the educational experience of Ghanaian immigrant students. The themes
include issues of language difficulties, alienation and depression, states of confusion.
Challenges Faced by Ghanaian Immigrant Students
Under the second research question two major themes were generated. Ghanaian
immigrant students lacked or had no knowledge of the use of technology, and they had
financial difficulties.
Challenges Outside College Life
The final research question generated two major themes. Participants reported
they faced immigration issues and struggling with work and school simultaneously.
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Summary
This chapter covered the themes derived from the analysis of data provided from
eight immigrant students who were Ghanaian natives. This study is an interpretive
phenomenological study whose e aim was to explore the meaningfulness and essence of
the lived experiences of Ghanaian immigrant students in college.
Using the Van Kam Method of qualitative analysis by Moustakas (1994), three
research questions were answered through the analysis of responses from participants.
The analysis generated six major themes and one sub-theme. The next chapter discusses
the analysis of the findings, implications and limitations of the findings and finally,
recommendations.
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CHAPTER FIVE. SUMMARY, DISCUSSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
This is an interpretive phenomenological study set out to explore the
meaningfulness and essence of the lived experiences of Ghanaian immigrant students.
The researcher conducted semi-structured and unstructured interviews with eight
Ghanaian immigrant students in the Bronx Community College. The study was analyzed
with Moustakas (1994) modified Van Kam method. This chapter includes summary,
discussion, implications and recommendations. The discussion is divided into sections
that address the findings of the study.
Summary of Findings
The researcher explored the lived experiences of eight Ghanaian immigrant
students. The results of the analysis revealed six major themes and one sub-theme.
These were: Ghanaian immigrant students face language difficulties, Ghanaian immigrant
students experience alienation and depression, Ghanaian immigrant students suffer
financial difficulties, Ghanaian immigrant students struggle with immigration issues, and
Ghanaian immigrant students struggle with work and school.
The analysis also established that Ghanaian immigrant students get confused in
school. All participants described their experiences of having difficulties with language.
These fall within the frame of language discrimination and communication problems.
One participant disclosed that his mates looked down on his language. Again,
participants also disclosed that their mates and professors spoke so fast they could not
understand. Another participant also disclosed that his professor could not understand his
English and always would not let her speak even if he raised his hand. Participants also
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experienced alienations and depression as they felt left out, were homesick, and felt
depressed.
Three participants divulged they were thrown into a state of confusion as they
navigated, their new educational environment. Six participants described their
challenges, disclosing that they had no knowledge of how to use technology. Five of the
eight participants discussed the financial difficulties they faced.
Four participants described the challenges outside college which affected their
educational experience, disclosing that they struggled with issues of immigration. Finally,
four participants mentioned they struggled with work and school. They disclosed that
working and attending school was tedious and had negative impacts on their educational
experience.
Discussions
Research Question 1
Issues of language difficulties. In the analysis, all eight participants
acknowledged that they encountered issues of language difficulty. This theme is
consistent with previous literature asserting that African students studying in the United
States experience language-based discrimination and other English language related
problems (Chhuon & Hudley, 2008; Do, 1996; Kambutu & Nanga, 2014; Kilbride &
D’Arcangelo, 2002). Thus, previous studies have showed that Africans who come to
study in the United States, even English-speaking countries as Ghana, struggle with
English Language, asserting that the accent they hear is different and they find it difficult
to understand. These issues of language frustrate African immigrant students and lead to
other related problems.
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Many more studies in previous literature asserted that immigrant students suffer
language discrimination from professors and their peers, adding that the issue of
communications can be deemed a major obstacle because it poisons the immigrant
students’ morale and makes them behind in many respects (Barnes & Chemerinsky,
2011; Eroakan, 2013; Kuo, 2011; Lee & Rice, 2007; Wu et al., 2015). Indeed, findings
from this study on Ghanaian immigrant students’ lived experiences supports previous
similar assertions. A participant lamented being depressed a whole semester when his
professor refused to give him B grade without any reason other than saying that
American English is different. Another participant disclosed that her peers looked down
upon her spoken English and made her unable to associate with them.
Meanwhile in this same study, a participant divulged that a professor would not
