See

discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236670906

Biogeographic Map of South America. A

preliminary survey

Article · December 2011

CITATIONS READS

15 657

4 authors, including:

A. Penas Manuel Costa

Universidad de León University of Valencia
185 PUBLICATIONS 1,696 CITATIONS 38 PUBLICATIONS 225 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Clasificación Biogeografica para los Llanos de Venezuela View project

All content following this page was uploaded by A. Penas on 18 May 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. All in-text references underlined in blue are added to the original document
and are linked to publications on ResearchGate, letting you access and read them immediately.
International Journal of Geobotanical Research, Vol. nº 1, December 2011, pp. 21-40 + Map

Biogeographic Map of South America. A preliminary survey.

Salvador RIVAS-MARTÍNEZ a, Gonzalo NAVARRO b, Angel PENAS c and Manuel COSTAd

a
Phytosociological Research Center, Collado-Villalba, Madrid, Spain. E-mail: rivas-martinez.cif@tsai.es
b
Catholic University "San Pablo". Cochabamba. Bolivia. E-mail: gonzalonavarrosanchez@gmail.com
c
Department of. Biodiversity & Environmental Management (Botany).Faculty of. Biology & Environmental Sciences. Mountain
Livestock Institute (CSIC-University of Leon). University of Leon. Spain. E-mail: a@unileon.es.
d
Botanical Garden of Valencia. Spain. E-mail: manuel.costa@uv.es

With the collaboration of: Javier Amigo (Chile and Argentina), Alindo Butzke (Brazil), Sara del Río (Argentina, Brazil and Para-
guay), Antonio Galán (Perú), José Guevara (Venezuela), Jesús Izco (Ecuador), Eduardo Martínez Carretero (Argentina), Orlando
Rangel (Colombia), Salvador Rivas Sáenz (South America bioclimate expert), Fidel Roig (†) (Argentina), Daniel Sánchez-Mata
(South Chile), Leopoldo G. Sancho (South Chile and Antarctica), Pilar Soriano (Venezuela) and Oscar Tovar (†) (Perú).

Abstract

The biogeographic map of South America showing the biogeographic units up to the provincial level is published in this paper as a
preliminary survey. From Honduras (Central America) to the Antarctic Peninsula we recognize: 1 kingdom, 3 subkingdoms, 4 supe-
regions, 13 regions and 53 biogeographic provinces. A brief description is given of each one of the 13 regions, indicatng its limits
and main bioclimatic factors. The biogeographic map is accompanied on a smaller scale by a bioclimate map, and another subking-
dom map and a physical geography map.

Keywords: Biogeography, Map, South Americ

Introduction one single type of potential vegetation (climax) and as

Biogeography is the science which studies the dis-
tribution of species and biocoenosis on earth, as well as
the relationships between them and their causes. It ta-
kes into account the areas of taxa and syntaxa (choro-
logy), in addition to information from other nature
sciences (geography, soil science, bioclimatology, geo-
logy, etc.), and attempts to establish a hierarchical ty-
pology of the territories on the planet, whose main
units in decreasing rank are as follows: kingdom, re-
gion, province, sector, district, area, landscape cell and
tesela (RIVAS-MARTÍNEZ & AL., 2007, 2011). Biogeo-
graphy has been twinned with phytogeography due to
the value of plant species and communities in its defi-
nition and de-limittation.
Concepts on biogeographical units
The elementary biogeographic terrestrial unit or the
unit of the lowest rank is the tesela, which we define as
a geographic space with a greater or lesser extension,
ecologically homogeneous –that is to say, it has only
a result, a single sequence of substitute communities.
The tesela and the permatesela (conceived within
the framework of dynamic-catenal phytosociology lo-
cated in exceptional sites: polar, fluvial, lake and mari-
ne lands-capes, deserts, high-mountain summits, dunes
and rock formations, coastal cliffs, etc. in which the
permanent vegetation growing in these elementary spa-
ces lacks perennial substitution units) are the only bio-
geographical units which can be repeated in a disjunc-
tive manner.
The landscape cells, such as peni-plains in horst,
river valleys, lake systems, marshes, mountain sum-
mits, etc., are constituted in a broad geographic space
characterized by a series of teselas or permateselas and
their corresponding complexes, assembled by networks
of geosygmeta and geopermasygmeta based on the re-
lief or on the soils in the territory.
The biogeographical country must be an extensive
and clearly delimited territory which possesses an a-
bundant group of landscape cells, species, associations,
and above all, peculiar topographical geosygmeta.

_______________________________________________________________________________
Correspondence: Ängel Penas. Department of. Biodiversity & Environmental Management (Botany).Faculty of. Biology &
Environmental Sciences. Mountain Livestock Institute (CSIC-University of Leon). University of Leon. Spain. E-mail:
apenm@unileon.es.
ISSN: 2253-6302 print/ISSN: 2253-6515 on line ©Editaefa
DOI: 10.5616/ijgr110002
22 S. Rivas-Martínez, G. Navarro, A. Penas & M. Costa

