4 Heat Treatment

CHAPTER 4
Metal Alloys:
Their Structure and
Strengthening by Heat
Treatment
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology © 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 4-1
Pearlite Microstructure
Figure 4.11 Microstructure of
pearlite in 1080 steel, formed
from austenite of eutectoid
composition. In this lamellar
structure, the lighter regions
are ferrite, and the darker
regions are carbide.
Magnification: 2500X.
Source: Courtesy of USX
Corporation.
Austenite, Ferrite, and Martensite
Figure 4.9 The unit cells for (a) austenite, (b) ferrite, and (c) martensite. The effect of
percentage of carbon (by weight) on the lattice dimensions for martensite is shown in (d). Note
the interstitial position of the carbon atoms (see Fig. 1.9). Note, also, the increase in dimension
c with increasing carbon content; this effect causes the unit cell of martensite to be in the shape
of a rectangular prism.
Induction-Hardened Surface
Figure 4.1 Cross-section

of gear teeth showing
induction-hardened
surfaces. Source:
TOCCO Div., Park-Ohio
Industries, Inc.
Chapter 4 Outline
Figure 4.2 Outline of topics described in Chapter 4.
Heat Treatment of Steels
Three major categories of heat

treatments
Methods of softening steels
Methods of hardening steels
Methods of modifying the
properties of steels
Methods of Softening Steels
Annealing is the softening of a metal to its

softest possible condition. For steels, the
metal must be heated into the austenitic
range and cooled very slowly.
Normalizing is a heat treatment used to

give steel an even GRAIN size. It is used
prior to machining or other heat treatments.
Mechanical Properties of Annealed Steels
Figure 4.16 Mechanical properties of annealed steels, as a function of composition and

microstructure. Note (in (a)) the increase in hardness and strength and (in (b)) the decrease in
ductility and toughness, with increasing amounts of pearlite and iron carbide. Source: L. H. Van
Vlack; Materials for Engineering. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.
Hardness and Toughness of Annealed Steels
Figure 4.15 (a) and (b) Hardness and (c) toughness for annealed plain-carbon steels, as a function
of carbide shape. Carbides in the pearlite are lamellar. Fine pearlite is obtained by increasing the
cooling rate. The spheroidite structure has spherelike carbide particles. Note htat the percentage of
pearlite begins to decrease after 0.77% carbon. Source: L. H. Van Vlack; Materials for Engineering.
Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.
Methods of Hardening Steels
Can be done by flame, induction, electron