award a B grade after the student worked hard fixing all problems in the paper. The
professor mentioned he could not get a B because American English was different. A
participant acknowledged that his peers and professors spoke too fast and they found it
difficult to understand his accent. Again, the study results here are consistent with Kuo’s
(2011) assertion that teachers speak too fast making it difficult for immigrant students to
understand what is taught in class.
Ghanaian immigrant students experience alienation and depression. Seven
participants disclosed that they experienced alienation and depression. It is important to
note that this finding resonates with earlier research that loneliness, homesickness and
depression have been a phenomenon experienced by most immigrant students. These
previous studies asserted that it is common for immigrant students to experience
loneliness which consequently turns into depression, uneasiness and anxiety.
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(Constantine et al., 2005; Kegel, 2009; Nguyen, 2012; Poyrazil & Lopez, 2007; Tochkov
et al., 2010).
There is a connection between this study and the theories that support it—the
theory of the ecology of human development and Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs
(Brofenbremer, 1979; Maslow; 1954) and this study/s theme of alienation and depression.
The findings showed participants expressing feelings of alienation and depression as a
result of the environment in which they found themselves. As students, their academic
development was impacted negatively, given the situation of depression and alienation
they faced. Previous literature affirms that immigrant students are likely to face
loneliness and homesickness which leads to depression and consequently psychological
effects (Constantine et al., 2005; Kegel, 2009; Okpala, 2018; Scopelliti & Tiberio, 2010).
Ghanaian immigrant students get confused. Three participants expressed they
were confused because they found everything to be different in their new educational
environment. This resonates with previous literature that immigrant students experience
various problems related to culture, lack of information and services (Erisman & Looney,
2007; Evive, 2009; Mwangi, 2001; Tas, 2013).
Two participants expressed that they were confused and disorganized because
they found that everything was different compared to their previous experiences and they
did not even know where to go for help. Previous research concludes the same things
that African immigrant students struggle with culture shock, become overwhelmed as
many things are new to them, and that things are different from what they experienced in
their home countries (Misra et al., 2003). Immersing oneself in and adopting the cultures
of a host country are difficult for immigrant students (Clemetson, 2003; Kambutu &
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Nanga, 2014). Brillant (2000) confirmed it by asserting that the interaction with the new
environment leads to great difficulties which leave the immigrant student confused and
disorganized. Andrade (2006) asserted that struggling to assimilate into the new
environment leaves immigrant students disoriented and lost.
The theory of ecology of human development propounded by Bronfenbrenner
(1979) supports the findings from this study that describe how the environment of the
Ghanaian immigrant students is a very strong determinant of their academic and personal
development.
Research Question 2
Ghanaian immigrant students lack or have no knowledge in the use of
technology. Under this theme, six of the eight participants in the study reported that they
had extreme challenges with using technology because they had little or no knowledge of
its use. There is very little prior research regarding this theme. One study by Stebelton
(2011) asserted that immigrant students have complex needs which are relatively
unknown. Participants mentioned how difficult and challenging it was for them to deal
with technology. Another earlier study concluded that African born immigrant students
studying in the United States do not receive the equitable education that they deserve
(Goodwin, 2002). Whereas participants express that using technology was a big
challenge, it is also noteworthy to mention that all students (American or foreign) are
graded on the same basis – on their abilities to use technologies.
As participants revealed, the issue of struggling with technology affect their
academic work. Again, this resonates with Tas (2013) assertion that immigrant Students
from developing countries struggle with navigating the internet. This poses much stress
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thereby slowing down the immigrant student’s adjustment process as well as impeding
academic development. This theme again brings into focus the theories that support this
research study. Maslow (1954) and Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) theories address the fact
that the need to use technology critical for the academic development of immigrant
students, the solution of which only comes from the new environment in which Ghanaian
immigrant students find themselves, the higher educational institutions of America.
Ghanaian immigrant students face financial difficulties. Five participants
discussed financial difficulties among the challenges they faced in their educational
experience. Some of the participants disclosed that they were still in school because of
financial problems. They had to drop out and come back in due to insufficient funds for