The district is a series of biogeographical countries, entity is the distinguishing and mapping of taxa (fami-
characterized by the existence of numerous differential lies, genera, species and subspecies) whose territorial
species and even endemic taxa in the coastal, oreadic distribution is closely restricted to one particular area.
and interior halophilous zones, which permit their se- These taxa are termed endemisms. Endemisms have
paration from the adjacent taxa; it also comprises an in- been successfully used to define and delimit the choro-
dependent unit through its associations, series, geose- logical or biogeographical units (provinces, sectors), as
ries and geoclinoseries which are absent in nearby dis- they form part of the phytogeographical subelement
tricts. which characterises them. Moreover, the endemisms
The sector is a grouping of districts with a large- (taxa or syntaxa) which have a greater area or are re-
scale geographic entity, which possesses its own ende- gional, and those which for migratory reasons are dis-
mic taxa, associations and vegetation series, as well as persed across various biogeographical regions, cons-
original topographical and geoclinosequential geoseries titute the phytogeographical element or geoelement.
which are generally due to the existence of exclusive
climatophilous, permanent and subserial communities, Concepts on vegetation series and lanscape phyto-
as well as to paleoclimates or former migratory routes. sociology
The province is a vast geographic territory which,
Nowadays, the development of dynamic-catenal
as well as possessing a large number of endemisms and
phytosociology and the syntaxonomic knowledge of
differential species (its own subelement) has particular
broad territories on the Earth, as well as the cartogra-
macroseries and geomacroseries; a particular altitudinal
phic delimitation of vegetation series, geoseries and
zonation in the vegetation is also characteristic of each
geopermaseries, when available, have become the es-
biogeographical province (exclusive geoclinoseries).
sential criteria for defining biogeographical units, in
The region is a very extensive territory, formed by a
addition to suitably compiled and mapped bioclimatic
group of biogeographical provinces which has a flora
and soil factors.
or regional floristic element with species, genera or
The vegetation series, also termed sygmetum, ex-
even endemic families; in addition it has its own parti-
presses the whole set of plant communities or stages
cular megaseries, geomegaseries and geomegapermase-
which can be found within similar teselar spaces as a
ries and in consequence, its own bioclimatic belts (RI-
result of the succession process, and includes both the
VAS-MARTÍNEZ, 2005).
representative association of the mature stage or series
Finally, the kingdom is the supreme unit of biogeo-
head, which is used as a nomenclatural reference, and
graphy, generally pluricontinental and multinsular,
the initial or subserial associations that may replace it.
which in addition to taxonomic and ecosystematic con-
Based on this concept, the vegetation series or sygme-
siderations, addresses the origins of the flora and fauna,
tum represents the basic unit or essential model of dy-
the formation of the great continents, orogenies and cli-
namic phytosociology. Distinctions can also be made
mate in the present and past.
between climatophilic, edaphoxerophilic, temporihy-
As is by now traditional in this science, the deno-
grophilic and edaphohygrophilic series. Climatophilic
minations of the biogeographic units –both the primary
or zonal series are located on mature soils according to
and the auxiliary units (from the subregion to the
the mesoclimate, and only receive rainwater: mesophy-
area)– are given as names and place names based on
tic, submesophytic and subxerophytic; the temporihy-
known geographical, orographic and historical designa-
grophilic series, included among the climatophilic, are
tions which are considered to conicide with, inform or
those which have additional water contribution due to
represent the area they are intended to represent.
their topographical circumstances, and they thus deve-
Orthographically, all the units are considered to be pro-
lop on flooded or very wet soils throughout part of the
per names identifying the place; the name is formed by
year, and –at least during the summer or dry period–
juxtaposing two geographical nouns, joined by means
the soil horizons are well-drained and aerated. Finally
of a hyphen, maintaining the initial capital in each due
the edaphoxerophilic series are found in particularly
to their condition of proper noun.
dry or xerophytic soils or biotopes such as lithosols,
It must be emphasized that the biogeographical
arenosols, very windy sites, steep slopes, crests, ledges,
units can only be accurately delimited through their
etc.; and the edaphohygrophilic series grow on particu-
diagnosis and through the corresponding maps. All the
larly wet soils and biotopes such as fluvisols, halosols,
territories –except for the tesela and permatesela– must
histosols, etc., and are found on river beds, marsh are-
be contiguous by land, lake or sea routes, and include
as, salt flats, peat bogs, etc.
all the orographic accidents and lithological diversity
The vegetation geoseries or geosygmetum is the ba-
which may exist in the area. Sometimes in the biogeo-
sic unit of dynamic-catenal phytosociology. It corres-
graphical territories as a whole there are introgressions
ponds to a catena of vegetation series which is found
by other adjacent territories, and these islands frequen-
around a given bioclimatic belt and biogeographic te-
tly occur in regions with a varied lithology or in areas
rritory in the heart of the universal crest-slope-valley
near regional or provincial boudaries. Their possible
model. This topographic framework makes it possible
typological independence, always of a lower rank than
to distinguish the three geomorphological aspects of
the area into which they introgress, depends on their
any complete catena where the vegetation series consti-
originality, floristic richness and phytocoenotics, as
tuting the geosygmetum are located in zones; the eda-
well as on their surface area.
phoxerophilic series and geoseries (hyperxerophilic
One of the criteria traditionally used for recognising
and xerophilic) are located in the driest sites (crests, es-
and delimiting biogeographic units with their own
 Biogeographic Map of South America. A preliminary survey
carpments, lithosols, etc.); the climatophilic and tempo-
rigrophilic series and geoseries are located on slopes
and foothills where greater humidity is contributed by
rainfall; and the edaphohygrophilic series and geoseries
are found in the valleys and watercourses (fluvial, lake
and watercourses), among which the river fractogeo-
sygmetum is of great important to plant landscape sci-
ence due to its extrazonality, and also, in combination
with the edaphoxerophilic and climatophilous sygmeta
and geosygmeta, to the definition and structuring of re-
gional and global biogeography.
The vegetation geopermaseries, also known as geo-
permasygmeta, is the catenal expression of a set of ne-
ighboring permaseries or permasygmeta, delimited by
changing topographic or soil situations. These are con-
ditioned by conditions of extreme climate (high moun-
tains and polar areas) and exceptional microtopogra-
phic and soil conditions (walls, rock formations, mari-
ne cliffs, salt flats, etc.) which give rise to a large num-
ber of neighboring ecological residences populated by
diverse permanent perennial plant communities (con-
tinuous vegetation permaseries) with an absence of
non-nitrophilous serial perennial communities which
appear to have reached their equilibrium. The most fa-
vorable sites for the existence of geopermaseries or
geopermasygmeta, as well as sites corresponding to
permanent types of vegetation in extreme high-moun-
tain and polar region bioclimates, are ledges, rock cre-
vasses, cliffs and coastal rock formations bathed by sea
waters, peat bogs, wind drifts, mobile sand dunes, lake
shores, streams etc.
Studies performed and geobotanical sources
Salvador Rivas-Martínez and Manuel Costa, Pro-
fessor of Botany at the University of Valencia, worked
together at the Faculty of Biology at the Complutense
University and at the Royal Botanical Gardens in Ma-
drid in the 1970s, where they designed a long-term glo-
bal geobotanical program to further the syntaxonomical
study of the Earth following the European phytosocio-
logical methodology of BRAUN-BLANQUET (1964). To
this method they incorporated the new synphytosocio-
logical analyses proposed by RIVAS-MARTÍNEZ (1976),
and shortly afterwards by GEHÚ & RIVAS-MARTÍNEZ
(1982), as well as recent bioclimatic and biogeographi-
cal approaches which were being successfully tested in
Europe and North Africa, and in whose scientific and
methodological debates with Tüxen, Gehú, Bolós, Qué-
zel and Tahktajan, they played an active role.
Primo Yúfera, at that time general secretary of the
Higher Council for Scientific Investigation (CSIC) in
the mid-1970s, convened various directors of the Insti-
tutes in the CSIC, including Salvador Rivas-Martínez,
to present research proposals which could be used in
due course for the scientific commemoration of the
fifth centenary of the discovery of America in 1992.
They wasted no time in adapting part of their global
geobotanical program to the wildest possible subject
they could imagine, in keeping with their dual facets of
botanists and climbers at that time: the “Phytosociolo-
gical and bioclimatological study of the Andes in the
Viceroyalties of Peru and Nueva Granada”. The CSIC,
23
and particularly what was then the Institute of Hispanic
Culture, sparingly but reliably financed the project in
the early years (1977-1982), thus providing a stimulus
and a springboard for many. Rivas-Martínez has since
worked to share what he colloquially termed the
“American adventure” by promoting and organizing,
together with his good friend Manuel Costa, countless
trips and studies in North America, Africa, China, Aus-
tralia and Tasmania. Moreover Manuel Costa has tra-
veled independently and has an in-depth knowledge of
Central America, Mexico, the east of North America
and Tibet. His last major project, still incomplete after
a dozen years, is currently the geobotanical study of
Venezuela, where, with the help of a large group of
first-rate young professional Venezuelan botanists and
soil scientists, he is directing a series of doctoral theses
on the ground, covering large parts of the territory, four
of which have already been judged “cum laude” at the
University of Valencia. On several occasions accompa-
nying Manuel Costa and his team, Rivas-Martínez has
had the opportunity to increase his knowledge of the
vegetation and the bioclimate of Venezuela and, above
all, to study the regions of Alto Orinoco, La Guayana
and the Gran Sabana.
Gonzalo Navarro, Ph.D., a native of Madrid, now
lives in Cochabamba, after completing his education
and writing an extensive doctoral thesis entitled “Flora
and vegetation of the Sistema Ibérico in Soria”, which
was directed by Rivas-Martínez. Shortly after, as a re-
sult of an exploratory trip through the Andes, Gonzalo
Navarro took the irrevocable decision to live and re-
search in Bolivia for most of the year. He thus applied
for a leave of absence from his position as permanent
teacher in the institute of secondary education in Gua-
dalajara (Spain), which he had won through public exa-
mination. A little later he continued his connections as
a part-time associate professor in the Department of
Botany at the Faculty of Pharmacy of the Complutense
University, at that time headed by Rivas-Martínez, with
the undertaking that during his winter stay in Madrid
he would teach the optional subject “Biogeography of
South America”, conduct research into Andean, Cha-
coan and Amazonian ecosystems, and that at the Uni-
versity of Cochabamba, with which there was an inter-
university agreement, he would train young students
and graduates in geobotany so that under his direction
they could begin studying their doctoral thesis on Boli-
vian subjects, and that thanks to the Mutis grant sys-
tem, they could spend a long period of training in Ma-
drid studying the subjects for their doctorate. Gonzalo
Navarro amply and generously fulfilled this commit-
ment, which continued successfully maintained for al-
most a decade. Of the six Mutis grant-holders who we-
re in Madrid, two are already doctors. Unfortunately in
2004, after the requisite yearly democratic and secret
departmental vote for the renewal of his post as asso-
ciate professor, he found himself to be one vote short,
and was rejected. Fortunately we his friends still enjoy
the privilege of continuing to work and collaborate
with him.
In the last 20 years, Gonzalo Navarro has conduc-
ted a continuous, profound and methodical investiga-
tion into the Bolivian Andes, and the areas of Beni,
24 S. Rivas-Martínez, G. Navarro, A. Penas & M. Costa
Chaco, Cerrado, Yungas and Amazonia, as well as in a
more general manner in the United States, Mexico and
over almost all of South America from Patagonia to the
Venezuelan Caribbean. On many expeditions and jour-
neys he has used his own resources, and on others, re-
sources obtained in projects and competitions proposed
by organizations such as TNC, WCS, WWF, etc. As a
result of this research, as well as multiple reports and
publications, we should also mention the unrivalled
“Vegetation of Bolivia” published in 2002, in the book
“Ecological geography of Bolivia” [ISBN 99905-0-
225-0] and the astounding “Vegetation map of Bolivia
at a scale of 1:250.000” published by Nature Conser-
vancy [ISBN 978-99954-0-168-9]. For all these rea-
sons he has achieved the distinction on his own merits
of becoming the maximum geobotanical authority on
Bolivia and a key reference in the neotropics of South
America.
Ángel Penas, professor at the University of León,
began his partnership with Rivas-Martínez 30 years
ago in an unforgettable geobotanical research project in
the Cordillera Cantábrica mountains, conducted with
Tomás E. Díaz, José Antonio F. Prieto and Javier Loi-
di, and which culminated with the publication of a
book on the vegetation in the Picos de Europa moun-
tains. Since then their professional relationship and fri-
endship has continued to grow, particularly through the
publications in Itinera Geobotánica and the Habitats
projects. However their main point in common is their
mutual interest in the study of the vegetation of Ameri-
ca and Africa. In January 1996 they successfully inves-
tigated, in the company of Leonard Llorens, the south-
eastern tropical and oreadic temperate vegetation of
South Africa; in America they undertook two major
geobotanical expeditions, one in September 1994, with
Gonzalo Navarro and Francisco Amich, in which they
toured the Pampa, Monte Argentino and Patagonia ma-
king inventories, concluding in the Mediterranean An-
dean forests of Austrocedrus chilensis and in the Valdi-
vian temperate forests of Nothofagus; the second was a
fruitful and extensive geobotanical transect in April
1995, in the company of Gonzalo Navarro, Federico
Fernández and Daniel Sánchez Mata, where they suc-
cessfully studied the tropical south of the United Sta-
tes: Texas, Tamaulipas, Chihuahua and Sonora, as well
as the continental Mediterranean territories of the Great
Basin and the oceanic Mediterranean territories of Cali-
fornia. However Ángel Penas most important research
activity in South America, apart from his geobotanical
excursions to Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Chile and
Argentina, was in Brazil, where only between 1992 and
2006 he personally directed six doctoral theses on the
region of Parana, judged cum laude in the University of
León, and still found time to travel extensively and stu-
dy numerous aspects of Amazonia, La Catinga, Cerra-
do Oriental, Mata Atlántica and the mesophytic Pampa.
Salvador Rivas-Martínez began his study of tropical
and Andean flora and vegetation in 1961 on the occa-
sion of a major mountaineering expedition to the An-
des in Peru (Apolobamba massif and Cordillera Blan-
ca). Between 1965 and 1976 he continued these studies
intermittently in Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, Chile and
Argentina, taking advantage of other mountaineering
expeditions and various botanical and professional ex-
peditions. However, it was between 1977 and 1990,
owing to several well-organized projects financed by
Spain, when he was able uninterruptedly to develop the
“Phytosociological and bioclimatic study of the Andes
of the Viceroyalties of Perú and Nueva Granada”,
which from 1985 became known as “Bioclimatic and
cultivation belts of Perú” thanks to another better fi-
nanced project. During those 13 years he made more
than 20 botanical expeditions around a large part of the
Andes, Amazonia, Chaco, the Pacific coasts and de-
serts, the Pampa, Patagonia and Valdivia, where he
took 3,000 phytosociological inventories, compiled cli-
mate data for more than 2,000 South American weather
stations, and mapped the vegetation and bioclimate of
most of the territories accessible by road. Manuel Cos-
ta, as well as many of his disciples, colleagues from the
Complutense University such as Carlos Arnaiz, Paloma
Cantó, Ana Crespo, Antonio Galán, Javier Loidi, Gon-
zalo Navarro and Conchita Sáenz, also took part in so-
me of these journeys. From the outset he was lucky
enough on almost all these campaigns to enlist the co-
llaboration and valuable help of Oscar Tovar, the emi-
nent Peruvian agrostologist and botanist, Professor of
Botany at the University of San Marcos in Lima, as
well as the support, teachings and opinions of Stephan
Beck, Ángel Cabrera, José Cuatrecasas, Ramón Ferrei-
ra, Raúl Lara, Máximo Lieberman, Eduardo Martínez
Carretero, Eric Oberdorfer, Salvador Rivas Goday, Fi-
del Roig and Paul Seibert. Unfortunately, two years
before the official conclusion of this last project, high-
level political differences between Spain and Peru, un-
related to any personal considerations, led to the abrupt
termination of the agreement and to the project’s finan-
cing. As it was not possible to redirect the South Ame-
rican research program to Spain, it had to be post-
poned. In view of these difficulties he took the decision
to spend two sabbatical years in the United States, in
the Missouri Botanical Garden, in order to devote him-
self completely to the study of the vegetation of North
America and finally to formulate the bioclimatology at
the global level. Luck would have it that Gonzalo Na-
varro, a young doctor with considerable training in ta-
xonomy and geobotany, had moved to Bolivia and with
great enthusiasm and effort began to study in great
detail and with marked success the oreadic and flatlan-
dic vegetation of Bolivia. This circumstances led Rivas
Martínez in 1994 to return to South America to work
with Navarro, who had by now become a considerable
expert and specialist, and together they designed the
biogeographical synthesis of South America (1994),
which has today, after many years, been improved and
updated with the help and mutual responsibility of Án-
