Unit Operations in

Mineral Processing
Prof. Rodrigo Serna and Dr. Robert Hartmann
Spring 2019
Aalto University
Course Outline
• What is this course about?
• Review some common unit operations used in mineral processing
and recycling operations
• Study the fundamentals and characteristics for each unit operation
and their interdependency with each other
• Define some of the parameters necessary for equipment sizing

• The course consists of

• Lectures Tuesdays (Ke3) and Thursdays (Ke4*) 14:15
+ tutorials on Fridays 12:15
• A presentation during the lectures about a flotation case study
• 5 Assignments (50%)
• Final exam on April 11th, 14:00 (50%)
• You need to submit all assignments to get a passing mark
What is minerals processing?
…using Cu processing as example

From
mine
Cu <1%

To
Mining refining
(Extraction) Cu 20-30%

Minerals Processing

Refining

3
Minerals Processing Glossary
Valuable: Mineral of interest, our product
Gangue: Everything in the mineral mixture that has no interest, no
commercial value

Concentrate: Product, high content of valuables

Tailings: Waste, low content of valuables (hopefully!)

Particle Size: Particle size distribution (e.g., d80 means the size at which
80% of all particles will be smaller)
Density: Mass contained in a volumetric unit (remember: solid particles
have bulk, particle and wall density)

Recovery: Product yield

Grade: Concentration of valuables

4
Unit operations in a Cu processing
plant

1. Comminution
From mine

5
A. Lossin “Copper” in Ullman’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (2001)
Comminution - Introduction

• The purpose of comminution is twofold:

 Mineral bodies produced during extraction are too large for further processing
• Concentration operations have an optimum performance at specific ranges of particle size
 Valuables are finely disseminated and intimately associated with the gangue
• Thus, valuables need to be “liberated” or “unlocked” before separation takes place
• Comminution in a mineral processing plant involves a sequence of crushing and grinding
steps until the appropriate size is achieved

Liberation

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Comminution - Crushers
• Crushing
• First processing stage treats
large mineral bodies out of the
mine Primary crusher

• Processes coarse particles, but

small reduction ratios are
expected
• Usually crushing is performed Secondary crusher

dry, by compression or impact

against rigid surfaces
• Performed in stages: Primary
crushers (from 1,5 m feed Screen

down to 20 cm) and Secondary

crushers (down to 0,5-2 cm Grinding
particle size) Tertiary crusher
Mill
 Comminuiton - Crushers
• Primary crushers
• Heavy duty machines, used to handle run-of-mine ore
• Produce feed to semi-autogenous (SAG) mill or secondary crushers
• Examples:
- Jaw crushers

Width

feed size:
Angle of nip up to 1.5 m
Gape
product size:
200 - 300 mm

Q = BSs ( cot a) k ( 60n)

inst. power:
Closed side setting up to 400 kW

capacity: Q = volumetric capacity (m3/h)

up to 1200 t/h
B = inner width of crusher (m)
Open side setting
S = open side setting (m)
Jaw crusher
s = throw (m) = open set. – close set.
a = angle of nip
k = material constant (typically 1,5 – 2)
n = speed of crusher (rpm)
 Comminuiton - Crushers
• Primary crushers Angle of nip

• Examples: Closed side setting

Open side setting
- Gyratory crushers

Gape Mantle diameter

feed size:
1,5 m

product size:
200 -300 mm

inst. power: Q = ( D - S ) p Ss ( cot a) k ( 60n)

up to 1000 kW
Q = volumetric capacity (m3/h)
capacity: D = diameter of head mantle at discharge (m)
up to 10000 t/h
S = open side setting (m)
s = throw (m)
Gyratory crusher a = angle of nip
k = material constant (typically 2 – 3)
n = speed of crusher (rpm)
Comminution - Crushers
• Secondary crushers
• Have the purpose to prepare ore to a size suitable for grinding
• Typically, most harmful components (tramp metal, wood, clays) have
been removed during primary crushing stage so they handle easier ore
• Examples:
- Cone crushers

feed size:
450 mm (secondary)
300 mm (tertiary)

product size:
60-80 mm (secondary)
<30 mm (tertiary)

inst. power:
up to 1500 kW

capacity:
up to 1200 t/h (secondary)
up to 1000 t/h (tertiary)

Analogous to gyratory crushers:

Q = ( D - S ) p Ss ( cot a) k ( 60n)
Comminution - Crushers
• Secondary crushers
• Examples:
- Grinding rolls
- Used mainly to treat sticky, frozen and non-
abrasive feeds

Q =188, 5NDrd
Q = theoretical capacity (kg/h)
N = speed of rolls (rpm)
D = roll diameter (m)
r = density of material (kg/m3)
d = distance between rolls (m)
Comminution - Crushers
• Grinding rolls

1 – profiled roll (camshaft)

2 – pitman
3 – swing axes
Comminution - Crushers
• Grinding rolls – material feeding

a. vertical feed with decreasing diameter of the spiral

b. inclined feed with constant diameter of the spiral
c. as in a
d. Horizontal feed with constant diameter of spiral
Signs of Wear in Comminution
Dissolution/
Concave wear Breakage
washing out
Comminution - Crushers
• But remember, actual sizing
of a crusher will be done Example: Metso Mineral’s specifications
based on: for C-series jaw crushers

 Laboratory and pilot testing

using relevant mineral samples
 Experience of the operators,
engineers and suppliers
 Technical specifications of
equipment
- Expected feed and product particle
size
- Flow throughput
- Energy consumption
- Price and availability of
consumables
Comminution - Crushers

What trends
can you identify
from these
data?

Example: Metso Mineral’s specifications

for C-series jaw crushers
 Griffith theory
BREAKAGE RESISTANCE

• Strength increases as size

decreases
• The cracks become shorter as
particle become smaller
• There might be substantial plastic
deformation before breakage
• This reflects the need of using
crushing or grinding by stages
• With smaller particle sizes, the
number of defects and Material strength as a function of size. a) glass
beads,b) boron carbide, c) crystalline boron, d)
inhomogeneities are decreasing clincer, e) crystalline limestone, f) cane sugar, g)
quartz, h) limestone ja i) coal.

17
Comminution - Crushers
Factors influencing the selection and sizing of crushers1
• Plant throughput
• Primary jaw crushers are more suitable for underground mines
• Lower throughputs, relatively smaller feed size
• Primary gyratory crushers typically used for open-pit mining
• Higher throughput
• Feed size
• Crushers are sized for throughput and larger size of rock expected
• A balance between these two must be found
• Size of the preceding stage is a determining factor in multi-stage crushing circuits
• Product size
• Target product size determines the number of stages required
• The use of vibrating screens ensures that oversize does not generate inefficiencies
downstream

1K.Major, “Factors influencing the selection and sizing of crushers” in

Recent Advances in Mineral Processing Plant Design, 2009, p. 356
Comminution - Crushers
Factors influencing the selection and sizing of crushers1
• Ore characteristics
• Hardness, abrasiveness, moisture content, mineralization
• Jaw and cone crushers are optimal for hard ores with minimal fines
• Soft ores with high moisture content and fines are processed by rotary breakers and roller
crushers
• Should take in consideration the variation of minerals processes during the life
of the mine
• Climatic conditions
• If the plant is in a dry, warm climate, crushers can be designed for outside
installation
• In wet and/or cold climates, crushing plants should be enclosed for accessibility
and equipment protection
• There are significant capital and operating costs for enclosed circuits
• Downstream process
• What comes later? Heap leach, SAG mills, rod/ball mills?

1K.Major, “Factors influencing the selection and sizing of crushers” in

Recent Advances in Mineral Processing Plant Design, 2009, p. 356
Comminution Crushers
Example:

The following crusher circuit has a fresh feed of 200 ton/h dry ore. The screen has an opening of 13 mm and an
efficiency of 80%*. It is estimated that 20% of the fresh feed is finer than 13 mm. The crusher will operate with a
closed side setting of 10 mm. Based on the product data provided by the manufacturer with this setting (below),
what capacity should the crusher have?