tuition. Finance is a need and cannot be ignored. Previous literature indicated is
consistent with responses from participants in this study that immigrant students are most
likely to face financial issues among other problems (Erisman & Looney, 2007; Evivie,
2009; Gildersleeve & Ranero, 2010; Nwangi, 2016; Ortiz & Hinojosa, 2010; Tas, 2013).
Findings that the financial issues faced by Ghanaian immigrant students cause delays in
their academic pursuit is also consistent with previous literature that some of the
challenges of immigrant students leave at twice the likelihood of dropping out of college
(Chen & Carrol, 2005).
Research Question 3
Ghanaian immigrant students face immigration issues. Under this theme,
four out of the eight participants disclosed that they had immigration issues due to their
incomplete immigration status. Participants disclosed the stress and the terror they face
regarding immigration issues which consequently affects their academic development.
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This is consistent with previous literature which asserts that immigrant students, unlike
students from host nation, face problems with immigration documentation, a stress which
leads to financial aid problems that adversely affects the academic development of
immigrant students (Gildersleeve & Ranero, 2010; Ortiz & Hinojosa, 2010).
Compared to students from the host country, immigrant students struggle with
considerable stress as they must deal with immigration issues that arise (Misra et al.,
2003). Bringing Maslow’s (1954) theory of needs focus suggests that before academic
development can proceed, immigration status of foreign-born students must be settled.
Ghanaian immigrant students struggle with work and school. Four
participants expressed that they struggled with school and work. Participants disclosed
that they had responsibilities as immigrant students to pay their tuition, to take care of
themselves, and to financially assist family back home in their own countries.
Participants expressed that they had to work and attend school at the same time, which
directly affected their academic work.
Two participants disclosed that they were always exhausted in class and
sometimes dozed off while professors taught. In effect, the theme of financial problems
is directly linked to this problem of simultaneous work and school. They had to work
because they needed the money for their academic development, yet the academic
development was impeded because doing both work and school are too exacting a task.
As previous studies noted, immigrant students in America’s higher education
have major needs such as food, housing, clothing and transportation (Gildersleeve, 2010;
Kilbride & D’Arcangelo, 2002). These are serious challenges, and as Maslow’s (1954)
theory projects, these are needs that need to be satisfied to realize both human and
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academic development. Thusly, Ghanaian immigrant students work and attend school at
the same time and are in need of academic development.
Implications for Practice
Findings of this study strongly suggest the need to implement certain remedies
and practices.
Workshops for Professors/Professional Development
Professors or instructors need to establish equitable systems of higher education
that meet the needs of all students foreign or native born. To move forward in this
regard, professors need focused professional development opportunities that address the
issues faced by foreign-born students.
Professors who teach in America’s higher educational institutions must be trained
to understand the wide variety of cultural norms of their foreign-born students. The
urgency of the professional developments needed are confirmed as Essendon (1995) who
asserted that the American educational system does not have personnel that are multi-
culturally trained to address problems that African immigrant students have. This makes
it imperative that professors and instructors in America’s higher educational institutions
be properly prepared, socially and psychologically, and to be able to handle immigrant
students of diverse backgrounds.
The need for professional development is high as Harushimana (2007) asserted,
the curriculum of American schools does not allow for the patience that teachers and
administrators need to help African born immigrants. Schleicher (2015) pointed out that
the psychological well-being of immigrant students is affected by how well the
differences between their country of origin and how well the host country addresses the
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issues faced by their foreign-born students. For this study, there exists a strong need for
American professors to assist their Ghanaian immigrant students in alleviating and
meeting their immediate needs and challenges. Cruickshank (2004) postulated that for
teachers to be able to respond to the growing diversity, they must be trained in relation to
appropriate delivery modes.
To add, Gonzales (1997) pointed out that there is the need to develop a teaching
force that is competent to work with immigrant students. Gonzalez argued that
professional development must be looked at again and professors must understand
immigrant students’ experiences. Cruickshank’s (2004) assertion confirms the fact that
teachers or professors who teach immigrants (Ghanaian or otherwise) require special
training to help them understand the needs of their foreign born students.
Orientation Programs
Participants disclosed that during their freshman orientation they did not