gel Penas and Manuel Costa, as well as with the colla-
boration and advice of other botanists with extensive
experience in the territory: J. Amigo, A. Butzke, S. del
Río, A. Galán, J. Guevara, J. Izco, E. Martínez Carrete-
ro, O. Rangel, F. Roig (†), D. Sánchez-Mata, L.G. San-
cho, P. Soriano and O. Tovar (†); as well as with the
experience of S. Rivas Sáenz, expert and co-author of
the program of computerized bioclimatic cartography.
At the same time a detailed review was made of the
bibliography which has enabled us to compare our ob-
 Biogeographic Map of South America. A preliminary survey
servations with those of other authors, of both general
and specific works, practically all of which are listed in
the bibliographical references.
Among the authors with a general character, there
are some who must necessarily be mentioned due to
their importance from both the methodological stand-
point and for the proposals they formulate in relation to
the biogeography of South America: ALCARAZ, F.
(1999), ÁLVAREZ, M., RAMÍREZ, C.& DEIL, U. (2008),
AUBRÉVILLE, A. (1970), BRAUN-BLANQUET, J. (1964),
CABRERA Á. L. & WILLINK A. (1973), CHEVALIER, A.
& EMBERGER, L. (1937), DARLINGTON, P.J. (1957),
DIELS, L. & MATTICK, F. (1958), DRUDE, O. (1890),
ENGLER, A. (1924), GENTRY, A. (1982), GOOD, R.
(1974), GRISEBACH, A. (1872), HAYEK, A. (1926),
HUBER, O. & RIINA, R. (1997, 2003), HUECK, K. &
SEIBERT, P. (1972, 1981), JOSSE, C., CUESTA, F., NAVA-
RRO, G., BARRENA, V., CABRERA, E., CHACÓN-MORE-
NO, E., FERREIRA, W., PERALVO, M., SAITO, J. & TO-
VAR, A. (2008), JOSSE, C., NAVARRO, G., COMER, P.,
EVANS, R., FABER-LAGENDOEN, D., FELLOWS, M., KI-
TTEL, G., MENARD, S., PYNE, M., REID, M., SCHULZ,
K., SNOW, K. & TEAGUE, J. (2003), JOSSE, C., NAVA-
RRO, G., ENCARNACIÓN, F., TOVAR, A., COMER, P., FE-
RREIRA, W., RODRÍGUEZ, F., SAITO, J., SANJURJO, J.,
DYSON, J., RUBIN DE CELIS, E., ZÁRATE, R., CHANG, J.,
AHUITE, M., VARGAS, C., PAREDES, F., CASTRO, W.,
MACO, J. & REÁTEGUI, F. (2007), LABUNTSOVA, M.A.
(1969), LAVRENKO, E. M. (1964), LLORENTE BOUS-
QUETS, J. & MORRONE, J. J. (EDS.) (2001), LUTEYN, J.
(1999), MORELLO, J. (1958), MORRONE, J. J. (2000,
2001A, 2001B), OZENDA, P. (1964), POSADAS, P. E.; ES-
TÉVEZ, J. M. & MORRONE, J. J. (1997), PRADO, D.E. &.
GIBBS, P. E. (1993), RAVEN, P.H. (1963), RAVEN, P.H.
& AXELROD, D.J. (1974), RICARDI, M., GAVIRIA, J. &
ESTRADA, J. (2001), RIKLI, M. (1913, 1934), RIVAS-
MARTÍNEZ, S. (1976, 1994, 1997, 2001, 2004, 2005),
RIVAS-MARTÍNEZ, S & RIVAS-SAÉNZ (2009), RIVAS-
MARTÍNEZ, S. & COLS. (2007, 2011), RIVAS-MARTÍNEZ,
S. & NAVARRO, G. (1998), RIVAS-MARTÍNEZ, S., RI-
VAS-SÁENZ, S., PENAS, A., NAVARRO, G. & COSTA, M.
& COLS. (2011), RIVAS-MARTÍNEZ, S., SÁNCHEZ-MA-
TA, D. & COSTA, M. (1999), RIVAS-MARTÍNEZ, S. &
TOVAR O. (1983), SCHMITHÜSEN, J. (1961), SCHWABE,
G. H. (1968), SMITH, A.C. & JOHNSTON, I.M. (1945),
TAKHTAJAN, A. (1988), THORNE, R.F. (1963), DEIL, U.,
ÁLVAREZ, M., BAUER, E.V. & RAMÍREZ, C. (2011),
UDVARDY, M.D.F. (1975), WALTER, H. (1898) and
WALTER, H. & STRAKA, H. (1970).
We have also based this work on the studies carried
out in territories which –although extensive– are more
specific than the previous ones, by different authors
which we mention below, for their work done in vari-
ous South American countries. From Venezuela and
the Guayanas we should highlight the works of
ATAROFF, M. & SARMIENTO, L. (2003), AYMARD, G.
(2003), CASTROVIEJO, S. & LÓPEZ, G. (1985), COSTA,
M.; CEGARRA, J.; LUGO, L.; GUEVARA J.R.; CARRERO,
O.; LOZADA, J. & SORIANO, P. (2008), COSTA, M.; CE-
GARRA, A.; LUGO, L.; LOZADA, J.; GUEVARA, J. & SO-
RIANO, P. (2007), CUELLO, N. & CLEEF. A.M. (2009 a,
b), DUNO DE ESTEFANO, R., AYMARD, G. & HUBER, O.
(2007), ESTRADA SÁNCHEZ, J.C. (2003), GALÁN DE
25
MERA, A. (2007), GALÁN DE MERA, A., GONZÁLEZ, A.,
MORALES, R., OLTRA, B. & VICENTE ORELLANA, J.A.
(2006), GUEVARA, J. R., CARRERO, O., HERNÁNDEZ, C.
& COSTA, M. (2007), HUBER, O. & ALARCÓN, C.
(1988), HUECK, K. (1960), LOZADA, J, GUEVARA, J.R.,
SORIANO, P. & COSTA, M. (2006), MAGUIRE, B. (1970,
1972, 1979), MINISTERIO DEL AMBIENTE Y DE LOS RE-
CURSOS NATURALES (1985), MONASTERIO, M. & RE-
YES, S. (1980), PITTIER, H. (1920, 1935), RÖHL, E.
(1946), SARMIENTO, G. & MONASTERIO, M. (1969),
STEYERMARK, J. A. (1974, 1979) and SUSACH CAM-
PALANS, F. (1989).
In Colombia those of CLEEF, A. M. (1979, 1981)),
CLEEF, A.M. & RANGEL, J.O. (1986), CLEEF, A.M.,
RANGEL, J.O. & ARELLANO, H. (2008), CLEEF, A.M.;
RANGEL, J.O. & SALAMANCA, S. (1983, 2003), CORTÉS
B. R. & FRANCO R., P. (1997), CUATRECASAS, J. (1934,
1958), DUGAND, A. (1970), HAMMEN, T. VAN DER,
RANGEL CH., J.O. & CLEEF, A. M. (EDS.). (2005),
KLOOSTERMAN, E.H.; CLEEF, A.M. & SALAMANCA, S.
(2003), PINTO-ZÁRATE, J.H. & RANGEL-CH., J.O. (2010
a, b), RANGEL-CH., J.O. (2004, 2008), RANGEL-CH.,
J.O. (ED.) (1995, 1997, 2000, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010 a,
b), RANGEL-CH., J.O. & AGUIRRE, J. (1983), RANGEL-
CH., J.O. & ARELLANO-P., H. (2009), RANGEL-CH.,
J.O. & ARIZA, N.C. (2000), RANGEL-CH., J.O., CLEEF,
A.M. & ARELLANO, H. (2008), RANGEL-CH., J.O.,
CLEEF, A.M. & SALAMANCA, S. (2005), RANGEL-CH.,
J.O., GARAY-P., H. & AVELLA, A. (2010), RANGEL-
CH., J.O., SÁNCHEZ, D. & ARIZA, N.C. (2005), RIVERA
DÍAZ, O. & FERNÁNDEZ-ALONSO, J. L. (2003), SALA-
MANCA S., CLEEF, A.M. & RANGEL, J.O. (2003), SÁN-
CHEZ, R. & RANGEL, J.O. (1990) and WITTE, H.J.J.
(1995).
In Peru and Bolivia we should mention the works
of DE LA BARRA, N. (2003), GALÁN DE MERA, A.
(1995, 1999), GALÁN DE MERA, A., BALDEÓN, S., BEL-
TRÁN, H., BENAVENTE, M. & GÓMEZ, J. (2004), GALÁN
DE MERA, A., CÁCERES, C. & GONZÁLEZ, A. (2003),
GALÁN DE MERA, A., ROSA, M.V. & CÁCERES, C.
(2002), GALÁN DE MERA, A. & VICENTE ORELLANA,
J.A (1996, 2006), GUTTE, P. (1980, 1986, 1988), MO-
LINA, J.A., NAVARRO, G., DE LA BARRA, N. &
LUMBRERAS, A. (2007).NAVARRO, G. (1993, 1997,
2003), NAVARRO, G. & FERREIRA, W. (2007, 2009),
NAVARRO, G. & MALDONADO, M. (2002), NAVARRO,
G., MOLINA, J. A. & DE LA BARRA, N. (2005), RA-
MÍREZ, C. & BECK, S. (1981), RIVAS-MARTÍNEZ, S. &
TOVAR, O. (1982), SEIBERT, P. & MENHOFER, X. (1991,
1992, 1993), WEBERBAUER, A. (1945) and WILLIAMS,
L. (1945).
In Ecuador the works by ACOSTA-SOLIS, M. (1966,
1984), AGUIRRE, Z., COOMBES, L. & RAMSAY, P. M.
(2001), MADSEN, J.E., COTTON, E. & BALSLEV, H.
(EDS.) (2002), CAÑADAS, L. (1983), GREHAN, J. R.
2001, IZCO, J., PULGAR, I., AGUIRRE, Z. & SANTÍN, F.
(2004), JOHNSTON, M.P. & P.H. RAVEN (1973), MOS-
COL OLIVERA, MARCELA C. & CLEEF, A. M. (2009),
PÚLGAR, I., IZCO, J. & JADÁN, O. (2010), QUINTANILLA,
V.G. (1983), SIERRA, R. (ED.) (1999), SIERRA, R., CICE-
RÓN, C., PALACIOS, W. & VALENCIA, R. (1999), TERÁN,
E. (1979), TERNEUS, E. (2002) and ULLOA, C. & JØR-
GENSEN, P.M. (1993).
26 S. Rivas-Martínez, G. Navarro, A. Penas & M. Costa
In Chile the works carried out by AMIGO J. (2009),
AMIGO, J., IZCO, J. &.RODRÍGUEZ-GUITIÁN, M.A.
(2007), AMIGO J. & RAMÍREZ, C. (1998), AMIGO, J.,
RAMÍREZ, C. & GARCÍA QUINTANILLA, L. (2004, 2007),
AMIGO, J., SAN MARTÍN, J. & GARCÍA QUINTANILLA, L.
(2000), ETAYO, J. & SANCHO, L.G. (2008), HILDE-
BRAND-VOGEL, R. (1984), HILDEBRAND-VOGEL, R.,
GODOY, R. & VOGEL, A. (1990), LUEBERT, F. & GA-
JARDO, R. (2005), LUEBERT, F. & P PLISCOFF. (2006),
MÉNDEZ, E. (2007), MÉNDEZ, E. & AMBROSETTI, A.J.
(1985), NAVARRO, G. & RIVAS-MARTÍNEZ, S. (2005),
OBERDORFER, E. (1960), PINTO, R. & LUEBERT, F.
(2009), RAMÍREZ, C., SAN MARTÍN, C., CONTRERAS, D.
& SAN MARTÍN, J. (1994) and RUTHSATZ, B. (1995).
In Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay and Brasil, the
works published by BOLÓS, O., CERVI, A.C. & HAT-
SCHBACH, G. (1991), BUTZKE, A. (1997), CABIDO, M.
(1985), CABIDO, M. & ACOSTA, A. (1986), CABIDO, M.,
ACOSTA, A. & DÍAZ, S. (1990), CABRERA, Á. L. (1971),
CABRERA, Á. L. (1976), DIESEL, S. (2005), EITEN, G.
(1972, 1983), ESKUCHE, U. (1984, 2005), FAGGI, A.M.
(1985), FIASCHI, P & J.R. PIRANI. (2009), FONTANA,
S.L. (2005), GALÁN DE MERA, A. & NAVARRO G.
(1992), GANDULLO, R. & FAGGI, A. M. (2003, 2005),
GANDULLO, R. & SCHMID, P. (2001), GIBBS, P. E.,
LEITAO FILHO, H. & SHEPHERD, G. (1983), KEGLER, A.
(2005), KEGLER, A., DIESEL, S., WASUM, R.A., HERRE-
RO, L., DEL RÍO, S. & PENAS, A. (2010), LEÓN, R.J.C. &
BURKART, S.E. (1988), LEWIS, J:P:, COLLANTES, M:B:,
PIRE, E.F., CARNEVALE, N.J., BOCCANELLI, S.I., STOFE-
LLA, S.L. & PRADO, D.E. (1985), MARTÍNEZ CARRETE-
RO, E. (1993, 1995, 2000, 2001, 2006), MÉNDEZ, E., E.
MARTÍNEZ CARRETERO & I. PERALTA, I. (2006), NAVA-
RRO, G., MOLINA, J. A. & PÉREZ DE MOLAS, L. (2006),
PRANCE, G. T. (1977, 1978, 1979), RATTER, J. A., LEI-
TAO-FILHO, H. DE F., ARGENT, G., GIBBS, P. E., SEMIR,
J., SHEPHERD, G. & TAMASHIRO, J. (1988), REITZ, P. R.
(1961), RIZZINI, C. T. (1979), ROIG, F.A. (1972, 1998),
ROIG, F.A., ANCHORENA, J., DOLLENZ, O., FAGGI, A.M.
& MÉNDEZ, E. (1985), ROIG, F.A., DOLLENZ, O., &
MÉNDEZ, E. (1985), ROIG, F.A.& FAGGI, A. (1985),
RUTHSATZ, B. (1977), SAMPAIO, A. J. DE (1934), SCUR
L. (2005), STUTZ DE ORTEGA, L. C. (1983, 1984, 1986,
1987, 1990), VELOSO H. P. (1946, 1948), VELOSO H. P.
& KLEIN, R. M. (1957, 1959) and WASUM, R. A.
(2005).
And finally we should indicate that we have ana-
lysed proposals for territories other than South America
but which bear a relation with South America for flo-
ristic or other reasons, among which we should men-
tion: CANO CARMONA , E., VELOZ, A. & CANO ORTÍZ,
A. (2010), CONTRERAS MEDINA., R.; LUNA VEGA, I. &
MORRONE, J. J. (1999), EMMERICH, K. H. (1988), GA-
LÁN DE MERA, A. (2005), LAUER, W. (1968), LUNA VE-
GA, I.; MORRONE, J. J.; ALCÁNTARA AYALA, O. & ESPI-
NOSA ORGANISTA, D. (2001), MATTICK, F. (1964),
DEIL, U. (1994, 1999). We have also particularly taken
into account the bioclimatic typology of RIVAS-MAR-
TÍNEZ, S. (2004), RIVAS-MARTÍNEZ, S. & RIVAS SÁENZ,
S. (2009) and RIVAS-MARTÍNEZ, S., RIVAS SÁENZ, S. &
PENAS, A. (2011).
Results
A. Biogeogeographical typology of South America
up to provincial level
In South America and from Honduras to the Ant-
arctic Peninsula we recognise: 1 kingdom, 3 subking-
doms, 4 superegions, 13 regions and 53 biogeographic
provinces (see Anex Map).
The biogeographical denominations, as is tradi-
tional, are place names and adjectives which express
territories, history or toponyms. Generally these deno-
minations are given in Spanish and translated into
English.
B. NEOTROPICAL-AUSTROAMERICAN Kingdom
[Reino NEOTROPICAL-AUSTROAMERICANO]
Ba. NEOTROPICAL Subkingdom
[Subreino NEOTROPICAL]
Bab. CARIBBEAN-NEOGRANADIAN Superegion
[Superregión CARIBEÑA-NEOGRANADINA]
9. CARIBBEAN-MESOAMERICAN Region]
[Región CARIBEÑA-MESOAMERICANA]
9.3. Lesser Antillean Province
[Provincia Antillana Menor]
9.5. Chiapan-Honduran Province]
[Provincia Chiapaneca-Hondureña]
9.6. Panamanian-Costa Rican Province
[Provincia Panameña-Costarricense]
10. NEOGRANADIAN Region
[Región NEOGRANADINA]
10.1. Guajiran-Caribbean Province
[Provincia Guajireña-Caribeña]
10.2. Llaneran Province
[Provincia Llanera]
10.3. Colombian Andean Province
[Provincia Andina Colombiana]
10.4. Cordobesa-Lower Magdalena Province
[Provincia Cordobesa-Bajomagdalena]
10.5. Colombian Pacific Province
[Provincia Pacífico Colombiana]
10.6. Guayaquilian-Ecuadorean Province
[Provincia Guayaquileña-Ecuatoriana]
10.7. Insular Galapagos Province
[Provincia Islas Galápagos]
Bac. AMAZONIAN-GUYANAN Superegion
[Superregión AMAZÓNICA-GUAYANENSE]
11. GUYANAN-ORINOQUIAN Region
[Región GUAYANA-ORINOQUENSE]
11.1. Guyanan Province
[Provincia Guayanense]
11.2. Deltaic Orinoquian Province
[Provincia Orinoquense Deltaica]
11.3. Guaviarean-Orinoquian Province
[Provincia Guaviareña-Orinoquense]
11.4. Tepuyan Province
[Provincia Tepuyana]
11.5. Guyanese Brazilian Province
[Provincia Brasileña Guayanense]
12. AMAZONIAN Region
[Región AMAZÓNICA]
12.1. West Amazonian Province
[Provincia Amazónica Occidental]
12.2. North Amazonian Province
 Biogeographic Map of South America. A preliminary survey
[Provincia Amazónica Septentrional]
12.3. Deltaic Amazonian Province
[Provincia Amazónica Deltaica]
12.4. Southwest Amazonian Province
[Provincia Amazónica Suroccidental]
12.5. Central Amazonian Province
[Provincia Amazónica Central]
Bad. CHACOAN-BRAZILIAN Superegion
[Superregión CHAQUEÑA-BRASILEÑA]
13. BRAZILIAN-PARANENSE Region
[Región BRASILEÑA-PARANAENSE]
13.1. Brazilian Atlantic Province
[Provincia Atlántica Brasileña]
13.2. Paranense Province
[Provincia Paranaense]
13.3. Catingan Province
[Provincia Catinguense]
13.4. Tocantins Province
[Provincia Tocantinense]
13.5. East Cerrado Province
[Provincia Cerradense Oriental]
13.6. West Cerrado Province
[Provincia Cerradense Occidental]
13.7. Pantanalian Province
[Provincia Pantanalense]
13.8. Benian Province
[Provincia Beniana]
14. CHACOAN Region
[Región CHAQUEÑA]
14.1. North Chacoan Province
[Provincia Chaqueña Septentrional]
14.2. South Chacoan Province
[Provincia Chaqueña Meridional]
Bae. TROPICAL SOUTH ANDEAN Superegion
[Superregión SURANDINA TROPICAL]
15. TROPICAL SOUTH ANDEAN Region
[Región SURANDINA TROPICAL]
15.1. Desertic Peruvian-Ecuadorean Province
[Provincia Peruana-Ecuatoriana Desértica]
B. Descriptions of biogeographic units
15.2. Mesophytic Punenian Province
[Provincia Puneña Mesofítica]
15.3. Xerophytic Punenian Province
[Provincia Puneña Xerofítica]
15.4. Bolivian-Tucumanan Province
[Provincia Boliviana-Tucumana]
15.5. Yungenian Province
[Provincia Yungueña]
16. HYPERDESERTIC TROPICAL PACIFIC Region
[Región PACÍFICA TROPICAL HIPERDESÉRTICA]
16.1. Hyperdesertic North Peruvian Province
[Provincia Norperuana Hiperdesértica]
16.2. Hyperdesertic Tropical Chilean-Arequipan
Province
[Provincia Chilena-Arequipeña Tropical
Hiperdesértica]
Bb. AUSTROAMERICAN Subkingdom
[Subreino AUSTROAMERICANO]
17. PAMPEAN Region
[Región PAMPEANA]
17.1. Mesophytic Pampean Province
[Provincia Pampeana Mesofítica]
17.2. Xerophytic Pampean Province
[Provincia Pampeana Xerofítica]
27
18. MIDDLE CHILEAN-PATAGONIAN Region
[Región MESOCHILENA-PATAGÓNICA]
18.1. Desertic Mediterranean Chilean Province
[Provincia Chilena Mediterránea Desértica]
18.2. Central Chilean Province
[Provincia Chilena Central]
18.3. Mediterranean Andean Province
[Provincia Andina Mediterránea]
18.4. Argentine Monte Province
[Provincia Monte Argentino]
18.5. North Patagonian Province
[Provincia Patagónica Septentrional]
18.6. South Patagonian Province
[Provincia Patagónica Meridional]
19. VALDIVEAN-MAGELLANIAN Region
[Región VALDIVIANA-MAGALLÁNICA]
19.1. Valdivean Province
[Provincia Valdiviana]
19.2. Temperate Magellanian Province
[Provincia Magallánica Templada]
19.3. Boreal Austromagellanian Province
[Provincia Austromagallánica Boreal]
19.4. Insular Falkland Province
[Provincia Islas Malvinas]
19.5. Insular Juan Fernandez Province
[Provincia Islas Juan Fernández]
Bc. CIRCUMANTARCTIC Subkingdom
[Subreino CIRCUNANTÁRTICO]
20. INSULAR ANTARCTIC Region
[Región ANTÁRTICA INSULAR]
20.1. Insular Atlantical Antarctic Province
[Provincia Islas Antárticas Atlánticas]
21. CONTINENTAL ANTARCTIC Region
[Región ANTÁRTICA CONTINENTAL]
21.1. West Antarctic Province
[Provincia Antártica Occidental]
21.2. East Antarctic Province
[Provincia Antártica Oriental]
Amazonian: South-American equatorial and Atlantic
southern eutropical biogeographic region (12), plu-
vial and tropical mesophytic infra-lower thermotropi-
cal bioclimates and with few rare exceptions subme-
sophytic, with varzeal compensation, on soils and
waters enriched with ions and nutrients. To the north
it borders on the hyperoligotrophic soils and waters
with Guyanan-Orinoquian Region; to the south on
the infra-thermotropical pluviseasonal lower meso-
phytic and submesophytic border with the Brazilian-
Paranense Region and, at the headwaters of the An-
dean mountains with the yungas of the Tropical
South Andean Region which have a height of be-
tween 500-1000 m. The Amazonian Region compri-
ses five biogeographic provinces: 12.1. West Amazo-
nian, 12.2. North Amazonian, 12.3. Deltaic Amazo-
nian, 12.4. Southwest Amazonian, 12.5 and Central
Amazonian. [Región Amazónica]
Amazonian-Guyanan: South-American biogeogra-
phical superegion (Bac), with tropical macrobiocli-
mate formed by the Guyanan-Orinoquian and Ama-
zonian Regions (11+12). [Superregión Amazónica-
Guayanense].
28 S. Rivas-Martínez, G. Navarro, A. Penas & M. Costa
Argentinian Montean: Biogeographic province of the
Middle Chilean-Patagonian Region (18.4). Non-tro-
pical, desertic and xeric Mediterranean mostly sub-
tropical South America. [Provincia Monte Argenti-
no].
Austroamerican: Non-tropical South-American sub-
kingdom (Bb), covering a wide territory usually
south of parallel 30ºS, both Mediterranean (Middle
Chilean-Patagonian Region) and temperate or boreal
macrobioclimates (Pampean and Valdivean-Magel-
lanian Region). To the north it borders on the tropical
macrobioclimate with Brazilian-Paranense, Chacoan,
Tropical South Andean and Hyperdesertic Tropical
Pacific regions. It has gondwanic paleorelationships
and later ones with the Neozelandic-Australian King-
dom and the Circumantarctic Subkingdom. Three re-
gions are recognized: Pampean (17), Middle Chilean-
Patagonian (18) and Valdivean-Magellanian (19)
[Subreino Austroamericano].
Austrocircummediterranean: Meridional pluriconti-
nental geographic area with a gondwanic origin, and
Mediterranean macrobioclimate, potentially made up
of the Austro-American, South-African and Austra-
lian evergreen climatophilous forests, semideserts
and deserts. Territories with Mediterranean macro-
bioclimate of the southern hemisphere [Área Austro-
circunmediterránea]
Austrocircumtemperate: Meridional pluricontinental
geographic area with a gondwanic origin, with tem-
perate bioclimate, potentially formed by the Austro-
American, Australian-New-Zealander and South-Af-
rican warm mostly evergreen and gymnospermic
climatophilous forests. Territories with temperate
macrobioclimate of the southern hemisphere [Área
Austrocircuntemplada].
Austrocoldtemperate: Meridional pluricontinental
wide geographic area with a gondwanic origin, mos-
tly located south of parallel 35ºS, formed by cold and
temperate latitudinal and altitudinal zones, to the
south of the subtropical boundary. Territories with
temperate macrobioclimate of the southern hemi-
sphere, often with deciduous forest, with a thermicity
index lower than It<200. [Área Austrocriotemplada].
Benian: Biogeographic province of the Brazilian-Pa-
ranense Region (13.8). Tropical South America; low
and middle basin of Mamore and Beni rivers, mostly
infra-thermotropical humid. [Provincia Beniana].
Bolivian-Tucumanan: Biogeographic province of the
Tropical South Andean Region (15.4). Tropical So-
uth America; eastern Andes of Bolivia and Argentina
as far as Tucuman above the Chacoan Region. [Pro-
vincia Boliviana-Tucumana].
Boreal Austromagellanian: Austro-American biogeo-
graphic province (19.3), with boreal hyperoceanic
bioclimate, in the south of the Valdivean-Magella-
nian Region [Provincia Austromagallánica Boreal].
Brazilian Atlantic: Biogeographic province of the
Brazilian-Paranense Region (13.1). Infra-thermotro-
pical coastal Braziliantropical. South America south
of San Francisco river. [Provincia Atlántica Brasile-
ña].
Brazilian-Paranense: Atlantic South-American bio-
geographic region (13), located in amazonic and rio-
platensean basin. Meridional equatorial (Ceará, Ma-
ranhao), meridional eutropical (Bahía, Planalto, Mato
Grosso, Rondonia, Pantanal and Beni), and meridio-