With this information, could you propose an adequate crusher supplied by Metso?
(Look for data in Metso’s “Basics in minerals processing handbook” also available online)

* NOTE: The efficiency of the screen is defined as the fraction of particles fed to the screen with a size smaller
than the screen opening that are actually passing

Feed

Screen

Crusher

To Milling
Week 1
Comminution
Comminution - Mills
SAG mill

Ball mill
Ball mill

22
Comminution - Mills
Milling
• Preparation of ore particles before concentration of valuables

• Particles are reduced by a combination of impact and abrasion, either

dry or in suspension

• Requires a grinding medium: loose crushing bodies that move freely

inside the mill

- Tumbling mills or stirred mills

Stirred mill example: IsaMill

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Comminution - Mills

Milling
• Ore sizes are reduced down to micrometer-scale
• Grinding is by far the most energy-demanding operation in a minerals
processing plant!!!
- Represents more than 50% of the total energy consumed in the plant
- Operation of the mill should produce an economic optimum particle size
- Milling circuits are used to optimize grinding, thus classification is of
high importance

Where:
Wi = Bond work index, an empirically measured constant
P = Size at which 80% of product passes
F = Size at which 80% of feed passes

Thus, energy required is an exponential function of the

difference between feed and product size

…more about Bond Index later

24
Tumbling Mills

• Operating variables:
• Volume loading of the mill
• Size of grinding media
• Mill rotational speed (function of
power)
• The limitation on the ball mill is
the motor power draw, which will
determine the maximum ball
load.

• Three elements are considered

as the main costs in mills:
• Energy consumption
• Grinding media
• Liners
• The % costs of these elements Distribution of operating costs
will depend on the type of mill in tumbling mills
Comminution
Types of Tumbling Mills (1/3)
• Autogenous mills
• Use the ore itself for grinding
• Semi-autogenous (SAG) mills make use of the ore itself as grinding medium,
aided by milling balls
• High-aspect ratio (diameter is 1.5-3 times its length), square mills (diameter is
equal to length) or low-aspect ratio (length is 1.5-3 times its diameter)
• Classification of autogenous mills
• Fully autogenous, AG, ROM (run-of-mine)
- Pre-crushed rock (ore) 3-400 mm
• Semiautogenous, SAG
- Same as above. + large steel balls (150mm) 5-15%
• Lump mill
- Screened fraction 200-300mm rock (ore)
as grinding media
• Pebble mill
- Screened fraction 50-100mm rock (ore)
as grinding media
Comminution
Types of Tumbling Mills (2/3)
• Rod mills
• Mill-length rods as grinding media
• Used for primary grinding
• Mill length between 1.5-2.5 times its diameter
• Size reduction mainly achieved by compression between rods and
attrition
Gear wheel
Feed chute
Lining

Trunnion
Lining bolts

Pinion
Trunnion bearings 27
Base, base bolts
Comminution
Types of Tumbling Mills (3/3)
• Ball mills
• Use 10-125 mm balls as grinding media
• Used for primary, secondary or tertiary grinding
• Mill length between 1-1.5 times its diameter
• Size reduction mainly by impact
Gear wheel
Feed chute
Lining

Trunnion
Lining bolts

Trunnion bearings 28
Base, base bolts
Comminution - Mills
The size of feed determines the type of mill

29
Comminution - Mills
• Three breaking patterns can occur depending on the size of
the ore
• Therefore, the comminution strategy depends on the most
probable way of breakage
Compression/
Impact Abrasion
Attrition

BIG rocks Medium Rocks Smaller ore particles

>106 mm >16 mm<106 mm <16 mm

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Method compression impact attrition abrasion
COARSE
crushers XX
impact crushers XX
MEDIUM COARSE
Chilean mills XX X
HPGR XX X
tumbling mills XX XX XX X
FINE
vibrating mills X XX XX
planetary mills X XX X
hammer mills XX
shears XX X
SUPER FINE
fine impact mills XX XX
micronizers XX XX X
impact jet mills XX XX X
jet mills X XX X
stirred bead mills XX XX
shear mills XX XX 31
Comminution - Mills
Critical Speed
• Movement of grinding media is a balance of two force components: gravitational
and centripetal
• When a “critical speed” is reached, centrifugation occurs… this is undesired, since
no grinding will occur

Rotational speed

Cascading Cataracting Centrifuging

Gravitational
acceleration

Radius of Radius of
Critical speed
mill grinding media

32
Ball mills
speed 60% of critical 70%

Shoulder

Toe
85%

33
Comminution - Mills

Effect of mill speed on power draft

Normal operating
range

34
Comminution - Mills

Hardness in a ball mill refers to the energy required to squeeze the particles to a specific smaller size

Specific Bond work index

Work input [kW h ton-1]

d80 particle size d80 particle size
of product of feed
The Bond work index (Wi) is the energy (in kW h ton-1) required to reduce particles with infinite size
down to a d80 of 100 micron
Remember:
The Bond Work input must be quoted with the final product size it is achieving. For example:
Bond Work input = 20 kWh/t does not mean anything.
Bond Work Input = 20 kWh/t to reach d80=106 micron is useful.