understand what was facilitated because they could not understand the English. Given
the fact that they find themselves in a totally new environment, there is a dire need to
separate Ghanaian immigrant students from freshmen who are from host nation. A
special orientation program must be intensively given to Ghanaian immigrant students
prior to their studies beginning.
Home Country Preparation
Immigrant students have preconceived expectations of the host countries that
turned upside down. When they finally arrive and see things for themselves. These
disconnects can lead to cultural shock and other psychological problems. Based on the
findings of this study, this research deems it extremely important that prospective
131
immigrant students be given in-depth orientations back in their home countries before
they embark. Immigrant students need a realistic understanding of what they can expect
in and from their host countries. The Ghana education service could put a mechanism in
place to conduct orientations and certify that Ghanaian immigrant students have attended
the orientation and are prepared to face what awaits them.
Legal Advising and Counselling on Immigration
Given the nature of changing immigration laws, it is important for higher
education leaders and policy makers to put measures and arrangements in place to give
legal advice and direction and or counselling to immigrant students as they carry out their
obligations to abide by these same laws and policies. Most immigrant students go
through stress and anxiety and this adversity affects their academic development.
Counselling on immigration and its current laws will go a long way to help immigrant
students eliminate or alleviate such challenges as they pursue their academic goals.
Support Programs
Even though support services already exist for all students in college, findings
from this study indicate that Ghanaian immigrant students need more support, and this
provides the basis to improve and enhance available support services (Bevis & Lucas,
2007; Copeman & Keightley, 2014; Tovar, 2015).
IT Workshops
The findings from this study make it clear that there is a dire need for higher
education personnel in the United States to help immigrant students from third world
countries like Ghana who come to this can be partially realized through the use of
132
multimedia presentations and workshops to help these students understand how to use
technology effectively.
Limitations
Four major limitations were present during the process of the research study.
First, was a concern that potential participants would be too busy to participate since they
would likely be working and studying. The researcher solved this hurdle by allowing
participants to schedule a time and place convenient to them for the interview.
Another limitation envisaged was the possibility that participants would withdraw
from the study during member checking after they saw the transcripts from the interview.
The researcher gave the transcripts to the participants so they could make corrections if
necessary.
To alleviate the participants’ possible anxieties regarding sharing of personal
stories and their identities becoming known, the researcher explained the ethical practices
expected by the Institutional Review Board and assurances that the privacy and
confidentiality of participants and their information would be protected.
Finally, the researcher anticipated that participants might face emergency
situations that may change interview schedule times or cause them not to show up. The
researcher checked this limitation by patiently rescheduling any missed appointments
with participants.
Limitations Based on Data Collection/Analysis
1. There were only eight Ghanaian immigrant students from one United States
college participating in this study. This study therefore cannot be generalized.
133
2. The researcher desired to use a focus group as well in data collection. This
could not be done because of schedule differences among participants.
3. The study was not conducted in the native language of participants even
through Ghana uses English as a Lingua Franca. Participants may not have
fully understood the interview questions, but none of them mentioned
language was a barrier to understanding or responding to questions during the
interview.
4. The NVivo qualitative software was used in the analysis of this study and
given the fact that it was the first time the researcher had applied the Nvivo
technology, the researcher was not an expert in its use, even though the
software came with tutorials, videos and instructions. The researcher
acknowledges that this could constitute a limitation.
Recommendations for Further Research
This research study explored the lived experiences of Ghanaian immigrant
students. Three research questions were applied, and eight Ghanaian immigrant students
were interviewed. Chapter Four details the findings of the study. In this final section, the
researcher derives recommendations from methodology and the limitations of the study.
Recommendations Developed from the Data
1. In this study, face-to-face interviews were used, allowing for the collection of
solicited thick, rich data and descriptions. The researcher perceives this to be
a limitation of the study, since focus group interview could have been
employed in the study on Ghanaian immigrant students. Focus groups should
134
be used in future studies in order to uncover similarities or differences not
always recognized in individual interviews alone.
2. It is important to note that the current study was limited to Ghanaian