nal subtropical to the east of the Paraguay-Paraná ri-
ver (parallel 30ºS), whose bioclimate is mostly tropi-
cal pluviseasonal submesophytic, as well as tropical
pluvial, at the south of the tropic of Capricorn, and
tropical xeric in the Catinga-Sertao (basin of the San
Francisco river). The Brazilian-Paranense region in-
cludes eight biogeographic provinces: 13.1. Brazilian
Atlantic, 13.2. Paranense, 13.3. Catingan, 13.4. To-
cantins, 13.5. East Cerrado, 13.6. West Cerrado,
13.7. Pantanalian and 13.8 Benian [Región Brasile-
ña-Paranaense].
Caribbean-Mesoamerican:Mesoamerican biogeogra-
phic region (9), with tropical bioclimate, chiefly plu-
viseasonal, to a lesser extent pluvial or xeric and ra-
rely desertic in some islands or Antilleancoasts. It in-
cludes all the Caribbean islands, the Florida and Yu-
catan peninsulas, the rainy territories of Veracruz and
all over Central America to the north of Darien. The
Caribbean-Mesoamerican Region comprises six bio-
geographic provinces: 9.1. Floridian, 9.2. Cuban, 9.3.
Lesser Antillean, 9.4. Veracruzenian-Yucatecan, 9.5.
Chiapan-Honduran and 9.6. Panamanian-Costa Rican
[Región Caribeña-Mesoamericana]
Caribbean-Neogranadian: Caribbean and North So-
uth-American biogeographic superegion (Bab), with
tropical macrobioclimate formed by the Caribbean-
Mesoamerican and Neogranadian Regions (9+10).
Caribbean and New Granada. [Superregión Caribe-
ña-Neogranadina].
Catingan: Biogeographic province of the Brazilian-
Paranense Region (13.3) mostly tropical xeric. Tro-
pical South America. Catinga. [Provincia Catinguen-
se].
Central Amazonian: Biogeographic province of the
Amazonian Region (12.5); it has been also called
Madeira-Tapajoz. Tropical South America. Central
Amazon. [Provincia Amazónica Central].
Central Chilean: Biogeographic province of the
Middle Chilean-Patagonian Region (18.2). Mediter-
ranean non-tropical South America. [Provincia Chi-
lena Central].
Chacoan: Atlantic tropical South-American biogeo-
graphic region (14), located to the northwest of Para-
guay river (Paranense biogeographic province) with
dry and semiarid tropical xeric bioclimate. Its central
axis is the Pilcomayo river when it reaches the plain
after flowing across the tropical Andes in the Xero-
phytic Punenian and Bolivian-Tucumanan Provinces.
Towards the north it borders on Santa Cruz de la Sie-
rra with Chiquitanía, West Cerrado Province, and
 Biogeographic Map of South America. A preliminary survey
towards the northeast with the Pantanal. Towards the
south, when the tropical macrobioclimate disappears
and evolves to temperate, it come into contact with
the Pampean Region (Xerophytic Pampean Province)
and when it becomes Mediterranean xeric or desertic
it is replaced by the subdesertic vegetation of the Ar-
gentinean Montean, the start of the North Patagonian
Province of the Middle Chilean-Patagonian Region.
The Chacoan Region comprises two biogeographic
provinces: 14.1. North Chacoan and 14.2 South Cha-
coan. [Region Chaqueña].
Chacoan-Brazilian: South-American biogeographic
superegion (Bad) with tropical macrobioclimate ma-
de up of Brazilian-Paranense and Chacoan Regions
(13 + 14). [Superregión Chaqueña-Brasileña].
Chiapan-Honduran : Biogeographic province of the
Caribbean-Mesoamerican Region (9.5). Central A-
merica. [Provincia Chiapaneca-Hondureña].
Circumantarctic: Biogeographic subkingdom (Bc),
with polar macrobioclimate, exceptionally boreal hy-
peroceanic in some subtemperate isles, hypergelid to
a large extent made up of the Antarctic Continent and
the islands and archipelagos peripheral to the Ant-
arctic Peninsula and the Antarctic Continent (Conti-
nental Antarctic Region), as well as the islands far
from the continent, immersed in the westerly winds
and the icy waters of the Antarctic Convergence (In-
sular Antarctic Region: South Orkney, South Geor-
gia, South Sandwich, Bouvet, Prince Edward, Crozet,
Kerguélen, McDonald, Macquarie, Balleny, Scott,
etc.). The Circumantarctic Subkingdom comprises
two biogeographic regions: 20. Insular Antarctic and
21. Continental Antarctic. [Subreino Circunantárti-
co].
Colombian Andean: Biogeographic province of the
Neogranadian Region (10.3). Tropical South Ameri-
ca of the Andes from Cotopaxi volcano in Ecuador
next to Quito to the Andes of Mérida, Eastern and
Central Range and Cauca Valley, extending from in-
fratropical xeric in the inner Magdalena deep valleys
to cryorotropical pluvial in the snowy high moun-
tains. It has been also named Andina Paramuna due
to its cold and humid high plains enriched with espe-
letineans (frailejones). [Provincia Andina Colombia-
na].
Colombian Pacific: Biogeographic province of the
Neogranadian Region (10.5). Tropical South Ameri-
ca. [Provincia Pacífico Colombiana].
Continental Antarctic: Biogeographic region belon-
ging to the Circumantarctic Subkingdom (21) with
pergelid polar bioclimate and scarce suprapolar bio-
climate Tp<20. Because of its orography, bioclimate,
geography and biota, two great territories can be
identified on the Antarctic Continent, to the west and
east of the Transantarctic Mountains, to which we
confer the provincial biogeographic level. 21.1. West
Antarctic Province: this extends along the coast to-
ward the west and south from the Filchner and Ronne
ice shelves to follow the coasts close to the Ross Ice
29
Shelf (20ºW-160º E: West Antarctic or Lesser Ant-
arctic), which includes the Ellsworth Mountains with
the Vinson Peak (5140 m) culminating at the top of
Antarctica (West Antarctic Province). 21.2 East Ant-
arctic Province: this extends along the coast towards
the east from the Usarp mountains on Oates Coast
(160º E) to the Ekström ice field on Princess Martha
Coast (20º W: East Antarctic or Greater Antarctic),
which includes as its culminating part the Dome Ar-
gus (4030 m); to the west of the French station of
Charcot (2435 m) an ice glacier thickness of 4776
has been measured; the record for the coldest tempe-
rature on the surface of the Earth (-89.4º C) is held
by the Russian station of Vostok (3488 m). The Ant-
arctic Continent, with more than 13.5 million square
kilometres, was the center of the Gondwana super-
continent 180 million years ago, after which a set of
subcontinents: South America, Africa, India, Austra-
lia and New Zealand separat and slid toward the
north, leaving the Antarctica more or less fixed
around the South Pole, isolated and perhaps partly or
wholly under ice cover for 40 million years. Today,
98 percent of the surface of Antarctica is covered by
a thick ice cover of about 2.5 km of thickness on av-
erage. There are also wide flat glacial floating planes
(ice shelf), some of 1000 km in length in protected
coastal areas (Ross & Ronne Ice Shelves). The an-
nual precipitation exceeds 600 mm in some hypero-
ceanic windward coastal or insular adjacent locali-
ties, while many extreme continental areas inside the
center-east have less than 30 mm. The dominant bio-
climate is polar pergelid and only upper suprapolar
(Tp<20) in the marked hyperoceanic coasts and at-
tached islands (Graham Land at the end of the Ant-
arctic Peninsula and surrounding islands, especially
in sunny places with environmental humidity). Only
two vascular plants are known, with distribution
Austro-American linked to coastal habitats with
freshwater or very little brackish and seasonal hu-
midity available, nevertheless there are several hun-
dred lichen species, bryophytes, fungi and proto-
phytes, especially on well-exposed rock habitats
where melt water or cryptoprecipitations are avail-
able at least some time during the summer. Among
birds and mammals that breed on the continent or
adjacent islands, always in low continental sea-land
stations, it is worth mentioning five species of pen-
guins, more than a dozen bird and six seal species.
Despite having been able to detect warmer and
colder periods in Antarctica over the past 150,000
years and correlate them with the concentrations of
carbon dioxide –an increased greenhouse-gas effect
in the Earth– in the last 50 years the increase of CO2
from 280 ppm to 370 ppm (global warming) does not
seem to have had a significant impact on the current
increase in temperature in East Antarctica. [Región
Antártica Continental].
Cordobesa-Lower Magdalena: Biogeographic prov-
ince of the Neogranadian Region (10.4). Xeric to
pluvial infra-thermotropical Caribbean tropical South
America of the plains, hills and dams of the Sinu,
Magdalena and Cauca basins from Barrancabermeja
and Cáceres to the swamps close to Plato. [Provincia
Cordobesa-Bajomagdalena].
30 S. Rivas-Martínez, G. Navarro, A. Penas & M. Costa
Deltaic Amazonian: Biogeographic province of the
Amazonian Region (12.3), infratropical pluvial and
pluviseasonal mesophytic. Tropical South America.
Amazonian Delta. [Provincia Amazónica Deltaica].
Deltaic Orinoquian: Biogeographic province of the
Guyanan-Orinoquian Region (11.2), infratropical
pluvial. Tropical South America. Orinoquian Delta.
[Provincia Orinoquense Deltaica].
Desertic Mediterranean Chilean: Biogeographic
province of the Middle Chilean-Patagonian Region
(18.1). Nontropical South America. Toward the south
of Antofagasta (24º C) the coastal and interior hyper-
deserts, deserts and semideserts are already Mediter-
ranean (winter rainfall) until Region V (32ºS), and
belong to the Desertic Mediterranean Chilean Prov-
ince which, from the extreme hyperdeserts (Io 0.0-
0.1) lacking in vascular climatophilous vegetal cover
to the III Region (26ºS), continues northwards with
the acute and moderate deserts with arid cacti such as
Eulychnia tenuis and Copiapoa marginata. North of
Vallenar in the IV Region (29ºS) the arid deserts (Io
0.4-0.9) with large cacti of Eulychnia breviflora ap-
pear; and reaching up until north of Coquimbo (30º
S), the semideserts (Io 1.0-1.9) with large Cactaceae,
rosulate puya and shrubs of Eulychnia acida, Echi-
nopsis skottsbergii, Echinopsis litoralis, Puya chilen-
sis and Lithraea caustica, preamble to the Mediterra-
nean pluviseasonal sclerophylous forests and chapar-
rals of the class Lithraeo-Cryptocaryetea, typical of
the Central Chilean Province (18.2). [Provincia Chi-
lena Mediterránea Desértica].
Desertic Peruvian-Ecuadorean. Biogeographic prov-
ince of the Tropical South Andean Region (15.1).
Deserts and semideserts (Io 0.4-2.0) of the tropical
mountains and coasts of the Andean western slopes,
from the coast of Manta Bay in Ecuador (1º S), that
together with the Tumbes Peruvian coast up to Ma-
chala, with the short tree Loxopterigium huasango,
constitute two biogeographic districts: Desertic Coas-
tal Ecuadorean and Tumbesian, in Peru from El Alto
in Piura (4º 10’ S) towards the south leaves the lit-
toral to cover the interior deserts and semideserts and
the western Andean foothills up until Tarata in Tacna
and the borders of Chile (18º S). In contrast, the ul-
trahyperarid and hyperarid hyperdeserts (Io 0.0-0.4)
belong to the Hyperdesertic Tropical Pacific Region
(16) extending along the coasts, ridges and moun-
tains ranges from Talara (4º 30’ S) in Peru to Antofa-
gasta (24º S) in Chile. Tropical South America. [Pro-
vincia Peruana-Ecuatoriana Desértica].
East Antarctic: Biogeographic province of the Conti-
nental Antarctic Region (21.2), polar pergelid and
scarcely upper suprapolar (Tp<10) in sun exposed-
coasts. East Antarctic. This could be also named Gre-
ater Antarctic. [Provincia Antártica Oriental].
East Cerrado: Biogeographic province of the Brazil-
ian-Paranense Region (13.5). Tropical South Ameri-
ca. Eastern Cerrado. [Provincia Cerradense Orien-
tal].
Guajiran-Caribbean: Biogeographic province of the
Neogranadian Region (10.1). Tropical South Ameri-
ca. Caribbean from Cartagena to the Paria Peninsula,
with the Guajira, Maracaibo, Falcón, Barquisimeto,
Valencia, Caracas and coastal Venezuelan moun-
tains. To the south it borders with the Llaneran
(10.2), Colombian Andean (10.3) and Cordobesa-Lo-
wer Magdalena (10.4) biogeographical provinces.
[Provincia Guajireña-Caribeña].
Guaviarean-Orinoquian : Biogeographic province of
the Guyanan-Orinoquian Region (11.3). Tropical
South America. [Provincia Guaviareña-Orinoquen-
se].
Guayaquilian-Ecuadorean: Biogeographic province
belonging to the Neogranadian Region (10.6). Pacific
equatorial tropical South America. It extends along
the coast from the Guayaquil Gulf (3ºS) up the An-
con Bay on the Colombian border (1º 30’N), ex-
cluding a desertic narrow coastal territory with man-
groves going from the Puná Island to the Manta Bay.
In contrast, the coast is always hyperarid and ultra-
hyperarid with cold sea waters and without man-
groves extending from latitude 4º 10’ S up to 24ºS to
the Hyperdesertic Tropical Pacific Region (16)]. The
Andean ranges of the Colombian Andean Province
(10.3), with the typical frailejones, extend as far as
Ecuador up to the snow covered volcanoes of Coto-
paxi (5897 m) and Iliniza (5383 m) (1ºS). South of
this latitude the mountain chain continues the
Guayaquilian-Ecuadorean Province, whose highest
peak is the Chimborazo (6310 m). In the high humid
or even hyperhumid supra-cryorotropical high
mountains there are short and tall pajonales and
scrubland climatophilous communities, as well as the
perennifolius meso-micro-cloud-forests which be-
come serial shrubby pajonales when damaged. In the
upper semiarid-subhumid infra-mesotropical belts,
mostly on the pacific slope, the natural matured
vegetation, seriously damaged by agriculture, corre-
sponds to deciduous and semideciduous micro-meso-
forests that in the hottest areas can be thorny or doli-
form. The xeric mesotropical deciduous forests with
small doliform trees and cacti are also visible at the
south of the province (6ºS) next to the Abra Porculla
(2145 m) and Bagua low hot valley, in the Marañón
basin. Eastwards from the Napo to the Pastaza rivers
it borders the humid lower thermotropical pluvial
belt with the West Amazonian Province (12.1) and at
the Condor Mountain Range and the Chinchipe ba-
sin, the humid-hyperhumid meso-lower supratropical
pluvial belt with the lauroid and Podocarpus humid
cloud forests of the Yungenian Province (15.5)
coming from the Eastern Peruvian Andes. [Provincia
Guayaquileña-Ecuatoriana].
Guyanan: Biogeographic province of the Guyanan-
Orinoquian Region (11.1). Tropical South America.
[Provincia Guayanense].
Guyanan-Orinoquian: Equatorial and Atlantic north-
ern eutropical south American biogeographic region
(11), with pluvial and pluviseasonal bioclimate, ex-
 Biogeographic Map of South America. A preliminary survey
tending over the whole of the hard Guyanese Shield
and the surrounding sandy fluvial and windy sand
deposits which give rise to soils and waters which are
extraordinarily poor in nutrients and bases such as
Old Guyana, Vichada, Guaviare, Vaupés and Ro-
raima territories. To the north and south it borders on
the Neogranadian and Amazonian Regions respecti-
vely, both of which have rich soils and waters. The
Guyanan-Orinoquian Region comprises five biogeo-
graphic provinces: 11.1. Guyanan, 11.2. Deltaic Ori-
noquian, 11.3. Guaviarean-Orinoquian , 11.4. Tepu-
yan and 11.5. Guyanese Brazilian . [Región Guaya-
na-Orinoquense].
Guyanese Brazilian : Biogeographic province of the
Guyanan-Orinoquian Region (11.5). Tropical South
America. [Provincia Brasileña Guayanense].
Hyperdesertic North Peruvian : Biogeographic pro-
vince of the Hyperdesertic Tropical Pacific Region
(16.1). Tropical South America. Hyperdesertic north-
ern Peru. [Provincia Norperuana Hiperdesértica].
Hyperdesertic Tropical Chilean-Arequipan: Biogeo-
graphic province of the Hyperdesertic Tropical Paci-
fic Region (16.2). Tropical South America. Hyperde-
sertic Tropical Chile and Arequipa, ultrahyperarid
and hyperarid coasts, ridges and mountain ranges of
Northern Arequipa, Moquegua and Tacna Peruvian
departments. [Provincia Chilena-Arequipeña Tropi-
cal Hiperdesértica].
Hyperdesertic Tropical Pacific: South American tro-
pical biogeographic region (16), extending from 4º
10’ S in the hyperarid coastal of Talara (Peru) to the
extreme ultrahyperarid tropical deserts of Antofa-
gasta (24ºS). To this region belongs the extreme
marked and moderate hyperdeserts, thermo-mesotro-
pical hyperarid and ultrahyperarid (It > 320; Io <
0.4), which in the Hyperdesertic Tropical Chilean-
Arequipan Province can reach almost 3000 meters,
with the moderate hyperdeserts of columnar cactus
of Browningia candelaris. The rocky or clayey hy-
perdeserts, without occasional hydric contribution or
fog, lack vascular vegetation cover, but the misty de-
serts with unmeasurable drizzled moisture during
some weeks in year, have different types of vegeta-
tion depending on the topography and substrate
(coastal ridges), such as the aerohygrophile commu-
nities of Tillandsia sp. pl. which grow on several
substrates and dune communities, or those than grow
on deep sandy soils formed by numerous radicant,
geophytic or terophytic plants. In the hyperdeserts
the natural matured vegetation corresponds to very
open formations of different cactus, some of them
crassiarborescents columnar microphanerophytics
with very low growth such as Neoraimondia arequ-
ipensis. The Hyperdesertic Tropical Pacific Region
comprises two biogeographic provinces: 16.1. Hy-
perdesertic North Peruvian and 16.2. Hyperdesertic
Tropical Chilean-Arequipan. However it has few flo-
ristic and vegetational relationships with the deserts
and semideserts of the Desertic Peruvian-Ecuadorean
biogeographic province (15.1). [Región Pacífica Tro-
pical Hiperdesértica].
31
Insular Antarctic: Biogeographic region belonging to
the Circumantarctic Subkingdom (20) with polar hy-
peroceanic, oceanic and pergelid bioclimate, and ex-
ceptionally boreal hyperoceanic only formed by isles
located in the austral glaciated sea around the Ant-
arctic Continental (Continental Antarctic Region),
linked by the permanent or temporary iced sea all the
year (banquisa) and the meeting between the ice wa-
ters (-2ºC) and temperate ones (0º to 3ºC) of the Ant-
arctic Convergence (about 1600 km of the coast),
adjacent to the circumpolar current, driven by the
west wind drift. Inside the region we accept three
oceanic groups of islands or archipelagos at the bio-
geographic province level: 20.1 Insular Atlantic Ant-
arctic Province (20ºE-80ºW): Bouvet Island, South
Georgia Islands, Diego Ramírez Islands, South
Sandwich Islands and South Shetland Islands; 20.2
Insular Indian Antarctic Province (20ºE-140ºE): Cro-
zet Island, Prince Edward Island, Heard Island, Ker-
guélen Islands and McDonald Islands and 20.3. In-
sular Pacific Antarctic Province (140ºE-80ºW):
Balleny Islands, Macquarie Islands, Peter Island and
Scott Islands. The terrestrial and oceanic-terrestrial
biota is quite poor and with gondwanic lineage, but
with influences of the nearby large continents and
islands: South America, Africa, Australia, New Zea-
land and Tasmania. [Región Antártica Insular].
Insular Atlantical Antarctic: Biogeographic insular
province of the Insular Antarctic Region (20.1). At-
lantic Antarctic archipelagos and islands: South
Georgia, Diego Ramirez, Bouvet, South Sandwich
and South Shetland (20º E-80º W) with thermo-su-
prapolar and pergelid bioclimates. [Provincia Islas
Antárticas Atlánticas].
Insular Falkland: Biogeographic insular province of
the Valdivean-Magellanian Region (19.4). Atlantic
