Data Processing and Statistical Treatment
study is to determine the job-related
After the retrieval of the research
instrument, the next activity of the
investigator is to process the raw data into
quantitative and qualitative forms. Data
involves input, throughput and output
mechanisms. Input involves the responses
from the research instrument by the subjects
of the study; throughput includes statistical
procedures and techniques; and output, the
results of the study which are presented in
data matrix form
In data processing, both quantitative
and qualitative forms are involved to arrive
at exact analysis and interpretation of the
result.
A numerical value (quantitative) is
useless without descriptive
interpretation(qualitative) of the former.
Data Processing
Data processing is a means of
converting information either manually or
by machine into quantitative and qualitative
forms for use in research analysis.
Data processing consists of three
basic steps, (1) categorization, (2) coding
and (3) tabulation of data.
Categorization of data
- 1categorization of data
refers to the grouping of subjects under
study according to the objectives or
purposes of the study.
For instance, the main purpose of the
problems and job-performance of staff nurse
in the government and private hospitals in
Iloilo City in relation to: (a) top
management, (b) middle management, (c)
lower management (d) communication, (e)
financial condition (f) hospital facilities and
(g) job hazard.
The subjects may be categorized (1)
as a whole, (2) as government and private
hospitals, (3) according to job-performance,
(4) nursing practice.
In 1986, Kerlinger stressed five rules in
categorizing research information. These
are as follow:
1. Categories are set up according to
the research problem.
2. The categories are exhaustive
3. the categories are mutually
exclusive and independent.
4. Each category (variable) is derived
from one classification
5. Any categorization scheme must
be one level of discourse.
Of the five foregoing rules, Rule 1 is best
because categories are based on the purposes
of the research problem in order to arrive at
valid results.
For example, the main problem of the study
is to determine the effectiveness of teaching
Mathematics using the traditional and
modern methods to secondary students in
public and private schools in the city and
province of Cebu. First the subjects are
categorized as a whole; second, year level;
third; as to gender; and fourth , public and
private schools.
Coding of data.
- After the subjects have been
categorized into groups and subgroups, data
are next coded by the investigator.
Information from the questionnaires, test,
interview schedules, rating scale and many
others must be transformed into coded items
to facilitate tabulation of data. The codes
may be numerical or alphabetical. The
former is commonly used due to sufficient
number coverage and is fit for computer
processing.
Tabulation of data.
- Once the raw data have
been given numerical codes, they are ready
for tabulation. This done by tallying and
counting the raw data to arrive at a
frequency distribution and to facilitate in
organizing them in a systematic order in a
table or several table. Tabulation can be
done either manually or by machine like
electric computer or mechanical counter-
sorter.
The researcher has the option to choose the
appropriate device he will use in tabulating
data, taking into consideration the
availability of resources, i.e. 7Ms
(manpower, materials, money, machinery,
methods, moment of time and marketing.)
Data Matrix
Presentation of data is usually in
tabular form. This is called data matrix and
the data processing output is either
quantitative or qualitative. Data matrices are
useful in analysis and interpretation because
they give a clear picture of the results of the
study.
Three types of data matrices.
1. Univariate matrix – a univariate
matrix involves only one variable.
2. Bivariate matrix - the bivariate
matrix involves two variable.
3. Multivariate matrix - the
multivariate matrix has three or more
variables.
Dummy Tables
Dummy tables are helpful in preparing the
data matrix because they are used in
planning, summarizing, organizing and
analyzing the data on how the different
variables differ with each other. Dummy
tables are almost similar with real tables
except that only the total number of
variables, total number of cases, percentages
are presented. Unlike real tables, the
frequency, mean, percentage, descriptive
interpretation and total are shown.
Statistical Treatment
Many researchers find difficulty to
use the appropriate statistical tools in
processing the data. It us a must that
researchers diagnose the problem by using
the appropriate statistical tool to arrive at
accurate and definite interpretation of
results. A researcher is similar with a
physician wherein the latter diagnoses the
ailment and prescribes the appropriate
medicine to cure the ailment. An ailment
cannot be cured if the physician prescribes
inappropriate medicine
Incorrect Statistical Tool
-The author read several
theses and dissertations in which the
researcher used percentage in scale options
(4, 3, 2, 1) and the like. This is a common
error. Percentage is incorrect of
inappropriate statistical tool to scale options
due to vague interpretation of the results.