beams, and laser beam
Quenching is the rapid cooling of a metal to

harden it.
Cryogenics, or deep freezing
done to make sure there is no retained
Austenite during quenching.
When steel is at the hardening temperature,
there is a solid solution of Carbon and Iron,
known as Austenite.
The amount of Martensite formed at quenching
is a function of the lowest temperature
encountered.
At any given temperature of quenching there is
a certain amount of Martensite and the balance
is untransformed Austenite. This untransformed
austenite is very brittle and can cause loss of
strength or hardness, dimensional instability, or
cracking.
Quenches are usually done to room temperature. Most
medium carbon steels and low alloy steels undergo
transformation to 100 % Martensite at room
temperature.
High carbon and high alloy steels have retained
Austenite at room temperature. To eliminate retained
Austenite, the temperature has to be lowered.
In Cryogenic treatment the material is subject to deep
freeze temperatures of as low as -185°C (-301°F),
but usually -75°C (-103°F) is sufficient.
The Austenite is unstable at this temperature, and the
whole structure becomes Martensite.
Martensite
(b)
Figure 4.18 (a) Hardness of martensite, as a function of carbon content. (b) Micrograph of
martensite containing 0.8% carbon. The gray platelike regions are martensite; they have the same
composition as the original austenite (white regions). Magnification: 1000X. Source: Courtesy of
USX Corporation.
Surface Hardening
If steel is hardened all the way through the part, it will
be brittle. In parts that have wearing surfaces such as
gear teeth, shafts, lathe beds, and cams, only the
surface of the part should be hardened so as to leave
the inside soft and ductile.
Flame hardening is widely used in deep hardening for
large substrates.
Induction hardening is suitable for small parts in
production lines.
These processes are applicable only to steels that have
sufficient carbon and alloy content to allow quench
hardening.
Induction Heating
Figure 4.26 Types of coils used in induction heating of various surfaces of parts.
Case Hardening
If low-carbon steel is used and toughness is
need in the workpiece, its surface cannot be
significantly hardened. Therefore a process to
add carbon or nitrogen to the surface is done.
Done by carburizing, nitriding, carbonitriding or
cyaniding
These elements diffuses into the outer layers of the
steel to increase hardness.
The steel surface can then be hardened by
QUENCHING.
Outline of Heat Treatment
Processes for Surface Hardening
TABLE 4.1
Process Metals hardened Element added to Procedure General Characteristics Typical applications
surface
Carburizing Low-carbon steel C Heat steel at 870–950 °C (1600–1750 A hard, high-carbon surface is Gears, cams, shafts,
(0.2% C), alloy °F) in an atmosphere of carbonaceous produced. Hardness 55 to 65 bearings, piston pins,
steels (0.08–0.2% gases (gas carburizing) or carbon- HRC. Case depth < 0.5–1.5 mm sprockets, clutch plates
C) containing solids ( < 0.020 to 0.060 in.). Some
(pack carburizing). Then quench. distortion of part during heat
treatment.
Carbonitriding Low-carbon steel C and N Heat steel at 700–800 °C (1300–1600 Surface hardness 55 to 62 HRC. Bolts, nuts, gears
°F) in an atmosphere of carbonaceous Case depth 0.07 to 0.5 mm
gas and ammonia. Then quench in oil. (0.003 to 0.020 in.). Less
distortion than in
carburizing.
Cyaniding Low-carbon steel C and N Heat steel at 760–845 °C (1400–1550 Surface hardness up to 65 HRC. Bolts, nuts, screws, small
(0.2% C), alloy °F) in a molten bath of solutions of Case depth 0.025 to 0.25 mm gears
steels (0.08–0.2% cyanide (e.g., 30% sodium cyanide) and (0.001 to 0.010 in.). Some
C) other salts. distortion.
Nitriding Steels (1% Al, N Heat steel at 500–600 °C (925–1100 °F) Surface hardness up to 1100 Gears, shafts, sprockets,
1.5% Cr, 0.3% in an atmosphere of ammonia gas or HV. Case depth 0.1 to 0.6 mm valves, cutters, boring
Mo), alloy steels mixtures of molten cyanide salts. No (0.005 to 0.030 in.) and 0.02 to bars, fuel-injection pump
(Cr, Mo), stainless further treatment. 0.07 mm (0.001 parts
steels, high-speed to 0.003 in.) for high speed
tool steels steel.
Boronizing Steels B Part is heated using boron-containing Extremely hard and wear Tool and die steels
gas or solid in contact with part. resistant surface. Case depth
0.025– 0.075 mm (0.001–
0.003 in.).
Flame hardening Medium-carbon None Surface is heated with an oxyacetylene Surface hardness 50 to 60 HRC. Gear and sprocket teeth,
steels, cast irons torch, then quenched with water spray or Case depth 0.7 to 6 mm (0.030 axles, crankshafts, piston
other quenching methods. to 0.25 in.). Little distortion. rods, lathe beds and
centers
Induction Same as above None Metal part is placed in copper induction Same as above Same as above
hardening coils and is heated by high frequency
current, then quenched.
Hardness
Is a function of the Carbon content of the steel.

Requires a change in structure from the body-
centered cubic structure found at room
temperature to the face-centered cubic
structure found in the Austenitic region.
Steel is heated to Autenitic region. When
suddenly quenched, the Martensite is formed.
This is a very strong and brittle structure.
Hardenability
The ease with which full hardness can be
achieved throughout the material.
A measure of the depth of full hardness achieved
Is related to the type and amount of alloying
elements.
Different alloys, which have the same amount of
Carbon content, will achieve the same amount of
maximum hardness; however, the depth of full
hardness will vary with the different alloys.
The reason to alloy steels is not to increase their
strength, but increase their hardenability
Figure 4.20 (a)
End-quench test
and cooling rate.
(b) Hardenability
curves for five
different steels,
as obtained from
the end-quench
test. Small
variations in
composition can
End-Quench change the shape
of these curves.
Hardenability Each curve is
actually a band,
Test and its exact
determination is
important in the
heat treatment of
metals, for better
control of
properties.
Source: L. H. Van
Vlack; Materials
for Engineering.
Addison-Wesley
Publishing Co.,
Inc., 1982.
Methods Of Modifying
The Properties Of Steels
Tempering – is the removal of internal
stresses in a metal by heating the part back
to a temperature between 200 – 1200 deg F,
for an appropriate time based on part size
and desired tempering.
Spheroidizing – done by heating the steel