boreal (antiboreal) South America. [Provincia Islas
Malvinas].
Insular Galapagos: Biogeographic insular province
of the Neogranadian Region (10.7). Xeric-desertic
pacific equatorial tropical South America. [Provincia
Islas Galápagos].
Insular Juan Fernandez: Biogeographic insular pro-
vince of the Valdivean-Magellanian Region (19.5).
Mediterranean and temperate subtropical pacific non
tropical South America. [Provincia Islas Juan
Fernández].
Lesser Antillean: Biogeographic province of the Ca-
ribbean-Mesoamerican Region (9.3). Antilles Is-
lands. [Provincia Antillana Menor].
Llaneran: Biogeographic province of the Neograna-
dian Region (10.2). Xeric and pluviseasonal infratro-
pical Atlantic tropical South America of the plains,
hills, rivers and dams of water in rich soils from the
river Meta to Guajira river, with hydrophytic herba-
ceous and humid wooded natural permanent savanna
to pluviseasonal evergreen or deciduous rich soil for-
est vegetation climax. [Provincia Llanera].
32 S. Rivas-Martínez, G. Navarro, A. Penas & M. Costa
Mediterranean Andean: Biogeographic province of
the Middle Chilean-Patagonian Region (18.3). Non-
tropical South America. Mediterranean Andes. [Pro-
vincia Andina Mediterránea].
Mesophytic Pampean: Biogeographic province of the
Pampean Region (17.1). Subhumid and humid tem-
perate Atlantic (30º-40º S) South America. [Provin-
cia Pampeana Mesofítica].
Mesophytic Punenian: Biogeographic province of the
Tropical South Andean Region (15.2). Tropical
mesophytic and hygrophytic subhumid to hyperhu-
mid puna of South America. [Provincia Puneña Me-
sofítica].
Middle Chilean-Patagonian: Pacific and Atlantic
non-tropical South American biogeographic region
(18), all with Mediterranean macrobioclimate. The
region obliquely crosses the subcontinent from one
ocean to another (Pacific coast: 24º-38º S, Atlantic
coast 40º-52º S); across a broad Mediterranean
bridge in the high Andes (approx. 30º-35ºS). Its
northern Andean mountain zone corresponds to the
puna floristic district Cuyano (MARTÍNEZ CARRE-
TERO 1995). From the extreme ultrahyperarid ther-
mo-mesomediterranean hyperdeserts of Atacama
(24ºS) and the central Chilean deciduous and scle-
rophyllous dry to subhumid thermo-mesomedite-
rranean micro-mesoforests (38ºS), it reaches the oro-
mediterranean belt of the cordillera with the clima-
tophilous scrubland and “pajonales” of the Medite-
rranean Andean Province and, in the high Andes, the
climatophilous cryoromediterranean dry-humid pul-
vinate vegetation. Beyond the cordillera appears the
meso-megascrubland, more or less thermic semiarid-
arid of the Argentine Monte biogeographic Province,
and continues towards the south, on the eastern side
of the cordillera, with northern or southern Pata-
gonian supra-oromediterranean semiarid-dry dwarf
shrubby vegetation. As far as the coast in Rio Galle-
gos (51º 50’ S), appears the temperate xeric macro-
bioclimate with the productive grasslands in summer
and, more toward the southwest the remains of the
old micro-mesoforests of Nothofagus, particularly
when the ombrotype is subhumid or humid with the
Valdivean-Magellanian mesoforest of Wintero-No-
thofagetea class. The Middle Chilean-Patagonian Re-
gion comprises six biogeographic provinces: 18.1.
Desertic Mediterranean Chilean, 18.2. Central Chi-
lean, 18.3. Mediterranean Andean, 18.4. Argentine
Monte, 18.5. North Patagonian and 18.6. South Pata-
gonian. [Región Mesochilena-Patagónica].
Neotropical: Biogeographic subkingdom of America
(Ba), with tropical macrobioclimate; that is to say, all
territories of the equatorial and eutropical latitudinal
belts (0º-23º N & S), as well as the subtropical belts
(23º a 35º N & S) having tropical macrobioclimate.
Five biogeographic superegions are recognized in
this subkingdom: Baa. Mexican (Mexican Xerophy-
tic and Madrean (regions: 7+8), Bab. Caribbean-
Neogranadian (regions: 9+10), Bac. Amazonian-Gu-
yanan: (regions: 11+12), Bad. Chacoan-Brazilian (re-
gions: 13+14) and Bae. Tropical South Andean (re-
gions: 15+16). [Subreino Neotropical].
Neotropical-Austroamerican: American and Antarc-
tic Biogeographic Kingdom (B) established by three
broad subkingdoms having distinct bioclimates: Ba.
Neotropical (tropical bioclimates: North, Central and
South America); Bb. Austro-American (temperate,
mediterranean and boreal bioclimates): Bc. Circum-
antarctic (polar bioclimates: Antarctic and related ar-
chipelagos). [Reino Neotropical-Austroamericano]
North Amazonian: Biogeographic province of the
Amazonian Region (12.2); it has been also named
Roraima. Tropical South America. Western Amazon.
[Provincia Amazónica Septentrional].
North Chacoan: Biogeographic province of the Cha-
coan Region (14.1). Tropical South America. North-
ern Chaco. [Provincia Chaqueña Septentrional].
North Patagonian: Biogeographic province of the
Middle Chilean-Patagonian Region (18.5). Non-tro-
pical Mediterranean South America. [Provincia Pa-
tagónica Septentrional].
Neogranadian: Neotropical biogeographic region
(10) cover a wide northern territory of South Ameri-
ca from the inner Guayaquil Bay and the Andean Pe-
ruvian-Ecuadorean mountains south of Loja (6ºS) to
the Gulf of Panama in the Pacific and the Gulf of Da-
rien, the Guajira (12º 30’ N) and Paria (11ºN) penin-
sulas in Caribbean Sea (10ºN). To the east and south
it borders on the Guyanan-Orinoquian (11), Amazo-
nian (14) and Tropical South Andean (15) regions.
The Neogranadian Region (see provinces text) com-
prises seven biogeographic provinces: 10.1. Guaji
ran-Caribbean, 10.2. Llaneran, 10.3. Colombian An-
dean, 10.4. Cordobesa-Lower Magdalena, 10.5.
Colombian Pacific, 10.6. Guayaquilian-Ecuadorean
and 10.7. Insular Galapagos. [Región Neogranadina]
Pampean: Non-tropical Atlantic Temperate South-
American biogeographic region (17) belonging to the
Austro-American Subkingdom. All the region has a
temperate macrobioclimate (temperate oceanic and
xeric), located between 30ºS and 40ºS parallels and
chiefly in the low basins of the Paraná and Uruguay
rivers which come from the tropical Brazilian-Para-
nense Region (approx. 30ºS). A considerable part of
the Pampean Region territory, except for its internal
and surrounding mountains ranges: Ventana, Carape,
San Luis and Córdoba (2884 m), has a very recent
origin (Holocene). For this reason the native flora
and particularly the arborescent one is very poor.
Towards the south and west of the rioplatensean te-
rritorial region the bioclimate changes to Mediterra-
nean xeric or desertic and consequently to the wide
Middle Chilean-Patagonian Region, always across
the Argentine Monte Province. The Pampean Region
comprises two biogeographic provinces: 17.1. Meso-
phytic Pampean and 17.2. Xerophytic Pampean. [Re-
gión Pampeana]
Panamanian-Costa Rican: Biogeographic province
of the Caribbean-Mesoamerican Region (9.6). Cen-
tral America. [Provincia Panameña-Costarricense].
 Biogeographic Map of South America. A preliminary survey
Pantanalian: Biogeographic province of the Brazil-
ian-Paranense Region (13.7). Tropical South Ameri-
ca. The Pantanal of South America, mostly covered
with hydrophytic herbaceous and permanent or tem-
porary flooded wooded natural permanent savanna.
[Provincia Pantanalense].
Paranense: Biogeographic province of the Brazilian-
Paranense Region (13.2). Tropical South America.
[Provincia Paranaense].
South Chacoan: Biogeographic province of the Cha-
coan Region (14.2). Tropical South America. South-
ern Chaco. [Provincia Chaqueña Meridional].
South Patagonian: Biogeographic province of the
Middle Chilean-Patagonian Region (18.6). Non.tro-
pical Mediterranean South America. [Provincia Pa-
tagónica Meridional].
Southwest Amazonian: Biogeographic province of
the Amazonian Region (12.4); it has been also named
Acre and Madre de Dios. Tropical South America.
South-western Amazon. [Provincia Amazónica Sur-
occidental].
Temperate Magellanian: Biogeographic province of
the Valdivean-Magellanian Region (19.2). Humid-ul-
trahyperhumid temperate non-tropical Pacific South
America.[Provincia Magallánica Templada].
Tepuyan: Biogeographic province of the Guyanan-
Orinoquian Region (11.4), mostly meso-supratropi-
cal pluvial. Tropical South America. Tepuys. [Pro-
vincia Tepuyana].
Tocantins: Biogeographic province of the Brazilian-
Paranense Region (13.4), mostly infratropical pluvi-
seasonal. Tropical South America. Tocantins River.
[Provincia Tocantinense].
Tropical South Andean: South American biogeogra-
phical superegion (Bae), with tropical macrobiocli-
mate formed by the Tropical South Andean and Hy-
perdesertic Tropical Pacific Regions (15+16). Tropi-
cal western coast and Andes. [Superregión Surandi-
na Tropical]
Tropical South Andean: South American biogeogra-
phic region (15) belonging to the tropical Andes of
the southern hemisphere, extending from the yungas
and humid punas of the Amazon and Cajamarca de-
partments and South Piura semideserts, as well as the
arid Ecuadorean coasts at the south of parallel (1ºS),
to the cardonales and Chilean-Argentinian tropical
desertic and semidesertic punas of the Cerro las
Tórtolas (6120 m) near the Agua Negra Pass (4735
m) (30ºS). To the north and west it borders on the
Neogranadian Region, inside Guayaquil Bay. To the
east, between the 4ºS and 17ºS parallels, below the
Andean yungas (600-900 m) the pluvial and meso-
phytic pluviseasonal humid-hyperhumid warm infra-
thermotropical (It>640) rainforests belong to the
Amazonian Region. In Santa Cruz de la Sierra (Boli-
via) the subhumid pluviseasonal forests correspond
to the West Cerrado (Brazilian-Paranense Region)
33
and connect with the Tropical South Andean along a
narrow band coming from the Chiquitanía. The con-
tact with the tropical xeric Chacoan Region is esta-
blished slightly towards the south, to finish at the
south of the 30ºS parallel in the Mediterranean
mountains and plains of the Middle Chilean-Patago-
nian Region of the provinces: Mediterranean An-
dean, Argentine Monte and Central Chilean. The
Tropical South Andean Region comprises five bio-
geographic provinces: 15.1. Desertic Peruvian-Ecua-
dorean, 15.5. Yungenian, 15.2. Mesophytic Pune-
nian, 15.3. Xerophytic Punenian and 15.4. Bolivian-
Tucumanan. [Región Surandina Tropical].
Valdivean: Biogeographic province of the Valdivean-
Magellanian Region (19.1), from mesotemperate to
cryorotemperate subhumid to ultrahyperhumid. Non-
tropical temperate and boreal South America. [Pro-
vincia Valdiviana].
Valdivean-Magellanian: Pacific and Austro-Atlantic
South-American biogeographic region (19), extend-
ing southwards from the Araucanía Region IX in
Chile (38ºS) and Rio Gallegos (51º50’S) in Argenti-
na, with woodland and forest of Wintero-Nothofage-
tea vegetation class. Its macrobioclimate is temperate
and boreal. The boundary between the temperate and
boreal macrobioclimates is located in the middle of
Isla Grande in Tierra de Fuego and the adjacent con-
tinental territory of the Strait of Magellan at parallel
53º30’, as well as in Queen Adelaide Archipelago in
the Pacific (52ºS). The Falkland (Malvinas) islands
with boreal hyperoceanic bioclimate constitute a bio-
geographic province of this region. The extreme hy-
peroceanic, temperate and Mediterranean subhumid-
humid Juan Fernandez Islands with a high number of
endemisms with gondwanic and magellanic origin
are also included in this region. The Valdivean-Ma-
gellanian Region comprises five biogeographic pro-
vinces: 19.1. Valdivean, 19.2. Temperate Magella-
nian, 19.3. Antiboreal Magellanian, 19.4. Insular Fal-
kland and 19.5. Insular Juan Fernandez. [Región Val-
diviana-Magallánica].
West Amazonian: Biogeographic province of the
Amazonian Region (12.1); also named Loreto Pro-
vince. Tropical South America. Western Amazon.
[Provincia Amazónica Occidental].
West Antarctic: Biogeographic province of the Con-
tinental Antarctic Region (21.1), polar pergelid and
scarcely upper suprapolar (Tp <20) in the coast and
adjacent islands to Palmer Land in the Antarctic
Peninsula. West Antarctic. It is also known as Lesser
Antarctic. [Provincia Antártica Occidental].
West Cerrado: Biogeographic province of the Brazi
lian-Paranense Region (13.6). Tropical South Ame-
rica. Western Cerrado. [Provincia Cerradense Occi-
dental].
Xerophytic Pampean: Biogeographic province of the
Pampean Region (17.2). Non-tropical temperate At-
lantic South America. Xerophytic Pampa [Provincia
Pampeana Xerofítica].
34 S. Rivas-Martínez, G. Navarro, A. Penas & M. Costa
Xerophytic Punenian: Biogeographic province of the
Tropical South Andean Region (15.3). Tropical
South America. Xerophytic Puna. Semiarid, dry and
subhumid ombrotypes, supra-, oro-, cryorotropical
thermotypes. [Provincia Puneña Xerofítica].
Yungenian: Biogeographic province of the Tropical
South Andean Region (15.5). Tropical South Ameri-
ca. Eastern tropical Andean territories, where it is
frequent to find humid, cloudy and evergreen shiny
leaved meso-macroforest as matured vegetation,
mainly in the humid-hyperhumid thermo-supratropi-
cal belt. Yunga. [Provincia Yungueña].
References
The most significant and understandable vegetatio-
nal publications that we know and used for Biogeogra-
phic of South America initial advance are disted in the
references.
Acosta-Solis, M. 1966. Las divisiones fitogeográficas y las
formaciones geobotánicas del Ecuador. Rev. Acad. Co-
lomb. Cienc. Exac. Físicas y Natur. 12, 48: 401-447.
Acosta-Solis, M. 1984. Los páramos andinos del Ecuador.
Editora Nacional. Quito. 220 pp.
Aguirre, Z., Madsen, JE., Cotton, E. & Balslev, H. (eds.)
2002. Botánica austroecuatoriana. Estudios sobre los recur-
sos vegetales en las provincias de Oro, Loja y Zamora-
Chinchipe. Abya-Yala (edit.), Quito.484 pp.
Alcaraz, F. 1999. Manual de teoría y práctica de Geobotáni-
ca.Universidad de Murcia. 401 pp.
Alvarez, M., Ramírez, C. & Deil U. 2008. Ecología y dis-
tribución de Hydrocotyle cryptocarpa Speg. en Sudamé-
rica. Gayana Bot. 65: 138-143
Amigo, J. 2009. La flora y la vegetación de Chile: un territorio
homólogo al de España.-Discurso de ingreso en la Real Aca-
demia de Farmacia de Galicia. TAKTIKA Comunicación.
38 pp.
Amigo, J., Izco, J. &.Rodríguez-Guitián, MA. 2007. Rasgos
bioclimáticos del territorio templado de Chile. Phytocoeno-
logia 37(3-4): 739-751.
Amigo J. & Ramírez, C. 1998. A bioclimatic classification of
Chile: woodland communities in the temperate zone. Plant
Ecology 136: 9-26.
Amigo, J., Ramírez, C. & García Quintanilla, L. 2004. The
Nothofagus nitida (Phil.) Krasser woodlands of southern
Chile in the northern half of their range; phytosociological
position. Acta Botanica Gallica 151(1): 3-31.
Amigo, J., Ramírez, C. & García Quintanilla, L. 2007. Mantle
communities of the temperate woodlands of South Central
Chile: a phytosociological study of the order Aristotelietalia
chilensis. Phytocoenologia 37(2): 269-319.
Amigo, J., San Martín, J. & García Quintanilla, L. 2000. Estu-
dio fitosociológico de los bosques de Nothofagus glauca
(Phil.) Krasser del Centro-Sur de Chile. Phytocoenologia 30
(2): 193-221.
Ataroff, M. & Sarmiento, L. 2003. Diversidad en Los An-
des de Venezuela. I Mapa de Unidades Ecológicas del
Estado de Mérida. CD-ROM, Ediciones Instituto de
Ciencias Ambientales y Ecológicas (ICAE), Universidad
de Los Andes, Mérida, Venezuela.
Aubréville, A. 1970.. Vocabulaire de biogéographic appliquée
aux regions tropicales. Adansonia, sér. 2, 10: 439-497.
Aymard, G. 2003. Bosques de los Llanos de Venezuela:
Consideraciones generales sobre su estructura y composi-
ción florística. En Tierras Llaneras, J.M. Hétier & R. Ló-
pez, Eds. SC-77: 19-48. IRD-CIDIAT. Mérida, Vene-
zuela.
Bolós, O., Cervi, AC. & Hatschbach, G. 1991. Estudios
sobre la vegetación del Estado de Paraná (Brasil Meri-
dional). Collect. Bot. 20: 79-182.
Braun-Blanquet, J. 1964.. Pflanzensoziologie. Grundzüge
der Vegetationskunde. 3 Aufl. Vienna and New York.
Butzke, A. 1997. Estudo fitossociológico da vegetação do
Alto Uruguai: Seleção das espécies arbóreas para o re-
florestamento dos municipios da região. Tesis Doctoral.
Universidad de León. España. 404 pp.
Cabido, M. 1985. Las comunidades vegetales de la Pampa
de Achala, Sierras de Córdoba, Argentina. Doc. Phyto-
soc. N.S. 9: 431-456
Cabido, M. & Acosta, A. 1986. Contribución al conocimiento
fitosociológico del subpiso superior de pastizales y bosque-
cillos de altura de las Sierras de Córdoba. In Escuche, UG. &
Landolt, E. (eds.). Contributions to the knowledge of flora
and vegetation of northern Argentina, Stiftung Rübel, Zü-
rich, Vëroff. Geobot. Inst. ETH 91:267-281
Cabido, M., Acosta, A. & Díaz S. 1990. The vascular flora
and vegetation granitic outcrops in the upper Córdoba
Mountains, Argentina. Phytocoenologia 19: 267-281
Cabrera, ÁL. 1971. Fitogeografía de la República Argentina.
Boletín de la Soc. Argentina de Botánica 14: 1–42.
Cabrera, ÁL. 1976. Regiones fitogeográficas argentinas. En-
ciclopedia de Agricultura y Jardinería. Tomo II. Ed. ACME.
Fascículo 1. 85 pp.
Cabrera ÁL. & Willink A. 1973. Biogeografía de América La-
tina. Monografía 13. Serie de Biología. Secretaría General de
la Organizaciónde los Estados Americanos. Washington DC.
EEUU. 120 pp.
Cano Carmona , E., Veloz, A. & Cano Ortíz, A. 2010.. Contri-
bution to the biogeography of the Hispaniola (Dominican
Republic, Haiti). Acta Bot. Gallica 157 (4): 581-598.
Cañadas, L. 1983. El mapa bioclimático y ecológico del Ecua-
dor. MAG-PRONAREG. Quito. 210 pp.
Castroviejo, S. & López, G. 1985. Estudio y descripción de las
comunidades vegetales del “Hato del Frío” en los Llanos de
Venezuela. Mem. Soc. Ci. Nat. La Salle 45(124): 79-151.
Caracas
Chevalier, A. & Emberger, L. 1937.. Les régions botaniques
terrestres. Encyclopédie française 5:5.64-1 to 5.66-7. Paris.
Cleef, AM. 1979. The phytogeographical position of the
neotropical vascular Páramo flora with special reference to
the Cordillera Oriental. In Tropical Botany, eds. K. Larsen &
L. B. Holm-Nielsen, 175-184. London.
Cleef, AM. 1981. The vegetation of the páramos of the
Colombian Cordillera Oriental. Diss. Bot. 61. 320 pp. J.
Cramer.Vaduz.
Cleef, AM. & Rangel, JO. 1986. La vegetación del páramo del
noroeste de la Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. In Van der
Hammen, T. & Ruiz, P.M. (eds.). La Sierra Nevada de Santa
Marta (Colombia). Ecoandes = Estudios de Ecosistemas
Tropandinos 2, Borntraeger, Berlin/Stuttgart, pp. 203-266.
Cleef, AM.,Rangel, JO. & Arellan, H. 2008. The páramo
vegetation of the Sumapaz (Eastern Cordillera, Colombia).
In Van der Hammen (Ed.) Cordillera Oriental Colombiana.
Transecto Sumapaz. = Studies on Tropical Andean Ecosys-
tems 7, Borntraeger, Berlin/Suttgart, pp. 799-913.
Cleef, AM.; Rangel, JO. & Salamanca, S. 1983. Reconoci-
miento de la vegetación de la parte alta del transecto Parque
de los Nevados. In Van de Hammen, T., Pérez-P., A. &
Pinto, P. (Eds.). La cordillera central colombiana. Transecto
Parque de los Nevados. = Estudios de Ecosistemas Tropan-
dinos 1, Borntraeger, Berlin/Stuttgart, pp. 150-173.
Cleef, AM.; Rangel, JO. & Salamanca, S. 2003. The Andean
rain forests of the Parque Nacional Los Nevados, Cordillera,
 Biogeographic Map of South America. A preliminary survey
Central, Colombia. In Hammen, T. van der & Dos Santos,
A.G. (eds.) Studies on Tropical Andean Ecosystems, 5. La
Cordillera Central Colombiana. Transecto Parque Los Ne-