immigrant students in one college in the United States. The scope of the study
could be expanded to include Ghanaian immigrant students in several
geographical areas in the United States. Wider inferences might be possible
with greater numbers of Ghanaian immigrant students across greater regions
within the United States.
3. Given the findings in this study, the researcher perceives that a study that
compares the performance and experiences of Ghanaian immigrant students in
college to the performance and experiences of Ghanaian born American
students would establish more insight into factors that are universal barriers as
well as barriers unique to immigrant students.
4. Employing the same research questions using focus groups should be
conducted, with or without structured or unstructured interview questions, to
establish broader viewpoints.
5. A study of faculty perceptions of academic and personal experiences of
Ghanaian immigrant students could also provide insights into Ghanaian
immigrant students’ issues with studying in the United States.
6. An online study with a larger population of participants could be
administered, thus shortening the time required to collect and analyze the data.
135
Recommendations Based on Delimitations
Given the major delimitation, that the current study sampled Ghanaian immigrant
students from only one college in the United States, the study cannot be generalized to
the general population of Ghanaian immigrant students in the United States, and neither
can it be generalized to include other immigrant students.
Because the interviews were not conducted in the native languages of the
Ghanaian immigrant students, this limitation could have impacted or affected the ability
of the participants to freely express themselves. This was addressed through member
checking where the impact of language was minimized by the researcher asking the
participants to review the interview transcripts and make any necessary revisions during
the second interviews.
Finally, it is important to note that participants’ responses were subjective.
Participants could only offer their views on their experiences, and the researcher had no
way of verifying the accuracy or validity of their responses. The researcher could not
ascertain whether participants were untruthful or unwilling to share feelings in relation to
their experiences. Meanwhile the researcher could not validate the truism of participants’
testimonies. In order to address the limitation, the researcher encouraged participants,
assuring them to feel comfortable sharing their views irrespective of whether these views
were positive or negative. The researcher perceives that such encouragements could
constitute a researcher’s bias in the study. Given the presence of this limitation, the
researcher recommends that a further study be done, if possible, by a non-Ghanaian
researcher conducting the study on Ghanaian immigrant students’ experiences.
136
Conclusion
Findings in this current (and previous) study indicate that immigrant students in
general and African immigrant students specifically studying in United States colleges
have complex needs that are relatively unknown. African immigrant students have
difficulties that include, but are not limited to, personal problems, problems related to
culture, financial issues, academic issues, depression, and emotional problems (Erisman
& Looney, 2007; Evivie, 2009; Mwangi, 2016; Stebleton, 2011; Tas, 2013).
This study utilized three research questions and explored the lived experiences of
Ghanaian immigrant students in a United States college. The modified Van Kam method
propounded by Moustakas (1994) was employed for data analysis, and Maslow’s (1954)
theory of needs and Bronfenbrenner’s human ecology theory were employed as well.
Finally, the researcher presented implications for practice and made recommendations for
further study.
The current research study revealed six major themes and one sub-theme which
were derived from the three research questions. The major themes are: (a) Ghanaian
immigrant students have language difficulties, (b) Ghanaian immigrant students
experience alienation and depression, (c) Ghanaian immigrant students struggle with the
lack of or have no knowledge in using technology, (d) Ghanaian immigrant students
struggle with financial difficulties, (e) Ghanaian immigrant students have immigration
issues, and (f) Ghanaian immigrant students struggle with work and school. The sub-
theme derived is (a) that Ghanaian immigrant students get confused.
137
The essence of the description and explanation of the lived experiences of
Ghanaian immigrant students have been meaningful in that the findings point out clearly
that the experiences impact the academic goals of Ghanaian immigrant students.
Scholars in higher education continue to observe that experiences of immigrant students
affect their academic goals and for that matter, their adjustments in the host country or
institution. Given the implications for practice derived from the findings of the study,
more can be done to help immigrant students in higher education. The findings of this
current study suggest that higher education administrators and faculty in America and in
Ghana need to provide effective educational programs and interventions that take place
prior to students leaving Ghana and again after they arrive in the United States. These
immigrant students have needs, known and unknown that must be met if they are to
achieve their academic goals.
138
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EXPLORING THE LIVED EXPERIENCES OF GHANAIAN IMMIGRANT