to a temperature just under 1300 deg F and
held for a period based on size. Grains will
be changed into small spheres
Properties of Oil-Quenched Steel
Figure 4.25 Mechanical properties
of oil-quenched 4340 steel, as a
function of tempering temperature.
Source: Courtesy of LTV Steel
Company
Eutectoid Steel Microstructure
Figure 4.17
Microstructure of eutectoid
steel. Spheroidite is
formed by tempering the
steel at 700 °C (1292 °F).
Magnification: 1000X.
Source: Courtesy of USX
Corporation.
Methods Of Modifying
The Properties Of Steels
Martempering
steel is quenched from the austenitic
temperature to just above the MARTENSITE
start temperature
held there for a few seconds to a few minutes
and then quenched.
It is used to provide an even-sized martensite
throughout the part.
Hardness of Tempered Martensite
Figure 4.19
Hardness of
tempered
martensite, as a
function of
tempering time, for
1080 steel
quenched to 65
HRC. Hardness
decreases because
the carbide particles
coalesce and grow
in size, thereby
increasing the
interparticle
distance of the
softer ferrite.
Methods Of Modifying The
Properties Of Steels
Austempering –
steel is quenched to just above the
MARTENSITE start temperature
held there for several hours before lowering the
temperature to room conditions.
The grain structure of the steel will be entirely
bainitic
Bainite has some of the hardness properties of
martensite and some of the toughness
properties of pearlite
Heat Treatment Processes
Figure 4.23 Heat-treating temperature ranges
for plain-carbon steels, as indicated on the
iron-iron carbide phase diagram. Source:
ASM International.
Figure 4.24 Hardness of steels in the quenched and

normalized conditions, as a function of carbon
content.
Austenite to Pearlite Transformation (cont.)
Figure 4.14 (c) Microstructures

obtained for a eutectoid iron-
carbon alloy as a function of
cooling rate. Source: ASM
International.
Figure 4.14 (a)
Austenite-to-pearlite
transformation of iron-
Austenite to carbon alloy as a
functionof time and
Pearlite temperature. (b)
Isothermal
Transformation transformation diagram
obtained from (a) for a
transformation
temperature of 675 °C
(1247 °F). (continued)
Temperature-Time-Transformation Diagram
transformation
austenite
Temperature (C)
pearlite
bct
• A-B-C-D is one pathway. Time (hrs)
• Microstructure and mechanical properties depend on path (how fast
quench/anneal, etc.), e.g., non-equilibrium BCT Martensite formed by rapid
quench from austenite.
Ex: Cooling History in Fe-C
• Eutectoid composition, Co = 0.77wt%C
• Begin at T > 727C
• Rapidly cool to 625C and hold isothermally.
-Curves show %
transformation.
- Note formation at
GBs to reduce free
energy.
Pearlite Morphology
Two cases:
• Ttransf just below TE • Ttransf well below TE
--Larger T: diffusion is faster --Smaller T: diffusion is slower
--Pearlite is coarser. --Pearlite is finer.
Adapted from Fig. 10.6 (a) and (b),Callister 6e.
- Smaller ∆T: - Larger ∆T:

colonies are colonies are
larger smaller
Non-equilibrium Products in Fe-C
• Bainite:
-α lathes with long rods of Fe3C
-diffusion controlled.
• Isothermal TTT Diagram Fe 3C
(cementite)
α (ferrite)
5 µm
(Adapted from Fig. 10.8, Callister, 6e.
Adapted from Fig. 10.9,Callister 6e.
• Spheroidite:
-α crystals with spherical Fe3C
-diffusion dependent. α
-heat bainite or pearlite for long times (ferrite)
-reduces interfacial area (driving force)
• Isothermal TTT Diagram Fe 3C
(cementite)
60 µm
Adapted from Fig. 10.10, Callister, 6e.
Adapted from Fig. 10.9,Callister 6e.
• Martensite:
--γ(FCC) to Martensite (BCT)
(involves single atom jumps)
x
60 µm
Fe atom potential
x x
sites x x C atom sites Fig. 11.12
x Fig. 11.11
• Isothermal Transf. Diagram