vados: 79-143. J. Cramer. Berlin-Stuttgart
Contreras Medina., R.; Luna Vega, I. & Morrone, JJ. 1999.
Biogeographic analysis of the genera of Cycadales and Co-
niferales (Gymnospermae): A panbiogeographic approach.
Biogeographica 75: 163-176
Coombes, L. & Ramsay, PM. 2001. Vegetation of the
cushion mire at 3600m on Volcán Chiles, Ecuador. In
Ramsay, P.M. (ed.). The ecology of Volcán Chiles: high-
altitude ecosystems on the Ecuador-Colombia border: 47-
54, Plymouth.
Cortés BR. & Franco RP. 1997. Análisis panbiogeográfico de
la flora de Chiribiquete, Colombia. Caldasia 19: 465-478.
Costa, M.; Cegarra, J.; Lugo, L.; Guevara J.R.; Carrero, O.;
Lozada, J. & Soriano, P. 2008. Vegetación, bioclima y
suelos del Bolsón Xerofítico de Lagunillas, Mérida (Ve-
nezuela). Libro de Resúmenes del III Congreso Interna-
cional de Ecosistemas Secos. Santa Marta (Colombia).
Costa, M.; Cegarra, A.; Lugo, L.; Lozada, J.; Guevara, J. &
Soriano, P. 2007. The bioclimatic belts of the Venezuelan
Andes in the State of Mérida. Phytocoenologia, 37 (3-4):
711-738. Berlin-Stuttgart
Cuatrecasas, J. 1934. Observaciones geobotánicas en Co-
lombia. Trab. Mus. Cienc. Nat.Ser. Bot. 27: 1-144.
Cuatrecasas, J. 1958. Aspectos de la vegetación natural de
Colombia. Rev. Acad. Col. Cs. Ex. Fis. Nat. 10 (40): 221-
268.
Cuello, N. & Cleef. AM. 2009. The forest vegetation of
Ramal de Guaramacal in the Venezuelan Andes. Phyto-
coenologia 39(1): 109-156.
Cuello, N. & Cleef, A.M. 2009. The páramo vegetation of
Ramal de Guaracamal, Trujilo, Venezuela. 1. Zonal com-
munities. Phytocoenologia 39(3): 295-329
Darlington, P.J. 1957. Zoogeography: The Geographical
Distribution of Animals. John Wiley and Sons. 675 pp.
New York
Deil, U. 1994. Klassifizierung mit supraspezifischen Taxa
und symphylogenetische Ansätze in der Vegetation-
skunde. Phytocoenologia 24: 677-694.
Deil, U. 1999. Synvikarianz und Symphylogenie-Zur Evo-
lution von Pflanzengesellschaften. Ber. d. Reinh.-Tüxen-
Ges. 11: 223-244.
Deil, U., Alvarez, M., Bauer, RM. & Ramírez, C. 2011. The ve-
getation of seasonal wetlands in extratropical and orotropical
South America. Phytocoenologia 41(1): 1-34.
Diels, L. & Mattick, F. 1958. Pflanzengeopraphic. Walter De
Gruiter & Co. 194 pp. Berlin
De la Barra, N. 2003. Clasificación de la vegetación acuáti-
ca en ambientes lacustres de Bolivia. Rev. Bol. Ecol. 13:
65-93.
Diesel, S. 2005. Estudio fitosociológico de la vegetación de
la cuenca hidrográfica del río Caí. RS. (Brasil). Tesis
Doctoral. Universidad de León. España. 503 pp.
Dugand, A. 1970. Observaciones botánicas y geobotánicas
en la costa colombiana del Caribe. Rev. Acad. Col. C.
Ex., Fí. Nat. 13(52): 415-466.
Duno de Estefano, R., Aymard, G. & Huber, O. 2007. Flora
Vascular de los Llanos de Venezuela. Fundación para la
Defensa de la Naturaleza (FUNDENA), Fundación
Empresa Polar y Fundación Instituto Botánico de
Venezuela (FIBV). 738 pp.
35
Drude, O. 1890. Handbuch der Pflanzengeopraphie. Biblio-
thek Geographischer Handbücher (ed. by F. Ratzel). Verla
J. Engelhorn. Stuttgart.
Eiten, G. 1972. The Cerrado vegetation of Brasil. Bot. Rev.
(Lancaster) 38: 201-341.
Eiten, G. 1983. Classificação de vegetação do Brasil. CNPq
/Coordenação Editorial. Brasilia.
Emmerich, KH. 1988. Relief, Boeden und Vegetation in Zen-
tral und Nordwest-Brasilien unter besonderer Beruecksich-
tigung der kaenozoischen Lanschaftsentwicklung. Physische
Geographie Band 8. 218 pp.
Engler, A. 1924. Übersicht über die Florenreiche und Flo-
rengebiete der Erde. In Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien, A.
Engler & E. Gilg, 9-10 Aufl. Berlin.
Eskuche, UG. 1984. Vegetationsgebiete von Nord und Mit-
telargentinien. Phytocoenologia 12 (2-3): 185-199.
Eskuche, UG. 2005. Las comunidades vegetales litorales de
los lagos patagónicos y de los canales magallánicos. Folia
Bot. et Geob. Correntesiana 18: 1-31.
Estrada Sánchez, JC. 2003. Análisis multivariante de la varia-
ción altitudinal de la composición florística en la Cordillera
de Mérida, Venezuela. Trabajo presentado para ascender a
la categoría de profesor Asociado. Universidad de Los
Andes, Mérida Venezuela.
Etayo, J. & Sancho, LG. 2008. Hongos y líquenes lique-
nícolas del Sur de Sudamérica, especialmente de la Isla
Navarino (Chile). Bibliotheca Lichenologica 98: 1-302.
Faggi, AM. 1985. Las comunidades vegetales de Río Galle-
gos, Santa Cruz. In Boelcke, O., Moore, D.M. & Roig, F.A.
(eds.). Transecta botánica de la Patagonia Austral, Consejo
Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (Argenti-
na), Instituto de la Patagonia (Chile), Royal Society (Gran
Bretaña), Buenos Aires, pp.592-633.
Fiaschi, P & Pirani, JR. 2009. Review of plant biogeographic
studies in Brazil. Journal of Systematic and Evolution 47:
477-496
Galán de Mera, A. 1995. Ensayo sintaxonómico sobre las co-
munidades vegetales acuáticas del Perú. Arnaldoa 3(1): 51-
58.
Galán de Mera, A. 1999. Las clases fitosociológicas de la ve-
getación del Perú. Boletín de Lima 117: 84-98.
Galán de Mera, A. 2005. Clasificación fitosociológica de la ve-
getación de la región del Caribe y América del Sur. Arnaldoa
12: 86-111.
Galán de Mera, A. 2007. Flora y Vegetación de la Estación
Biológica El Frío (Llanos Occidentales del Orinoco, Apure,
Venezuela). Pub. Amigos de Doñana, 289 pp. Sevilla
Galán de Mera, A., Baldeón, S., Beltrán, H., Benavente, M. &
Gómez, J. 2004. Datos sobre la vegetación del centro del
Perú. Acta Botanica Malacitana 29: 89-115.
Galán de Mera, A., Cáceres, C. & González, A. 2003. La ve-
getación de la alta montaña andina del sur del Perú. Acta
Botanica Malacitana 28: 121-147.
Galán de Mera, A., González, A., Morales, R., Oltra, B. & Vi-
cente Orellana, JA. 2006. Datos sobre la vegetación de los
Llanos Occidentales del Orinoco (Venezuela). Acta Botanica
Malacitana 31: 97-129.
Galán de Mera, A. & Navarro G. 1992. Comunidades vege-
tales acuáticas de Paraguay occidental. Caldasia 17 (1): 35-
46.
Galán de Mera, A., Rosa, MV. & Cáceres, C. 2002. Una apro-
ximación sintaxonómica sobre la vegetación del Perú. Cla-
ses, órdenes y alianzas. Acta Botanica Malacitana 27: 75-
103.
36 S. Rivas-Martínez, G. Navarro, A. Penas & M. Costa
Galán de Mera, A. & Vicente Orellana, JA 1996. Las comuni-
dades con Corrycactus brevistylus del sur del Perú. Phyto-
logia 80(1): 40-47.
Galán de Mera, A. & Vicente Orellana, JA. 2006.. Apro-
ximación al esquema sintaxonómico de la vegetación de la
región del Caribe y de América del Sur. Anales de Biología
28: 3-27.
Gandullo, R. & Faggi, AM. 2003. Análisis fitosociológico de
los mallines del piso andino del Parque Provincial Copahue,
Neuquén, Argentina. Kurtziana 30: 45-55.
Gandullo, R. & Faggi, AM. 2005. Interpretación sintaxonómi-
ca de los humedales del noroeste de la Provincia de Neu-
quén, Argentina. Darwiniana 43: 10-29
Gandullo, R. & Smitd, P. 2001. Análisis ecológico de mallines
del Parque Provincial Copahue, Neuquén, Argentina. Agro
Sur 29: 83-99.
Gehú, JM. & Rivas-Martínez, S. 1982. Notions fondamentales
de phytosociologie. Syntaxomie: 5-33. J. Cramer Vaduz
Gentry, A. 1982. Neotropical floristic diversity. Ann. Missouri
Bot. Gard. 69:557-593.
Gibbs, PE., Leitao Filho, H. & Shepherd, G. 1983. Floristic
composition and community structure in area of Cerrado in
SE Brazil. Flora 173: 433-449.
Good, R. 1974. The geography of the flowering plants. 4th
edn. Longman, London (1st. edition 1947).
Green, TGA., Schroeter, B. & Sancho, LG. 2007. Plant life in
Antarctica. In Handbook of Functional Plant Ecology (F.I.
Pugnaire ed.). Marcel Dekker Inc, New York: 389-434.
Grehan, JR. 2001. Islas Galápagos: Biogeografía, tectónica y
evolución en un archipiélago oceánico: 153-160. In: Llo-
rente Bousquets, J. & Morrone, J. J. (eds.). Introducción a
la biogeografía en Latinoamérica: Teorías, conceptos, mé-
todos y aplicaciones. México, Las Prensas de Ciencias, Fa-
cultad de Ciencias, UNAM
Grisebach, A. 1872. Die Vegetation der Erdenach ihrer kli-
matischen. Anordnung Bd. I und II. Leipzig.
Guevara, JR., Carrero, O., Hernández, C. & Costa, M. 2007.
Relaciones florísticas entre la flórula arbórea de 7 regiones
de tierras bajas de Venezuela. Actas del XVII Congreso
Venezolano de Botánica: 795-798. Maracaibo (Venezuela).
Gutte, P. 1986. Beitrag zur Kenntnis zentralperuanischer
Pflanzengesellschaften.II.Die hochandinen Moore und ihre
Kontaktgesesellschaften. Feddes Repertorium 91: 327-336.
Gutte, P. 1986. Beitrag zur Kenntnis zentralperuanischer
Pflanzengesellschaften.III. Pflanzengesellschaften der sub-
alpinen Stufe. Feddes Repertorium 97: 319-371.
Gutte, P. 1988. Zu einigen Wasserpflanzen-und Röhrichtge-
sellschaften in den Hochanden Zentralperus. In Müller,
G.K., Gutte, P., Müller, C. & Schulz, D:L. (eds.) Catalo-
gous Herbarii Lipsiensis, Karl-Marx-Universität, Leizig,
Plantae Neotropicae 1: 45-48.
Hammen, T. van der, Rangel Ch., JO. & Cleef, AM. (eds.).
2005. La Cordillera Occidental Colombiana. Transecto Tata-
má. Studies on Tropical Andean Ecosystems 6: 956 pp. J.
Cramer. Berlin-Stuttgart.
Hayek, A. 1926. Allgemeine Pflanzengeographie. Borntrae
ger. 409 pp. Berlin.
Hildebrand-Vogel, R. 1984. Acerca de la vegetación de los
matorrales de tierras bajas en la región del bosque lau-
rifolio valdibiano en el Sur de Chile. Phytocoenologia 12
(2/3): 251-259.
Hildebrand-Vogel, R., Godoy, R. & Vogel, A. 1990. Sub-
antarctic-Andean Nothofagus pumilio forest. Vegetatio
89(1): 55-68.
Huber, O. & Alarcón, C. 1988. Mapa de vegetación de Ve-
nezuela. 1:2.000.000. Ministerio del Ambiente y de los
Recursos Nat. Renovables. Caracas.
Huber, O. & Riina, R. 1997. Glosario fitoecológico de las
Américas Voluman I América del Sur: Paises hispano-
parlantes. Ed UNESCO. ISBN: 980-6401-15-8.
Huber, O. & Riina, R. 2003. Glosario fitoecológico de las
Américas Voluman II México, América Central e Islas
del Caribe: Paises hispanoparlantes. Ed UNESCO. ISBN:
92-3-303922-6.
Hueck, K. 1960. Mapa de Vegetación de la República de
Venezuela. Instituto Forestal Latinoamericano de Investi-
gación y Capacitación. Mérida. Venezuela.
Hueck, K. & Seibert, P. 1972. Vegetationskarte von Süda-
merika. 1:8.000.000.Vegetationsmonographien der einzel-
nen Groβräume Bd. IIa. Ed. H. Walter. Stuttgart. 90 pp.
Hueck, K. & Seibert, P. 1981. Vegetationskarte von Südame-
rika. Vegetationsmonogra der einzelnen Groβräume Bd. IIa.
Ed. H. Walter. Stuttgart. 90 pp.
Izco, J., Pulgar, I., Aguirre, Z. & Santín, F. 2004. Estudio flo-
rístico de los pajonales meridionales de Ecuador. Rev. Pe-
ruana Biología, 14 (2): 237-246.
Johnston, MP. & Raven, PH. 1973. Species number and ende-
mism: The Galápagos Archipielago revisited. Science 179:
893-895.
Josse, C., Cuesta, F., Navarro, G., Barrena, V., Cabrera, E.,
Chacón-Moreno, E., Ferreira, W., Peralvo, M., Saito, J. &
Tovar, A. 2008. Mapa de Ecosistemas de los Andes del Nor-
te y Centrales. Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Perú y Venezue-
la. Secretaría General Comunidad Andina de Naciones
(CAN), Programa Regional ECO-BONA-Intercooperation,
CONDESAN-Proyecto Páramo Andino, Programa BioAn-
des, EcoCiencia, Nature-Serve, LTA-UNALM, IAVH,
ICAE–ULA, CDC-UNALM, RUMBOL SRL. Lima. http://
www.infoandina.org/ecosistemas andinos.
Josse, C., Navarro, G., Comer, P., Evans, R., Faber-Lagendo-
en, D., Fellows, M., Kittel, G., Menard, S., Pyne, M., Reid,
M., Schulz, K., Snow, K. & Teague, J. 2003. Ecological Sys-
tems of Latin America and the Caribbean: A Working. Clas-
sification of Terrestrial Systems. Nature Serve. Arlington,
VA.
Josse, C., Navarro, G., Encarnación, F., Tovar, A., Comer, P.,
Ferreira, W., Rodríguez, F., Saito, J., Sanjurjo, J., Dyson, J.,
Rubin de Celis, E., Zárate, R., Chang, J., Ahuite, M., Vargas,
C., Paredes, F., Castro, W., Maco, J. & Reátegui, F. 2007.
Sistemas Ecológicos de la Cuenca Amazónica de Perú y
Bolivia. Clasificación y Mapeo. NatureServe. Arlington,
Virginia. 94 pp.
Kegler, A. 2005. Diversidad florística y caracterización fito-
sociológica de comunidades forestales, Caxias do Sul, RS.
(Brasil). Tesis Doctoral. Universidad de León. España. 600
pp.
Kegler, A., Diesel, S., Wasum, RA., Herrero, L., del Río, S. &
Penas, A. 2010. Contribution to the phytosociological survey
of the primary forest in the NE of Rio Grande do Sul
(Brazil). Plant Biosystems 144 (1): 53-84.
Kloosterman, EH.; Cleef, AM. & Salamanca, S. 2003. Vege-
tation map of the Parque Nacional Natural Los Nevados
(Central Cordillera, Colombia). En Hammen, T. van der &
Dos Santos, A.G. (eds.) Studies on Tropical Andean Ecosys-
tems, 5. La Cordillera Central Colombiana. Transecto Par-
que Los Nevados: 311-346. J. Cramer. Berlin-Stuttgart
Labuntsova, MA. 1969. On the botanico-geographic sub-
division of South America (in Russian). Bulletin of the
Main Botanical Garden 72: 28-33. Moscow.
 Biogeographic Map of South America. A preliminary survey
Lauer, W. 1968. Problemas de la división fitogeográfica en
América Central. Proc. UNESCO. Mexico Symp. 9: 139-
155
Lavrenko, EM. 1964. Geography of Plants (in Russian).
Great Soviet Cyclopedia 2d ed. 10: 475-478. Moscow.
León, RJC. & Burkart, SE 1998. El pastozal de la pampa
deprimida: estados alternativos. Ecotropicos 11: 121-130.
Lewis, JP:, Collantes, MB:, Pire, EF., Carnevale, NJ., Bocca-
nelli, SI., Stofella, SL. & Prado, DE. 1985.. Floristic groups
and plant communities of southeastern Santa Fe, Argentina.
Vegetatio 60: 67-90.
Llorente Bousquets, J. & Morrone, JJ. (eds.) 2001. Intro-
ducción a la biogeografía en Latinoamérica: Teorías,
conceptos, métodos y aplicaciones. México, Las Prensas
de Ciencias, Facultad de Ciencias, UNAM
Lozada, J, Guevara, JR., Soriano, P. & Costa, M. 2006.
Estructura y composición florística de comunidades se-
cundarias en patios de rolas abandonados, Estación Expe-
rimental Caparo, Barinas, Venezuela. Interciencia 31(11):
828-835.
Luebert, F. & Gajardo, R. 2005. Vegetación alto andina de
Parinacota, norte de Chile y una sinopsis de la vegetación
de la Puna meridional. Phytocoenologia 35: 79-128.
Luebert, F. & Pliscoff, P. 2006. Sinopsis bioclimática y
vegetacional de Chile. Editorial Universitaria. Santiago
de Chile. 316 pp
Luna Vega, I.; Morrone, JJ.; Alcántara Ayala, O. & Espinosa
Organista, D. 2001. Biogeographical affinities among Neo-
tropical cloud forests. Plant Systematics and Evolution 228:
229-239
Luteyn, J. 1999. Páramos, a check list of plant diversity
geographycal distribution and botanical literature. New
York Botanical Garden Press. New York. 278 pp.
Maguire, B. 1970. On the flora of the Guayana Highland.
Biotropica 2, 2: 85-100.
Maguire, B. 1972. Guayana as floristic province: Its rela-
tionship within the Neotropics and to the Paleotropics. In
Resúmenes de los Trabajos I Congreso Latino America-
no, Bot. Mex., 55-56.
Maguire, B. 1979. Guayana region of the Rotaima sand-
stone formation. In Tropical Botany, eds. K.Larsen and
L.B. Holm-Nielsen, 223-238. London.
Martínez Carretero, E. 1993. Carta de vegetación del sector
Cerro de Piedra-San Isidro. Multequina 2: 1-140.
Martínez Carretero, E. 1995. La Puna Argentina: delimita-
ción general y división en distritos florísticos. Boletín
Soc. Argentina de Botánica 31: 27-40.
Martínez Carretero, E. 2000. Vegetación de los Andes Cen-
trales de Argentina. El Valle de Uspallata, Mendoza. Bo-
letín de la Soc. Argentina de Botánica 34(3-4): 127-148.
Martínez Carretero, E. 2001. Esquema sintaxonómico de la
vegetación de regiones salinas de Argentina. Multequina
10: 67-74.
Martínez Carretero, E. 2006. Sintaxones arvenses, rudera-
les, adventicios, presentes en la vegetación argentina.
Multequina 2:195-200.
Mattick, F. 1964. Übersicht über die Florenreiche und Flo-
rengebiete der Erde. In Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien, A.
Engler, 626-630. Bd. 2:12 Aufl. Berlin.
Méndez, E. 2007. La vegetación de los altos Andes II. Las
vegas del flanco oriental del Cordón del Plata (Mendoza,
Argentina). Boletín de la Sociedad Argentina de Botánica
42: 273-294.
37
Méndez, E. & Ambrosetti, AJ. 1985. La comunidades vegeta-
les del Río Turbio, Santa Cruz. In Boelcke, O., Moore, DM.
& Roig, FA. (eds.). Transecta botánica de la Patagonia Aus-
tral, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Téc-
nicas (Argentina), Instituto de la Patagonia (Chile), Royal
Society (Gran Bretaña), Buenos Aires, pp. 634-694.
Méndez, E., Martínez Carretero, E. & Peralta, I. 2006. La
vegetación del Parque Provincial Aconcagua (Altos An-
des centrales de Mendoza, Argentina). Boletín Soc. Ar-
gentina de Botánica 41(1-2): 41-69.
Ministerio del Ambiente y de los Recursos Naturales 1985.
Atlas de La Vegetación de Venezuela. Dirección General
de Información e Investigación del Ambiente. Dirección
de Suelos Vegetación y Fauna. División de vegetación.
Caracas.
Molina, JA., Navarro, G., De la Barra, N. & Lumbreras, A.
2007. Andean aquatic vegetation in central Bolivia. Phyto-
coenologia 37: 753-768.
Monasterio, M. & Reyes, S. 1980. Diversidad ambiental y
variación de la vegetación en los páramos de los Andes
Venezolanos. In M. Monasterio (Ed.): Estudios Ecológi-
cos en los Páramos Andinos: 47-91. Editorial de la Uni-
versidad de Los Andes, Mérida.
Morello, J. 1958. La provincia fitogeográfica del Monte.
Opera. Lilloana 2: 1-155.
Morrone, JJ. 2000. What is the Chacoan subregion? Neotro-
pica 46: 51-68
Morrone, JJ. 2001. A proposal concerning formal defini-
tions of the Neotropical and Andean regions. Biogeogra-
phica 77: 65-82
Morrone, JJ. 2001. Biogeografía de América Latina y el
Caribe. M & T-Manuales & Tesis SEA, Vol., 3. 148 pp.
Zaragoza.
Moscol Olivera, Marcela C. & Cleef, AM. 2009. A phyto-
sociological studyof the paramo along two altitudinal
transects in El Carchi province, northern Ecuador. Phyto-
coenologia 39(1): 79-107.
Navarro, G. 1993. Vegetación de Bolivia: El Altiplano me-
ridional. Rivasgodaya 7: 69-98.
Navarro, G. 1997. Contribución a la clasificación ecológica y
florística de los bosques de Bolivia. Rev. Bol. Ecol. 2:3-37.
Navarro, G. 2003. Tipología fluvial y vegetación riparia ama-
zónica en el Departamento de Pando (Bolivia). Rev. Bol.
Ecol. 13: 3-29.
Navarro, G. & Ferreira, W. 2007. Mapa de Vegetación de
Bolivia, escala 1:250 000. Edición CD-ROM. The Nature
Conservancy (TNC). ISBN 978-99954-0-168-9.
Navarro, G. & Ferreira, W. 2009. Biogeografía y Mapa Bio-
geográfico de Bolivia. In: Vmabcc-Bioversity Interna-
tional, Libro Rojo de Parientes Silvestres de Cultivos de
Bolivia: 23–39. Plural editores. La Paz. 344 pp.
Navarro, G. & Maldonado, M. 2002. Geografía Ecológica
de Bolivia. Vegetación y Ambientes Acuáticos. Editorial
Centro de Ecología Simón I. Patiño. Cochabamba. 719
pp.
Navarro, G., Molina, JA. & de la Barra, N. 2005. Classifica-
tion of the high-Andean Polylepis forests in Bolivia. Plant
Ecology 176: 113-130.
Navarro, G., Molina, JA. & Pérez de Molas, L. 2006. Cla-
ssification of the forests of the Northern Paraguayan Cha-
co. Phytocoenologia 36(4): 473-508.
Navarro, G. & Rivas-Martínez, S. 2005. Datos sobre la fi-
tosociología del Norte de Chile: la vegetación en un tran-
secto desde San Pedro de Atacama al Volcán Licancabur
(Antofagasta, II Región). Chloris Chilensis. Año 8, Nº 2.
URL: http://www.chlorischile.cl.
38 S. Rivas-Martínez, G. Navarro, A. Penas & M. Costa
Oberdorfer, E. 1960. Planzensoziologische studien in Chile.
Flora et Vegetatio Mundi II. Weinheim.
Ozenda, P. 1964. Biogéographie végétale. Doin. 374 pp. Paris
Pinto, R. & Luebert, F. 2009. Datos sobre la flora vascular
del desierto costero de Arica y Tarapaca, Chile, y sus re-
