3rd Midterms
insight into the cell structure. As he compared
Lesson 1.1 The Living Cell (The Cell
Theory)
Cell
 It is called the basic unit of all living things
because all living organisms are made up of
cells. Our DNA can also be found in cells.
 Cells provide structure for the body, take in
nutrients from food, and carry out important
functions.
 It performs all of life’s function—all of the
things and processes that happen in our
body, cells do them.
 The structural, functional, and biological units
of all living beings.
 It is made up of water, lipids, proteins,
carbohydrates, and nucleic acid.
 Derived from the Latin word cella meaning
store room or chamber.
Discovery of Cells
One of the most remarkable advancement in
the field of science.
Robert Hooke
He observed discovered cell by observing a
piece of cork specimen structures which appear as
tiny compartments similar to small rooms that are
fitted to each other. He suggested the name “cell”
in 1665 from the Latin word cella meaning store
room or chamber.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
He is known as the Father of Microbiology—he
was the one to discover the microscopic world;
microorganisms or organisms that cannot be seen
by the naked eye. He invented the first microscope.
He discovered bacteria, protozoa, nematodes,
rotifers, and many other microorganisms. He
named the tiny living organisms he observed as
animalcule. It was believed that Leeuwenhoek was
the first to observe under his microscope the
structure of a red blood cell of different animals as
well as a sperm cell.
Robert Brown
He is a Scottish botanist, provided the very first
diverse kinds of plant specimens under the
microscope, he observed that they are all
composed of cells and inside the cell is a dark
dense spot which he termed as the nucleus.
Matthias Schleiden
In, 1938, he concluded that all plants are made
up of cells.
Theodor Schwann
In 1839, he stated that all animal tissues are
made up of cells.
Rudolf Virchow
In 1858, he concluded that cells come from
pre-existing cells.
Cell Theory
The discoveries made by Hooke,
Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden, Schwann, Virchow, and
others led to the formulation of the cell theory. The
cell theory is universal for all living things, no matter
how simple or complex, tiny or huge it is.
1. All living species on earth are composed of
one or more cells.
2. The cell is the basic unit of life in all living
things.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
Lesson 1.2 The Living Cell Pt. 2 (Cell
Organelles)
Cell Shape
Each cell type has evolved a shape that is best
related to its function.
Cell Organelles
Cell structures can only be observed under
high magnification electron microscope and are
separated internally into numerous membranous
compartments called organelles. Cell organelles
are the structures and little organs of the cell.
 Cell Membrane
 Also known as plasma membrane or
plasmalemma.
  A double layered membrane that  Covered with ribosomes that make
encloses the cell. its surface look rough.
 Made up of 2 layers of phospholipids with  Proteins are produced in
proteins and carbohydrates. ribosomes and transported in
 In plant cell, a cell membrane is inside the RER.
cell wall. o Smooth ER
 Skin of the cell and protects it.  A branching canal which
 Regulates what goes in and out of the transports large molecules inside
cell. the cell.
 Protects in from foreign or external  Process lipids, carbohydrates, and
substances from the environment. get rid of toxic wastes.
 Supermeable membrane: regulates  Mitochondrion
 Cell Wall  Powerhouse of the cell.
 Additional boundary surrounding cells of  The energy transferred to a special
plants, fungi, bacteria, and some molecule that cells use to get work done
protozoans. (ATP).
 A very tough substance made up of  Can only work if they have oxygen.
cellulose, which supports the cell and  Golgi Apparatus / Golgi Complex / Golgi
protects it from an injury. Body
 Cytoplasm  Named after scientist, Camillo Golgi.
 Outside the nucleus, a clear, thick, jelly-  Looks like ER but is located closer to the
like material. cell membrane.
 The largest part of the cell where all life  Proteins from ER are delivered in Golgi
processes occurs. complex, where they are modified for
 Where the membrane-bound organelles different functions.
are located.  Lysosomes
 Nucleus  Small, round structures involved in the
 A dark-stained part enclosed by a nuclear digestive activities of the cell.
membrane or nuclear envelope.  Contains enzymes that act on food
 Controls all cellular activities. particles.
 It contains the DNA.  Common in animals, not often observed
 It is the brain of the cell. in plant cells.