Martentite needles
Austenite
Fig. 11.13
• γ to M transformation..
- is rapid!
- % transf. depends on T only.
T-T-T Diagram for “Designing” Microstructure
Complete Isothermal Diagram for
Iron-Carbon of eutectoid composition Consider Pathways
Austenite A: rapidly cool to 350 C;
: hold for 104 s;
: quench to R.T.
Pearlite
A (100% Bainite)
B: rapidly cool to 250 C;
Bainite : hold for 100 s;
: quench to R.T.
Austenite B (100% Martensite)
* Below 215 C austenite begins to

change instantly to Martensite.
Martensite is a diffusionless
Martensite change in structure locally (fcc ->
bct).
B* A
T-T-T Diagram for “Designing” Microstructure
Complete Isothermal Diagram for
Iron-Carbon of eutectoid composition Consider Pathway
Austenite C: rapidly cool to 650 C;
: hold for 20 s;
: rapidly cool to 400 C for 103 s;
Pearlite : quench to R.T.
C (50% Pearlite and 50% Bainite)

Bainite * Transformation of Austenite at 400 C
50-50 A/P like starting at zero time.
Austenite
• Time-Temperature treatment
controls the microstructure.
• To alter, must re-heat and regain
Martensite Austenite phase completely.
C
Mechanical Behavior of Fe-C
pearlite pearlite
+ ferrite + Fe3C
• More wt%C: hardness increases, and ductility decreases.
• Fine Pearlite vs Martensite:
• Hardness: fine pearlite << martensite.
Tempering of Martensite
• reduces brittleness of martensite,
• reduces internal stress caused by quenching.
Summary: Processing Options
Synopsis on TTT Diagram and Microstructure
• Two-phase regions containing metal + ordered compound needed.
• Two-phase microstructure (with stiffer compound) leads to

increase in TS, UTS, Hardness but to decrease in ductility.
• Type of microstructure dictates affect on mechanical behavior.

e.g., Al-Al2Cu (equilibrium case) and Fe-Fe3C (metastable case).
planar precipitates pearlite, bainite, austenite, ferrite, spheriodite
• Controlling composition, fractions of phases, microstructure

via T-T-T diagram reveals processing route and subsequent
mechanical behavior.
• Difference between substitutional compound or solid solution

and interstitial compound (atom + small impurity).

4 Heat Treatment

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4 Heat Treatment

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CHAPTER 4

Figure 4.1 Cross-section

Figure 4.2 Outline of topics described in Chapter 4.

Three major categories of heat

Annealing is the softening of a metal to its

Normalizing is a heat treatment used to

Figure 4.16 Mechanical properties of annealed steels, as a function of composition and

Can be done by flame, induction, electron

Quenching is the rapid cooling of a metal to

Is a function of the Carbon content of the steel.

Spheroidizing – done by heating the steel

Figure 4.24 Hardness of steels in the quenched and

Figure 4.14 (c) Microstructures

Adapted from Fig. 10.6 (a) and (b),Callister 6e.

- Smaller ∆T: - Larger ∆T:

Adapted from Fig. 10.9,Callister 6e.

Adapted from Fig. 10.9,Callister 6e.

• Isothermal Transf. Diagram

Austenite B (100% Martensite)

* Below 215 C austenite begins to

C (50% Pearlite and 50% Bainite)

• More wt%C: hardness increases, and ductility decreases.

• Hardness: fine pearlite << martensite.

• Two-phase regions containing metal + ordered compound needed.

• Two-phase microstructure (with stiffer compound) leads to

• Type of microstructure dictates affect on mechanical behavior.

• Controlling composition, fractions of phases, microstructure

• Difference between substitutional compound or solid solution

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