laciones fitogeográficas con el sur de Perú. Gayana Bot.,
66 (1): 28-49.
Pinto-Zárate, JH. & Rangel-Ch., JO. 2010. La vegetación
paramuna de la cordillera Occidental colombiana I: las
formaciones zonales. In: JO. Rangel-Ch., (ed.). Colombia
Diversidad Biótica X: Cambios global (natural) y climá-
tico (antrópico) en el páramo colombiano: 181-287. Uni-
versidad Nacional de Colombia-Instituto de Ciencias
Naturales. Bogotá.
Pinto-Zárate, JH. & Rangel-Ch., JO. 2010. Serranía de Perijá.
In: JO. Rangel-Ch., (ed.). Colombia Diversidad Biótica X:
Cambios global (natural) y climático (antrópico) en el pára-
mo colombiano: 289-410. Universidad Nacional de Colom-
bia-Instituto de Ciencias Naturales. Bogotá.
Pittier, H. 1920. Mapa Ecológico de Venezuela. Litografía
Comercio. Caracas.
Pittier, H. 1935. Apuntaciones sobre la geobotánica de Ve-
nezuela. Boletín de la Sociedad Venezolana de Ciencias
Naturales 23(3): 93-114.
Posadas, PE.; Estévez, JM. & Morrone, JJ. 1997. Distribu-
tional patterns and endemism areas of vascular plants in
the Andean subregion. Fontqueria 48: 1-10
Prado, DE. &. Gibbs, PE. 1993. Patterns of species distri-
butions in the dry seasonal forest of South America. Ann.
Missouri Bot. Gard. 80: 902-927.
Prance, GT. 1977. The phytogeographic subdivision of Ama-
zonia and their influence on the selection of Biological
reserves. In Extinction is Forever, eds. G. T. Prance & T. E.
Elías, 195-213, N.Y. Botanical Garden, New York.
Prance, GT. 1978. The origin and evolution of the Amazon
flora. Iterciencia 3 (4): 207-222.
Prance, GT. 1979. Distribution patterns of Lowland neotro-
pical species with relation to history, dispersal and ecology
with special reference to Chrysobalanaceae, Caryocaraceae
and Lacythidaceae. of Amazonia and their influence on the
selection of Biological reserves. In Tropical Botany, eds. K.
Larsen and LB. Holm-Nielsen, 59-86. London
Púlgar, I., Izco, J. & Jadán, O. 2010. Flora selecta de los
pajonales de Loja, Ecuador. Ed. Abya-Yala, Univerisdad
de Santiago de Compostela y Universidad Nacional de
Loja. 147 pp. ISBN: 978-9978-22-908-8.
Quintanilla, VG. 1983. Observaciones fitogeográficas de la
Cordillera Oriental del Ecuador. Bull. Inst. Fr. Et. And.
12 (1-2): 55-74.
Ramírez, C. & Beck, S. 1981.. Makrophytische Vegetation
und Flora in Gewässen der Umbebung von La Paz,
Bolivien. Arch. Hydrobiol. 91: 82-100.
Ramírez, C., San Martín, C., Contreras, D. & San Martín,
J. 1994. Estudio fitosociológico de la vegetación pratense
del valle del río Chol-Chol (Cautín, Chile). Agro Sur 22:
41-56.
Rangel-Ch., JO. 2004. La vegetación del Chocó biogeo-
gráfico de Colombia y zonas cordilleranas aledañas –
síntesis-. In: Rangel-Ch., J.O. (ed.). Colombia Diversidad
Biótica IV. El Chocó biogeográfico/Costa Pacífica: 769-
815. Instituto de Ciencias Naturales. Bogotá.
Rangel-Ch., JO. 2008. La vegetación de la región ama-
zónica de Colombia -Aproximación inicial-. In: J.O. Ran-
gel-Ch. (ed.). Colombia Diversidad Biótica VII. Vegeta-
ción, Palinología y Paleoecología de la Amazonia colom-
biana: 1-53. Universidad Nacional de Colombia-Instituto
de Ciencias Naturales. Bogotá.
Rangel-Ch., JO. (ed.) 1995. Colombia Diversidad Biótica I.
Clima, Centros de concentración de especies, fauna.
Instituto de Ciencias Naturales - Universidad Nacional de
Colombia. 442 pp. Santafé de Bogotá.
Rangel-Ch., JO. (ed.) 1997. Colombia Diversidad Biótica
II. Tipos de vegetación en Colombia. Instituto de Cien-
cias Naturales - Universidad Nacional de Colombia. 436
pp. Santafé de Bogotá.
Rangel-Ch., JO. (ed.) 2000. Colombia Diversidad Biótica
III. La región de vida paramuna. Instituto de Ciencias
Naturales. Instituto Alexander von Humboldt. 902 pp.
Bogotá.
Rangel-Ch., JO. (ed.) 2007. Colombia Diversidad Biótica
IV. La alta montaña de la serranía de Perijá. Instituto de
Ciencias Naturales. 472 pp. Bogotá.
Rangel-Ch., JO. (ed.) 2008. Colombia Diversidad Biótica
VII. Vegetación, Palinología y Paleoecoilogía de la
Amazonía Colombiana. Instituto de Ciencias Naturales.
438 pp. Bogotá.
Rangel-Ch., JO. (ed.) 2009. Colombia Diversidad Biótica
VIII. Media y baja montaña de la serranía de Perijá. Ins-
tituto de Ciencias Naturales. 728 pp. Bogotá.
Rangel-Ch., JO. (ed.) 2010. Colombia Diversidad Biótica IX.
Ciénagas de Córdoba: Biodiversidad, ecología y manejo am-
biental. Instituto de Ciencias Naturales. 818 pp. Bogotá.
Rangel-Ch., JO. (ed.) 2010. Colombia Diversidad Biótica X.
Cambio global (natural) y climático (antrópico) en el páramo
colombiano. Instituto de Ciencias Naturales. 556 pp. Bogotá.
Rangel-Ch., JO. & Aguirre, J. 1983. Comunidades acuáticas
altoandinas I. Vegetación sumergida y de ribera en el lago de
Tota, Boyaca, Colombia. Caldasia 13: 719-742.
Rangel-Ch., JO. & Ariza, NC. 2000. La vegetación del parque
nacional Chingaza. In Rangel, JO. (ed. La región de vida pá-
ramuna de Colombia. Colombia. Diversidad Biótica 3: 720-
753.
Rangel-Ch., JO., Sánchez, D. & Ariza, NC. 2005. La vegeta-
ción del páramo de Frontino. In Van der Hammen, T. Ran-
gel, JO. & Cleef, AM. (eds.) La Cordillera Occidental Co-
lombiana. Transecto Tatama = Ecoandes, Studies on Tro-
pical Andean Ecosystems 6: 813-832. Stuttgart.
Rangel-Ch., JO. & Arellano-PH. 2009. La vegetación de las
selvas y los bosques de la serranía de Perijá. In: JO. Rangel-
Ch., (ed.). Colombia Diversidad Biótica VIII. Media y baja
montaña de la serranía de Perijá: 245-298. Universidad Na-
cional de Colombia-Instituto de Ciencias Naturales-COR-
POCESAR. Bogotá.
Rangel-Ch., JO., Cleef, AM. & Arellano, H. 2008. La vegeta-
ción de los bosques y selvas del transecto del Sumapaz. In:
T. Van der Hammen, JO. Rangel-Ch., & AM. Cleef (eds).
Estudios de Ecosistemas Tropandinos-Ecoandes 7. La cordi-
llera Oriental, transecto de Sumapaz: 695-798. J. Cramer,
(BORNTRAEGER) Berlín-Stuttgart.
Rangel-Ch., JO., Cleef, AM. & Salamanca, S. 2005. La vege-
tación de los bosques y selvas de Tatamá. In: T. Van der
Hammen, JO. Rangel-Ch., & AM. Cleef (eds). Estudios de
Ecosistemas Tropandinos-Ecoandes 6. La cordillera Occi-
dental Colombiana. Transecto Tatamá: 459-644. J. Cramer,
Berlín-Stuttgart.
Rangel-Ch., JO., Garay-PH. & Avella, A. 2010. Bosques hú-
medos y secos circundantes a los complejos de humedales
(ciénagas), en el departamento de Córboba. In: JO. Rangel-
Ch., (ed.). Colombia Diversidad Biótica IX. Ciénagas de
Córdoba: Biodiversidad-ecología y manejo ambiental: 207-
323. Universidad Nacional de Colombia-Instituto de Cien-
cias Naturales-CVS. Bogotá.
 Biogeographic Map of South America. A preliminary survey
Ratter, JA., Leitao-Filho, H. de F., Argent, G., Gibbs, PE., Se-
mir, J., Shepherd, G. & Tamashiro, J. 1988. Floristic compo-
sition and community structure of a southern Cerrado area in
Brazil. Notes RBG Edinb. 45(1): 137-151.
Raven, PH. 1963. Amphitropical relations in the flora of North
and South America. Quart. Rev. Biol. 29: 151-171.
Raven, PH. & Axelrod, D.J. 1974. Angiosperm biogeography
and past continental movements. Ann Missouri Bot. Gard.
61, 3: 539-673.
Reitz, P.R. 1961. Vegetação da zona maritima de Santa Catari-
na. Selowia 13: 17-115.
Ricardi, M., Gaviria, J. & Estrada, J. 2001. Los Andes de Mé-
rida, una nueva subprovincia fitogeográfica de la Provincia
de Los Andes del Norte. Plantula 3(1): 41-46.
Rikli, M. 1913. Die Florenreiche. In Handwörterbuch der Na-
turwissenschaften 4: 776-857. Jena.
Rikli, M. 1934. Geographie der Pflanzen. In Handwörterbuch
der Naturwissenschaften 4: 907-1002. Jena.
Rivas-Martínez, S. 1976. Sinfitosociología una nueva metodo-
logía para el estudio del paisaje vegetal. Anales Inst. Bot.
Cavanilles 33: 179-188
Rivas-Martínez, S. 1994. Dinamic-zonal phytosociology as
landscape science. Phytocoenologia 24: 23-25.
Rivas-Martínez, S. 1997. Syntaxonomical synopsis of the
potential natural plant communities of North America, I.
Itinera Geobot. 10: 5-148.
Rivas-Martínez, S. 2001. Synoptical Worldwide Bioclimatic
Classification System. http://www. globalbioclimatics.org.
Rivas-Martínez, S. 2004. Sinopsis biogeográfica, bioclimática
y vegetacional de América del Norte. Fitosociologia 41 (1)
suppl. 2, 19-52.
Rivas-Martínez, S. 2005. Notions on dynamic-catenal phyto-
sociology as a basis of landscape science. Plant Biosystems
139: 135-144.
Rivas-Martínez, S. 2005. Avances en Geobotánica. Discurso
de Apertura de Curso Académico de la Real Academia Na-
cional de Farmacia del año 2005. Instituto de España. Real
Academia Nacional de Farmacia. Madrid.142 pp.
Rivas-Martínez, S. & cols. 2007. Mapa de series, geoseries y
geopermaseries de vegetación de España: Memoria del mapa
de vegetación potencial de España. Parte I. Itinera Geobot.
17: 1-435.
Rivas-Martínez, S. & cols. 2011. Mapa de series, geoseries y
geopermaseries de vegetación de España: Memoria del mapa
de vegetación potencial de España. Parte II. Itinera Geobot.
18 (1-2): 1-800.
Rivas-Martínez, S. & Navarro, G. 1998. Mapa biogeográfico
de América del Sur. Servicio de Cartografía. Universidad de
León. España.
Rivas-Martínez, S. & Rivas Sáenz, S. 2009. Synoptical Word-
wide Bioclimatic Clasification System (summarized table).
Phytosociological Research Center. Website http://www.
globalbioclimatic.org
Rivas-Martínez, S, Rivas-Sáenz, S.& Penas, A. with the colla-
boration of: F. Alcaraz, J. Amigo, A. Asensi, M. Barbour, E.
Biondi, C. Blasi, P. Cantó, J. Capelo, JC. Costa, M. Costa,
M. del Arco, S. del Río, TE. Díaz, B. Díez Garretas, F. Fer-
nández-González, R. Gavilán, J.M. Gehú, J. Giménez de Az-
cárate, L. Herrero, J. Izco, P. Krestov, M. Ladero, J. Loidi,
M. Lousa, VE. Martín Osorio, S. Mesquita, J. Molero, J.
Nakamura, G. Navarro, PL. Pérez de Paz, JAF. Prieto, P.
Quézel, D. Sánchez-Mata, LG. Sancho, P. Soriano, F. Valle,
W. Wildpret 2011. Worldwide bioclimatic classification sys-
tem. Global Geobotany 1: DOI: 10.5616/gg 110001
39
Rivas-Martínez, S., Sánchez-Mata, D. & Costa, M. 1999.
North American boreal and western temperate forest vege-
tation. (Syntaxonomical synopsis of the potential natural
plant communities of North America, II). Itinera Geobot. 12:
5-316.
Rivas-Martínez, S. & Tovar, O. 1982. Vegetatio Andinae I.
Datos sobre las comunidades vegetales altoandinas de los
Andes Centrales del Perú. Lazaroa 4: 167-187.
Rivas-Martínez, S. & Tovar O. 1983. Síntesis biogeográ-
fica de los Andes. Collect. Bot. 14: 515-521.
Rivera Díaz, O. & Fernández-Alonso, J. L. 2003.. Análisis
corológico de la Flora endémica de la Serranía de Perijá,
Colombia. Anales Jard. Bot. Madrid 60(2): 347-369.
Rizzini, CT. 1979. Tratado de Fitogeografia do Brasil, vol. 2.
Aspectos sociológicos y florísticos. Editora Universidade de
São Paulo.
Roig, FA. 1972. Bosquejo fisionómico de la vegetación de
la provincia de Mendoza. Boletín de la Soc. Argentina de
Botánica 13 (Supl.): 49-80.
Roig, FA. 1998. La veegtación de la Patagonia. In Corea,
M. (ed.) Flora Patagonia, Colecc. Cient. I.N.T.A. 8(1):
46-166.Mendoza.
Roig, FA., Anchorena, J., Dollenz, O., Faggi, A.M. & Mén-
dez, E. 1985. Las comunidades vegetales de la Transecta
Botánica de la Patagonia Austral, Primera parte: la vegeta-
ción de área continental. In Boelcke, O., Moore, DM. &
Roig, FA. (eds.). Transecta botánica de la Patagonia Austral,
Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas
(Argentina), Instituto de la Patagonia (Chile), Royal Society
(Gran Bretaña), Buenos Aires, pp.350-456.
Roig, FA., Dollenz, O. & Méndez, E. 1985. Las comunidades
vegetales de la Transecta Botánica de la Patagonia Austral,
Segunda parte: La vegetación de los canales. In Boelcke, O.,
Moore, DM. & Roig, FA. (eds.). Transecta botánica de la
Patagonia Austral, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones
Científicas y Técnicas (Argentina), Instituto de la Patagonia
(Chile), Royal Society (Gran Bretaña), Buenos Aires, pp.
457-518.
Roig, FA. & Faggi, A. 1985. Transecta botánica de la Pata-
gonia Austral. Análisis geobotánico de la vegetación. CO-
NICET. Instituto de la Patagonia y Royal Society. Buenos
Aires.
Röhl, E. 1946. Climatología de Venezuela. Bol. Acad. Ci.
Fís. Mat. Nat. 27: 169-243. Caracas. Venezuela.
Ruthsatz, B. 1977. Pflanzengesellschaften und ihre Le-
bensbedingungen in den Andinen Halbwüsten Nordwest-
Argentiniens. J. Cramer, Vaduz, Dissertationes Botanicae
39, 168 pp.
Salamanca S., Cleef, AM. & Rangel, JO. 2003. The Páramo
vegetation of the volcanic Ruiz-Tolima massif. In van der
Hammen, T. & dos Santos, AG. (eds.) La Cordillera Central
Colombiana, transecto Parque de los Nevados, J. Cramer,
Berlin. = Studies on Tropical Andean Ecosystems 5: 1-77.
Sampaio, AJ. de 1934. Phytogeographia do Brasil. Editora
Nacional. 284 pp. São Paulo.
Sánchez, R. & Rangel, JO. 1990. Estudios ecológicos en la
cordillera oriental colombiana V: Análisis fitosociológico
de la vegetación de los depósitos turbosos paramunos en
los alrededores de Bogotá. Caldasia 16: 155-192.
Sancho, LG., Green, A. & Pintado, A. 2007. Lichen growth.
Slowest to fastest: extreme range in lichen growth rates
supports their use as an indicator of climate change in
Antartica. Flora 202: 667-673.
Sancho, LG., Schulz, F. & Schroeter, B. & Kappen, L. 1999.
Bryophyte and lichen flora of South Bay (Livingston Island,
South Shetland Islands, Antarctica). Nova Hedwigia. 68:
301-337.
40 S. Rivas-Martínez, G. Navarro, A. Penas & M. Costa
Sarmiento, G. & Monasterio, M. 1969. The distribution and
ecological significance of the main savanna types in the
Venezuelan Llanos. En: XI international Botanical Congress.
Abstracts, p.189. Seattle, Washington. USA
Schmithüsen, J. 1961. Allgemeine Vegetationsgeographie.
Walter De Gruiter & Co. 463 pp. Berlin.
Schwabe, G.H. 1968. Toward an Ecological Characterization
of South American Continent. In E. Fittkau, J. & al. (Ed.)
Biogeography and Ecology in South America. Junk Publ.
Amsterdam
Scur L. 2005. Flora y vegetación de los pastizales del Muni-
cipio de Caxias do Sul, RS (Brasil). Tesis Doctoral. Uni-
versidad de León. España. 576 pp.
Seibert, P. & Menhofer, X. 1991. Die Vegetation des Wohn-
gebietes der Kallawaya und des Hochlandes von Ull-Ulla in
den boliviannischen Anden, Teil I. Phytocoenologia 20(2):
145-276.
Seibert, P. & Menhofer, X. 1992. Die Vegetation des Wohn-
gebietes der Kallawaya und des Hochlandes von Ull-Ulla in
den boliviannischen Anden, Teil II. Phytocoenologia 20(3):
289-438.
Seibert, P. & Menhofer, X. 1993. Die Vegetation des Wohn-
gebietes der Kallawaya und des Hochlandes von Ull-Ulla in
den boliviannischen Anden. Phytocoenologia 22: 275-278.
Sierra, R. (ed.) 1999. Propuesta preliminar de un sistema de
clasificación de vegetación para el Ecuador Continental. Pro-
yecto INEFAN/GEF-BIRG & EcoCiencia. Quito. 194 pp.
Sierra, R., Cicerón, C., Palacios, W. & Valencia, R. 1999. Ma-
pa de vegetación del Ecuador Continental. 1:1.000.000. Pro-
yecto INEFAN/GEF & Wildlife Conservation Society. Quito.
Smith, AC. & Johnston, IM. 1945. A phytogeographic sketch
of Latin America. In Plants and Plant Science in Latin Ame-
rican, ed. F. Verdoon, 11-18. Waltham, Mass.
Soechting, U., Oevstedal, DG. & Sancho, LG. 2004. The li-
chens of Hurd Peninsula, Livingston Island, South Shetlands,
Antarctica. Bibliotheca Lichenologica 88: 607-658.
Steyermark, JA. 1974. The summit vegetation of Cerro Auta-
na. Biotropica 6, 1: 7-13.
Steyermark, JA. 1979. Plant refuge and dispersal centres in
Venezuela: their relict and endemic element. In Tropical
Botany, eds. K. Larsen and LB. Holm-Nielsen, 185-221.
London.
Stutz de Ortega, LC. 1983. Études floristiques de divers stades
secondaires des formations forestières du Haut Parana (Pa-
raguay oriental). Inventaire floristique d’une reserve fores-
tiére. Candollea 38: 543-573.
Stutz de Ortega, LC. 1984. Études floristiques de divers stades
secondaires des formations forestières du Haut Parana (Pa-
raguay oriental). dynamisme et reconstitution d’une forêt se-
condaire peu degradée. Candollea 39(2): 385-394.
Stutz de Ortega, LC. 1986. Études floristiques de divers stades
secondaires des formations ferestières du Haut Parana (Pa-
raguay oriental). Floraison, fructification et dispersion des
espèces forestiès. Candollea 41: 121- 144.
Stutz de Ortega, LC. 1987. Études floristiques de divers stades
secondaires des formations forestières du Haut Parana (Pa-
raguay oriental). Structure, composition floristique et régé-
nération naturelle: comparaison entre la fôret primaire et la
fôret sélectivement esploitée. Candollea 42: 205-262.
Stutz de Ortega, L.C. 1990. Études floristiques de divers sta-
des secondaires des formations forestières du Haut Parana
(Paraguay oriental). Structure, composition floristique et re-
crû forestier: analyse de cinq stades de succesion secondaire
Candollea 45(1): 81-123.
Susach Campalans, F. 1989. Caracterización y clasificación
fitosociológica de la vegetación de los Llanos centrales bajos
venezolanos. Acta Biol. Venez. 12 (3-6): 1-54.
Takhtajan, A. 1988. Floristic regions of the world. University
of California Press. 522 pp
Terán, E. 1979. Geografía del Ecuador. 10ª edición. Librería
Cima. Quito.
Terneus, E. 2002. Comunidades de plantas acuáticas en las la-
gunas de los páramos del norte y sur del Ecuador. Caldesia
24:379-391.
Thorne, RF. 1963. Floristic relationships between tropical
Africa and tropical America. In Tropical Forest Ecosystems
in Africa and Soht America: A Comparative Review, eds.
DJ. Meggers, ES. Ayensu & WD. Dickworth, 27-47.
Washington.
Ulloa, C. & Jørgensen, P.M. 1993. Árboles y arbustos de los
Andes del Ecuador. AAU Reports 30: 1-264.
Udvardy, MDF. 1975. A classification of the biogeographical
provinces of the world. JUGN Occasional papaer 18. Morges
Veloso HP. 1946. Consideraçôes gerais sôbre a vegetação do
Estado de Mato Grosso I. Notas preliminares sôbre o
Cerrado. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 44: 579-603.
Veloso HP. 1948. Consideraçôes gerais sôbre a vegetação do
Estado de Goiâs. Notas preliminares sôbre a fitossociologia
do Planalto Central Brasileiro. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 46:
89-124.
Veloso HP. & Klein, RM. 1957. As comunidades e associa-
çôes vegetais da mata pluvial do Sul do Brasil. Selowia 9:
81-235.
Veloso HP. & Klein, RM. 1959. As comunidades e associa-
çôes vegetais da mata pluvial do Sul do Brasil. Selowia 10:
9-124.
Walter, H. 1898-. Walter’s Vegetation of the earth: the ecolo-
gical systems of the geo-biosphere/ Siegmar-Walter Breckle;
translated from 7th, completely revised and enlarged German
edition by Gudrun & D. Lawlor.-4th, completely rev. and enl.
ed. p. cm.
Walter, H. & Straka, H. 1970. Arealkunde. Floristisch-histo-
rische Geobotanik. Eugen Ulmer Verlag. 2 Aufl. Stuttgart.
Wasum, R. A. 2005. Estudio fitosociológico de la vegetación
de los municipios de São Francisco de Paula, Bom Jesus y
Jaquirana, RS. (Brasil). Tesis Doctoral. Universidad de
León. España. 680 pp.
Weberbauer, A. 1945. El mundo vegetal de los Andes Perua-
nos. Estación Experimental Agrícola de la Molina.Ministerio
de Agricultura. 776 pp. Lima.
Williams, L. 1945. The phytogeography of Peru. In Plants and
Plant Science in Latin America, ed. F. Verdoorn, 308-312.
Waltham, Mass.
Witte, H.J.J. 1995. Seasonal and altitudinal distribution of
precipitation, temperature and humidity in the Parque Los
Nevados transect (Central Cordillera, Colombia). In Ham-
men, T. van der & Dos Santos A. (eds.) Estudies on Tropical
Andean Ecosystems, 4: 279- 327.
 International Journal of Geobotanical Research, 1