STUDENTS IN COLLEGE: A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY

Daniel Dickson Kwame Boateng

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

All rights reserved

INFORMATION TO ALL USERS

All Rights Reserved.

STUDENTS IN COLLEGE: A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY

© Daniel Dickson Kwame Boateng, 2019

STUDENTS IN COLLEGE: A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY

Daniel Dickson Kwame Boateng

method as defined by Moustakas (1994) to analyze the data collected through an

Interpretive Phenomenological Approach, as used in Qualitative studies. The results

experience: financial constraints, language issues, immigration issues, technology issues,

and emotional stress, which adversely impact their education.

To my beloved wife, Henrietta, whose support in all forms, spiritually, morally,

To my father, Dr. Samuel Stevens Boateng, whose grooming and encouragement

Finally, to my children, Homeda Ama Boatemaa, Dorothy Affia, Dillyn

threshold of success in accomplishing this dissertation successfully.

led to the completeness and fullness of this dissertation.

I wish to express my deepest gratitude to Dr. Jan Saeger, my dissertation

on in my journey. I am most grateful to you.

To you Dr. Steve Roth, my dissertation committee member, I express my sincere

together to shape this dissertation successfully. Your encouragements and your

encouraging and supporting me. Again, I am most grateful to you.

sharing your experiences to make this dissertation successful.

List of Tables ................................................................................................................... xvi

List of Figures ................................................................................................................. xvii

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1

Background to the Study ............................................................................................... 1

Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................. 3

Purpose of Study ........................................................................................................... 5

Research Questions ....................................................................................................... 6

Significance of the Study .............................................................................................. 6

Bronfenbrenner’s Human Ecology Theory ............................................................. 7

Ecological Framework and Lived Experiences of Ghanaian Immigrant Students . 9

Maslow’s Theory of Needs ................................................................................... 10

Maslow’s Needs Theory and the Lived Experiences of Ghanaian Immigrant

Limitations and Delimitations of the Study ................................................................ 13

Limitations in Qualitative Research...................................................................... 13

Delimitations of Qualitative Research .................................................................. 14

Delimitations of the Study .................................................................................... 15

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................... 16

Defining the Term ....................................................................................................... 18

Immigrant Students in the United States .................................................................... 18

African Students among Immigrant Students in the United States............................. 19

African Immigrant Students ........................................................................................ 20

Ghanaian Immigrant Students in the United States .................................................... 22

Ghanaian Immigration/Ghanaian immigrant students in the United States.......... 22

Previous Studies on the Experience of Immigrant Students ....................................... 25

Social Challenges and Educational Issues .................................................................. 26

Other Similar Studies on the Experience of Immigrant Students ............................... 30

Loneliness and Homesickness .............................................................................. 33

Social Support Issues ............................................................................................ 35

Struggles with Cultural Experience ...................................................................... 36

The Theoretical Framework and the Study ................................................................. 39

CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY .................................................................................... 43

Phenomenological Designs in Qualitative Research ............................................ 45

Descriptive Phenomenological Designs ............................................................... 45

Interpretive Phenomenological Designs ............................................................... 46

Rationale for Selection of Interpretive Phenomenological Designs ..................... 47

Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Design .................................................... 48