Comparing the weighted arithmetic
mean and percentage as statistical tools to
scale option, the former has exact or precise
interpretation of the whole results and the
latter has varied or vague interpretation of
the results. In others words, there is no
specific or exact interpretations of results to
percentage.
Reminders:
Submission of the copy of the Statement of
the Problem (RQ/RO)
Proofread chapter 1/2/3
Submit updated Chapter 1/2/3 before Prelim
Examination
Data Analysis and Interpretation
Analysis and interpretation of results
are not easy task for the researcher to
undertake especially if he is not an expert to
diagnose the appropriate statistical tool to
answer the research problems/objectives.
Analysis should be done first before
interpretation. Analysis is useless without
interpretation and interpretation is
impossible without analysis. In other words,
analysis and interpretation should go hand in
hand in order to give meaningful results.
Interpretation is important to have a clearer
meaning of the research findings.
In analyzing the data, statistical techniques
are used to give meaning to the data
gathered from the subjects. A set of raw data
per se is meaningless but has meaning once
it is interpreted. For instance, a mean score
of 3.7 is meaningless without interpretation
but meaningful only if is interpreted as
“very much effective”.
Data Analysis
Data analysis may be defined as an
examination of data or fact in terms of
quantity, quality, attribute, trait, pattern,
trend, relationship among others so as to
answer research questions which involve
statistical techniques and procedures. The
bases in analyzing research data are specific
problems/objectives, hypotheses, measuring
instruments and statistical tools.
Types of Data Analysis k
Univariate Analysis
 - tests a single to determine
whether the sample is similar to the
population from which is has been drawn.
2. Bivariate Analysis
- tests two variables on how
they differ with each other. The common
statistical tools to be used in bivariate
analysis are correlation coefficient, z-test
(descriptive) and t-test (experimental).
Correlation coefficient used both descriptive
and experimental designs.
3. Multivariate Analysis
- tests three or more
independent variables at a time on the
degree of relationship with the dependent
variable. The statistical tools used in this
type are the F-test or analysis of variance
(ANOVA), Friedman two-way ANOVA,
and Kruskal-Wallis one-way research for
experimental design. Chi-square is used for
descriptive research. Friedman and Kruskal-
Wallis ANOVA are both applicable in
experimental and descriptive designs.
4. Normative Analysis
- Normative analysis is a type
of data analysis wherein the results of the
study is compared with the norm or
standard. The statistical tools used in this
type are the arithmetic mean and the
standard deviation.
5. Status Analysis
- Status analysis stresses real
facts relating to current conditions in a
group of subjects chosen for study. The
common statistical tools used in this type are
the arithmetic mean, standard deviation, z-
test and chi-square.
6. Descriptive Analysis
- Descriptive analysis merely
describes the characteristics, composition,
structures, and substructures that occur as
units within the larger structure. The
researcher should consider the forces that
hold together and the strains that tend to
destroy the system apart. He also analyzes
on what makes the system work and
regulate. Statistical tools commonly used in
descriptive analysis type are the arithmetic
mean, chi-square and Friedman two-way
ANOVA.
7. Classification Analysis
- usually employed in natural
science subjects such as Botany, Zoology,
Biology, Phycology, Ichthyology,
Conchology, Mycology and the like. The
specimens collected are specified form
phylum to species. Taxonomic studies of
plants and animals are commonly used in
this study.
However, if ecological parameters
such as temperature, pH, salinity, oxygen,
turbidity and many others are taken into
consideration in the study area, statistical
tools such as mean and t-test are used to test
the significant difference between means.
Moreover, if ecological parameters are not
reckoned, hence no statistical tool is used.
8. Evaluative Analysis
 - Evaluative analysis is a type
of data analysis that appraises carefully the
worthiness of the current study. The
statistical tools commonly used in this type
are weighted arithmetic mean, percentages,
Friedman two-way ANOVA and z-test.

9. Comparative Analysis
- In comparative analysis, the
researcher considers at least two entities (not
manipulated) and establishes a formal
procedure for obtaining criterion data on the
basis of which he can compare and conclude
on is better than the other. Common
statistical tools used in this type are the
mean, variances and t-test.

Cost-Effective Analysis
- Cost-effective analysis is
applicable in comparing the cost between
two or more variables and to determine
which of the variables is most effective. The
statistical tools commonly used in this type
are the arithmetic mean, variance, t-test and
F-test.