BIOGEOGRAPHIC MAPS OF
BIOGEOGRAPHICAL UNITS
-90° -80° -70° -60° -50° -40° THE WORLD: SOUTH AMERICA
9.3
B. NEOTROPICAL-AUSTROAMERICAN Kingdom [NEOTROPICAL-AUSTROAMERI- onduras Basse-Terre
Guadeloupe SALVADOR RIVAS-MARTÍNEZ, GONZALO NAVARRO, ÁNGEL
CANO] G . de H
Dominica PENAS & MANUEL COSTA
P
!

Ba. NEOTROPICAL Subkingdom [NEOTROPICAL]

Bab. CARIBBEAN-NEOGRANADIAN Superegion [CARIBEÑA-NEOGRANADINA] C. Gracias a Dios Fort-de-France !P Martinique

C a r i b b e a n S e a
9. CARIBBEAN-MESOAMERICAN Region [CARIBEÑA-MESOAMERICANA] Guatemala 9.5 Castries !P St. Lucía
with collaboration of:

o
Kingstown !P 9.3 Barbados
P
!

c
9.3. Lesser Antillean Province [Antillana Menor] San Salvador !P Javier Amigo (Chile and Argentina), Alindo Butzke (Brazil), Sara del Río (Argentina,

Co
9.5. Chiapan-Honduran Province [Chiapaneca-Hondureña] Tegucigalpa
Gua 10.1 St. Vincent Bridgetown Brazil and Paraguay), Antonio Galán (Peru), José Guevara (Venezuela), Jesús
P
! P
!

9.6. Panamanian-Costa Rican Province [Panameña-Costarricense] tem Izco (Ecuador), Eduardo Martínez Carretero (Argentina), Orlando Rangel
N O R T H
Managua St George's
10. NEOGRANADIAN Region [NEOGRANADINA] a la (Colombia), Salvador Rivas Sáenz (South America bioclimate expert), Fidel
I. Margarita Grenada
P
!

10.1. Guajiran-Caribbean Province [Guajireña-Caribeña] Tre L. Nicaragua C. de la Aguja Tobago

Roig (†) (Argentina), Daniel Sánchez-Mata (South Chile), Leopoldo G. Sancho
P
!

10.2. Llaneran Province [Llanera] nc Barranquilla

5800 !(Maracaibo 10.1 Caracas P Port of Spain
h (South Chile and Antarctica), Pilar Soriano (Venezuela) and Oscar Tovar (†) (Peru)
#
Sierra NevadaL. Maracaibo
(
!

10.3. Colombian Andean Province [Andina Colombiana] Trinidad

!
Cartagena
San José Panamá de Sta. Marta
P
!
(
! ( Valencia
!

10.4. Cordobesa-Lower Magdalena Province [Cordobesa-Bajomagdalena] G. of Darién

Barquisimeto
(
!

10°
P
!
Canal 10.1 10.1 11.2
10°
0 250 500 1.000 1.500 km
10.5. Colombian Pacific Province [Pacífico Colombiana] 9.6

A T L A N T I C
Ciudad
10.6. Guayaquilean-Ecuadorean Province [Guayaquileña-Ecuatoriana] 10.4 co
Panamá O rino !(Guayana
P
!

10.7. Insular Galapagos Province [Islas Galápagos] Cúcuta Lambert Equal-Area Azimuthal Projection

a le na
( San Cristóbal
Bac. AMAZONIAN-GUYANAN Superegion [AMAZÓNICA-GUAYANENSE] 11.3
(
!

10.2 Georgetown
!
Bucaramanga
BIOCLIMATES

a gd
11. GUYANAN-ORINOQUIAN Region [GUAYANA-ORINOQUENSE] 10.5

á
(
!
P
!

M e ta

n am
11.1. Guyanan Province [Guayanense] Paramaribo

M
O C E A N
Medellín
11.2. Deltaic Orinoquian Province [Orinoquense-Deltaica]
(
!

Authors: S. Riva s Sáenz; Rivas-Martínez, S.; Pe nas, Á; Navarro , G.; Costa, M.

P
!

2810 # Cayenne

Pa
11.3. Guaviarean-Orinoquian Province [Guaviareña-Orinoquense] 11.4 Mt. Roraima
11.4. Tepuyan Province [Tepuyana] Bogotá C. Orange -90° -80° -70° -60° -50° -40°

de
P
!

lf 11.3 11.1
Go
11.5. Guyanese Brazilian Province [Brasileña Guayanense]
P
!

10.3

o
12. AMAZONIAN Region [AMAZÓNICA] 15 13

Co
e q ui b o
12.1. West Amazonian Province [Amazónica Occidental]

ur an
12.2. North Amazonian Province [Amazónica Septentrional] Guaviare 13

ty n
Es s
12.3. Deltaic Amazonian Province [Amazónica Deltaica]

e
10° 10°

n co
12.4. Southwest Amazonian Province [Amazónica Suroccidental]
12.5. Central Amazonian Province [Amazónica Central] C. de San Francisco 14

Br a
11.5 Marajó I.
Bad. CHACOAN-BRAZILIAN Superegion [CHAQUEÑA-BRASILEÑA] Ca Ne g ro
q uet Equator
13. BRAZILIAN-PARANENSE Region [BRASILEÑA-PARANAENSE] Ga lápagos Is. Quito!P
Cotopaxi
á
0° 14
13.1. Brazilian Atlantic Province [Atlántica Brasileña] 0° 5897
#
12.2
13.2. Paranense Province [Paranaense] 10.7 15.1 Japurá zo n
10.6 # Chimborazo ma Belém 0°
A 15
(
!
0°
13.3. Catingan Province [Catinguense] Guayaquil 6267 Putumayo São Luis 13
Na
13.4. Tocantins Province [Tocantinense] 10.7 p Santarém
(
!
(
!
Manaus
13.5. East Cerrado Province [Cerradense Oriental] 12.1 Am
(
!

12.3 12
(
!

G. of Guayaquil
a z on

Toca ntins
13.6. West Cerrado Province [Cerradense Occidental] Fortaleza
13.7. Pantanalian Province [Pantanalense]
Iquitos
13
(
!
(
!
Ma

Parnaib a
13.8. Benian Province [Beniana] Pta. Pariñas r añón C. São Roque 14

Xi n g u
14. CHACOAN Region [CHAQUEÑA] Teresina!( -10°

jós
-10°
ira
12.5

pa
14.1. North Chacoan Province [Chaqueña Septentrional] Ju r u á

Ta
Natal
14.2. South Chacoan Province [Chaqueña Meridional] Pta. Negra 16.1

de
s
(
!

Ma
Bae. TROPICAL SOUTH ANDEAN Superegion [SURANDINA TROPICAL] ru
Pu

Uc ay
Ar
(
!

15. TROPICAL SOUTH ANDEAN Region [SURANDINA TROPICAL]

Chiclayo
15

ip
a
15.1. Desertic Peruvian-Ecuadorean Province [Peruana-Ecuatoriana Desértica]

Tel e
li

uan
Roose
15.2. Mesophytic Punenian Province [Puneña Mesofítica] Trujillo Huascarán ir e 13.4
(
!
Pôrto Velho
11 13 -20°

s
á
13
(
!
s isc o -20°

P
(
!
Recife
15.3. Xerophytic Punenian Province [Puneña Xerofítica] #6768 anc
Fr 12

ia
velt
12.4
(
!

15.4. Bolivian-Tucumanan Province [Boliviana-Tucumana] Chimbote o 13.3

gua
Sã
15.5. Yungenian Province [Yungueña] 22 15

Ara
(
!
Maceió
15.5 os
16. HYPERDESERTIC TROPICAL PACIFIC Region [PACÍFICA TROPICAL HIPERDE- Di -10°
de
SÉRTICA]
-10°
dr
e 24

Ar
Aracaju

in
(
!

16.1. Hyperdesertic North Peruvian Province [Norperuana Hiperdesértica] 33

os
Callao

a
Gu

M
16.2. Hyperdesertic Tropical Chilean-Arequipan Province [Chilena-Arequipeña Tropical Lima ap 34 -30°
(!
!P

Hiperdesértica]
or é -30°
33
Bb. AUSTROAMERICAN Subkingdom [AUSTROAMERICANO] 13.8 Salvador 31
28
(
!
Cusco
(
!

15.2

M am
17. PAMPEAN Region [PAMPEANA]
17.1. Mesophytic Pampean Province [Pampeana Mesofítica] L. Titicaca 34

or é
17.2. Xerophytic Pampean Province [Pampeana Xerofítica]
Cuiabá
Brasìlia
26
Nevado de Ancohuma
(
!

18. MIDDLE CHILEAN-PATAGONIAN Region [MESOCHILENA-PATAGÓNICA] 15.1 13.6

Arequipa 6550 33 -40°
P
!
#
Goiânia
18.1. Desertic Mediterranean Chilean Province [Chilena Mediterránea Desértica] -40°
La Paz
(
! P
!

18.2. Central Chilean Province [Chilena Central]

(
!
Cochabamba

18.3. Mediterranean Andean Province [Andina Mediterránea] 13.5

(
!

Santa Cruz
(
!

18.4. Argentine Monte Province [Monte Argentino] 13.7 13.1

L. Poopó
18.5. North Patagonian Province [Patagónica Septentrional] Sucre
Abrolhos Bank 31
18.6. South Patagonian Province [Patagónica Meridional]
(
!

19. VALDIVEAN-MAGELLANIAN Region [VALDIVIANA-MAGALLÁNICA] 46 -50°

Iquique!(
19.1. Valdivean Province [Valdiviana] -50°
(
!
Belo Horizonte
19.2. Temperate Magellanian Province [Magallánica Templada]
I C
Vitória
15.4
(
!
-20° 55

P A C I F

Pa rag uay
19.3. Boreal Austromagellanian Province [Austromagallánica Boreal] -20° 14.1 ra
Juiz de Fora Campos

ná
19.4. Insular Falkland Province [Islas Malvinas] 16.2 Pa
(
! (
!

19.5. Insular Juan Fernandez Province [Islas Juan Fernández] Campinas 55

Bc. CIRCUMANTARCTIC Subkingdom [CIRCUNANTÁRTICO]
(
!

Pilc C. Frío
(
!
Sao Paulo!( -110° -100° -90° -80° -70° -60° -50° -40° -30° -20° -10°
20. INSULAR ANTARCTIC Region [ANTÁRTICA INSULAR] om Rio de Janeiro
Tropic of C
Antofagasta
13.2
(
!
ayo
apricorn
20.1. Insular Atlantical Antarctic Province [Islas Antárticas Atlánticas] Salta

21. CONTINENTAL ANTARCTIC Region [ANTÁRTICA CONTINENTAL] 15.3

(
!
Asunción Cat. Iguazú
P
!
Curitiba!( Tropical [Tropical] Temperate [Templado]
21.1. West Antarctic Province [Antártica Occidental]
Cerro Ojos San Miguel 11. Hyperdesertic [Hiperdesértico] 31. Xeric [Xérico]
21.2. East Antarctic Province [Antártica Oriental] del Salado de Tucumán 12. Desertic [Desértico] 33. Oceanic [Oceánico]
# 6863
(
!
Resistencia Corrientes Urug
(!
! (
ua
y 13.1 13. Xeric [Xérico] 34. Hyperoceanic [Hiperoceánico]
14. Pluviseasonal [Pluviestacional] Boreal [Boreal]
14.2

Sa
region (region) province (provincia) 15. Pluvial [Pluvial] 46. Hyperoceanic [Hiperoceánico]

lad
N
O C E A
Mediterranean [Mediterráneo] Polar [Polar]

Paraná
o
18.1
Pôrto Alegre 22. Hyperdesertic-Oceanic [Hiperdesértico-Oceánico] 55. Hyperoceanic [Hiperoceánico]
24. Desertic-Oceanic [Desértico-Oceánico]
(
!

L. Mar 26. Xeric-Oceanic [Xérico-Oceánico]

Chiquita Santa Fé!( Paraná
L. de los Patos
Pelotas
18.3 (
!
-30° 28. Pluviseasonal-Oceanic [Pluviestacional-Oceánico]
Mt. Aconcagua
(
!

-30°
# 6960 17.1
Fern ández
Valparaíso
an
Arch. de Ju
(
!

Santiago
P
!

Buenos Aires Montevideo

19.5
P
!

R ío
(
! P
!
La Plata
17.2
-90° -80° -70° -60° -50° -40° 18.2 d e la Guatemala
-90° -80° -70° -60° -50° -40°
P lata G. d e
Hon du ras
Honduras
Guadeloupe

Concepción
Dominica
C. Gracias a Dios Martinique
(
! C a r i b b e a n S e a St. Lucía
Barbados
Gu St. Vincent
Mar del Plata
at em
a la Nicaragua
N O R T H

CARIBBEAN-NOVOGRANATENSEAN Superegion
I. Margarita Grenad
Tr a
en C. de la Aguja Tobago
Bahía Blanca
(
!
ch

Colora
18.4
Trinidad
10° 10°
Panamá
10° do 10°
G. o f Dar ién
id
a
s

S O U T H
(
! Canal
ér

Ba A T L A N T I C
Costa Rica M
de o Venezuela Guyana
hía
d. n
or
Valdivia Panama a n a H i g Suriname

á
u i
C

B
Neg h l

na m
G O C E A N
lan
ro a
(
!
n

Pa

a
al
ca
d
C. Orange

cen de n t
de
lf a

ta l
19.1
S. P m s French Guyana

l
Go a car a i

ien
C. al

L
C . . Oc ci
Colombia
G. San Matías

tr
Or
Puerto Montt S erra
18.5
AMAZONIAN-GUYANAN Superegion
uc umaq u
Tum

C ord
C. de San Francisc o e

C h
(
!
Marajó I.

Ch
0° Valdés Peninsula -40° 0°
Equator
Galápagos Is.
0° ub 0°
i l
Ecuador
Chiloé I.
u
-40° e R i s e
t

G. of Guayaquil

A T L A N T
Pta. Pariñas C. São Roque

I C
Pta. Negra
S a Plat. of
Chonos
e l v
NEOTROPICAL Subkingdom
Brazil

Arch ip ié la go
Borborema
TR

Comodoro Perú
San Valentín Rivadavia
OP

-10° Gulf of San Jorge -10°

(
!
-10° 4058 -10°

s
insula

nd
Argentine
IC up

Taitao Pen

la
#
Plateau of
A L er e

gh
18.6
S

Basin
Mato Grosso
as
Gulf of Pen
Bo

Hi
S O gi o

liv Bolivia
ia

an
CHACOAN-BRAZILIAN Sup
O C E A N
UT n

n
eregion

Brazili
Pl
ate
Abrolh os Ba nk

I.
Wellington
HA

ra
au
u
-20° iq -20°

ei
-20° -20° I C nt
P A C I F Ma
Falkland Is.

aco
Paraguay
West Falkland da
ND

S.
os I.
Madre de Di

Ch
C. Frío

an
EAN

Gr
Chile
19.2 East Falkland

s
19.4
Str.
ellan´s

ío s
N
O C E A

Mag
-50°

eR
e
-30° -30°

E ntr
L. de los Patos
Argentina Uruguay
Santa Inés I. 19.3
-30° -30°

a s
Staten I. Ferná ndez
Arch. de Juan

d
bur
-50°
AUSTROAM ERICAN Subking

P a m p
20.1
ock
Río

gle
d

dom
e la P

C
l ata

a l
Can

n
B ea C. Horn So uth G
eorgia
al
Can
Ba
hía S O U T H

A
Bla
n ca
G. San Matías

a
-40° C
h i
Chiloé I.
Valdés Peninsula
-40°

n i
l e
-40° -40° R i s
e
A T L A N T
w i c h I s.

ipiéla go Chon
os I C

p a t a g o
Arch
Gulf of San Jorge
ula A rg e nt in e
Taita o Penins

South Orkn
as Basin
Gul f of Pen

ey Is . 20.1 Wellin gton I.

O C E A
N

Sa
nd

Shetland Is.
West Falkland Falkland Is.
I.
Madre de Dios

20.1 20.1
East Falkland
´s St r.
e lla n
-50° M ag
Santa Inés I.
Tierra del Staten
Fuego I.
-50°
-50° -50°
rn
kb u
l Coc le
Ca na ag Sou th Geo
Be C. Horn

ANTARCTICA
rgia
al
C an

TARC TIC Subkingd

CIRCUMAN om

w i c h I s.
21.1 Sou th Orkn
ey Is.
Sa

nd
Shetland Is.

-60° ANTARCTICA

-110° -100° -90° -80° -70° -60° -50° -40° -30° -20° -10° -110° -100° -90° -80° -70° 19.6 -60° -50° -40° -30° -20° -10° -110° -100° -90° -80° -70° -60° -50° -40° -30° -20° -10°

Technical cartography: Miguel Álvarez, Ignacio Prieto

View publication stats
© EditAEFA