35
Comminution: Mills
Power draft
• Most of the power is consumed setting the milling media in motion
• Power is mainly a function of mill diameter, length, charge volume,
rotational speed and mill type

Mill inner Loading Factor Speed Factor

length [m] (from Figure) (from Figure)

Power draft [kW]

Mill inner Mill-type factor
diameter [m] 1 = wet overflow
1.13 = wet diaphragm/wet peripheral
1.25 = dry diaphragm/dry peripheral

Note: For short autogenous mills, the DM exponent is higher, with

reported values of 2.6 - 2.85

36
Grinding media
• As milling progresses, grinding media is
depleted, requiring continuous addition
of new rods or balls
• An empirical formula to calculate the
size of new grinding media:
æ ö æ
1/2
æ ö
1/2
æ ö ö
1/3
d W r
Dm = ç 80 1/4i çç s ÷÷ ç ÷÷ ç
1 7800
÷
ç KDM è r f ø è %nc ø÷ è rm ø
è ø
Dm = diameter of media [m]
d80 = 80% passing size of feed [m]
Wi = work index [kWh/ton]
K = 0,46 for ball mills; 0,69 for rod mills
DM = diameter of mill [m]
rs = density of feed [g/cm3]
rf = density of fluid [g/cm3]
%nc = percentage of critical speed [%]
rm = density of media [kg/m3]

• For economical reasons, typically balls

are >25 mm and rods >60 mm
Mill filling

Theoretically the highest power draw

is obtained when media filling is 46-
48%
For wet ball mill the best operational
regime is 35-40%
Rod mills need to be operated at a
much lower filling. Optimal is 25-
35%
Dry mills need to be operated also at a
filling around 25%

NOTE: If a mill is operated at high mill

filling, the risk of mill overflow
increases, too

38
Ball mills – Filling of the grinding chamber

Degree of filling
Ratio Hi / Di
Hi – free height
Di – inner diameter

φMK – solid content of mill balls (Vol-%) mMK – mass of mill balls
VMK – Volume of mill balls εMK,Schuett – porosity / void volume
39
VM – Volume of the mill (εMK,Schuett = 0,359)
 lifter bar
Mill liners
The purpose of liners is to protect
the mill shell from impact with base plate
grinding media
The design in mill liners also help
to set the grinding media in
motion
rubber liners for smaller mills
• up to 6-7 m diameter
• good for abrasive material
steel for large mills
• all large SAG, rod mills
• good for soft materials
steel cap

40
Mill liners

Optimal power draw

obtained when the ratio
between lifter height (B)
and lifter spacing (A) is Wave liner in a rod mill

A/B≈3,5…4

B A

Hi-Lo liner

copyright H.Myllykangas
41
Mill liners

42
 Liners, shape of lifters for autogenous
mills
• As diameters are large, take very careful
design to have cataract movements just
to the toe
• Cascading design not appropriate
• Wave lifters/double wave:
• Very common
• Attrition and compression, good for finer
feed
- high wear due to slippage

• Hi-Lo also widely used (steel)

• Rubber / steel cap lifters only for lump

and pebble mills
Liners, shape of lifters for rod mills

• Must be designed for low throw: Always

cascading!
• Due to rod weight, impacts directly to
liners cannot be permitted
• Wave lifters: larger throw
• More impact grinding, good for coarser
feed
• Tough for liners
• ”Shiplap” lifters: smaller throw
• More attrition and compression, good for
finer feed
• High wear due to slippage
• Rubber / steel cap lifters only for smaller
mills
Liners, shape of lifters for ball mills

• Can be designed also to have high

throw
• Cataract movement permitted, but only
if impact to ball bed is in the toe area
• Wave lifters: seldom used
• Hi-Lo: larger throw
• Control of throw by tapering the high
bars
• Rubber liners very common
Assignment 1.

“Good judgment comes from experience,

and a lot of that comes from bad judgment!”
-Will Rogers (comedian)

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