 Nucleolus  Chloroplasts
 Store the materials that will be used later  The energy-capturing center in plant cells,
to make ribosomes in the cytoplasm. which involved the manufacture of the
 Disappear during cell division. cell’s food, a process known as
 Ribosomes photosynthesis.
 Tiny grain-like organelles that make  Green leaves special cells that contain
proteins. chlorophyll.
 Protein: building blocks of cells, made up  Vacuole
of chemicals known as amino acids.  Fluid-filled organelles.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum  Storage tanks (food, enzymes, and other
 A membranous structure forming a materials needed by the cell).
network of canals through which proteins  Plant: large (because it stores water);
and other molecules are transported. animals: few, small.
o Rough ER  Vesicles
 Carry materials into and out of the cell.
  These includes food particles needed by
the cell and waste products secreted by
the cell.
 Centrioles
 Only found in the animal cell.
 Paired barrel-shaped organelles located
in the cytoplasm of animal cells near the
nuclear envelope.
 Play a role in organizing microtubules that
serve as the cell’s skeletal system. They
help determine the locations of the
nucleus and other organelles within the
cell.
Lesson 1.3 Cell Types
Living organisms are all composed of cells,
and these cells have similarities and differences but
remember that most of the cells share fundamental
structure or they have the same structure.
3 Basic Structure Present in Cell
 Cell Membrane
 outer boundary of the cell and skin of
the cell for some
 helps keep the shape of the cell
 main function is to regulate which
materials enter and exit the cell
 protective covering of the cell so that
other microorganisms will not enter it
 Cytoplasm
 liquid part, gel-like structure
 contains the cell organelles, makes up
the internal environment of the cell
 reason why organelles are intact in their
place, foundation of the organelles,
helps them keep organized
 Nucleus
 brain of the cell
 contains the DNA/genetic material of an
organism
Two Main Types of Cell
Prokaryotes
 simple
 pro means before. Karyon means nucleus.
meaning “before the nucleus.”
 first cell to exist, 3.5 billion years ago. oldest
cells
 small in size (1-10um in diameter)
 simple structure
 may occur in pairs, chains, cluster, aggregates,
or colonies
 rod shape, spherical, spiral, etc.
 ex.: bacteria, blue-green algae, archaeans
(bacteria that exists in extreme environments)
 they can reproduce rapidly because of their
small size. like bacteria, they exist in great
numbers.
 90% of our body is bacteria
Bacteria Cell
 Plasma Membrane
 regulates what enters and exits the cell
 Cell Wall
 responsible for the shape
 Capsule
 outermost skin
 serves as the protective layer
 made up of group of sugars called
Polysaccharides.
 Nucleoid/Nucleoid Region (DNA)
 contains genetic material of bacterial cell.
 Cytoplasm
 contains organelles
 since prokaryotic cells do not have other
organelles, only ribosomes are present here
 Ribosomes
 produce proteins which are needed by the
cell. Protein-maker of the cell.
 Plasmid
 small, circular, double-stranded DNA
molecule that is distinct from a cell's
chromosomal DNA
 helps in the evolution of prokaryotic cells.
As a result, they develop antibacterial
resistance. It is the reason why antibacterial
pills (antibiotics) do not work.
 similar to DNA, it can be used for genetic
engineering.
 it’s like the DNA, but independent.
 located at the nucleoid region.
 when genetic engineering is performed, the
part of plasmid is cut off, then transferred to
the cell.
  they also produce rapidly. Supermeable membrane (?); It regulates the
 Cell-Surface Appendages of a Bacteria Cell substances that comes in and out of a cell. The cell
o Flagellum membrane is very selective when it comes to
 tail-like, substances going in.
 main function is to allows the bacteria to  Lipid Bilayer
move; for locomotion.  2 layers of phospholipids
o Pili
 Hydrophobic Region
 hair-like. (Pilus – singular term).  resists water
 tubular structure  Hydrophilic Region
 main function is cell to cell  attracts water
communication.
 Hydrophilic Heads
 DNA also pass through the Pili from
 yellow circle part
bacteria to another bacteria.
 forms barrier from substances
 Hydrophobic Tails
o Fimbriae
 two strands
 Looks like fibers
 the substances stop here, this is where
 present on the cell surface
filtration happens. Especially water-
 main role and function: they are the
soluble substances.
reason why bacteria can attach on
 Proteins
surfaces like doorknob and nose. It can
 maintain shape
attach on them because of the fimbriae.
 found in the surface of the cell
Eukaryotes membrane
 complex  acts as the receptors, transmits
 eu means true. meaning “true nucleus.” message to the cell interior.
 1.8 billion years ago they appeared  attached inside the cell membrane since
 larger compared to prokaryotes (10-100um in it helps with the shape of the cell.
diameter)  Transport Protein
 complex structural components  Tunnel
 contain nucleus: plant cells, animal cells  selects and manages substances that
will enter and exit the cell
 Cholesterol Molecules
Lesson 1.4 Cellular Transport  prevent hydrophobic tails from sticking
together
Mechanisms
 Carbohydrates Chains
Cell Membrane  attached to proteins that identify
chemical signals
Regulates what goes in and outside the cell
Substances are regulated and managed
Structure of the Cell Membrane because the amount of nutrients should not be too
much. Harmful substances may also affect the cell
It looks like a sandwich; hydrophilic heads are function. Should not be too much and should not be
the bread and hydrophobic tails are the filling. too little (should not be inadequate). For example,
Like a fluid mosaic; molecules are embedded too much CO2 is bad for the body, same as for the
(proteins, carbohydrates, cholesterol). The cell. Raw materials are fuel for the cell that help in
membrane resembles the fluid that moves relative the cell functions and processes like metabolism.
to the membrane.
Characteristics of Molecules
 These characteristics affect their ability to cross
the cell membrane.
1. Size
 macro (amino acids, nucleic acids,
cannot easily enter)
 micro molecules (easily goes in and out
of fell ex. H2O)
2. Charge
 polar or non-polar
3. Solubility
 non-polar soluble molecules (easily
cross the cell membrane) and large and
polar molecules (have difficulty in
crossing the cell membrane)
 are they lipid soluble
materials/molecules or not
Different Ways of Molecule Movement
Across the Cell Membrane
For molecules to pass through, there are
different mechanisms.
Passive Transport
Simple Diffusion, Osmosis and Facilitated
diffusion – their similarity is their concentration
gradient: the difference of amount of molecules
present at a particular religion, they help in
transporting these molecules. They do not require
energy.
 Simple Diffusion
 For example: in a big room, there are
three people on different corners.
Person A sprayed perfume at their
corner, Eventually, person B and C
smells the perfume at their corner. This
is because molecules spread apart that
is caused by their collision against each
other.
 Another example: breathing. Oxygen
and carbon dioxide easily enters and
exit.
 Gases needed by the body can easily
enter and exit the cell.
 higher to lower concentration.
 Osmosis
o specific type of diffusion
o refers to water molecules
o water is essential to cells for it to
perform its functions
o water is transported through
osmosis
o occur in every living cell.
o Cells in the lining of the large
intestines and in the kidney
retain water through osmosis.
 Facilitated Diffusion
 diffusion of solutes through transport
proteins in the plasma membrane.
 similar to passive diffusion, they do not
need energy.
 ex. glucose and amino acid transport,
gas transport/ventilation (transport of
oxygen to blood where hemoglobin and
myoglobin are present), ion transport.
 relies on carrier proteins to move
substances.
 these substances (amino acids, glucose,
ions) cannot diffuse freely across the
plasma membrane because of
hydrophobic nature of lipid bilayer.
Because they are electrically charged,
like sodium (positively charged)
 Factors Affecting Facilitated
Diffusion
o temp, concentration (high to
low), diffusion distance (faster
through smaller walls, opposite if
large), size of the molecules
(smaller diffuse faster).
 Two Types of Proteins
o channel proteins - passage way
of molecules
o carrier proteins - undergo binding
with molecules to assist
molecules to pass through cell
membrane
Active Transport
 ex. Swimming. Swimmer opposes the flow of
water.
 more mitochondria is needed here
 requires carrier protein and energy (ATP)
 lower to higher concentration