MA2265 Part A Part B Original

M.A.
M COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DISCRETE MATHEMATICS UNIT-1 1
MA2265- DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

UNIT – I LOGIC AND PROOFS
PART - A
1. Write down the two propositions P and Q for which Q  P is

true but P  Q is false.
Sol. When Q is false and P is true, we get Q  P is true and P  Q is
false.
P : New Delhi is capital of India
Q : 4 is an odd number.
2. State the truth value of “If tigers have wings then the earth
travels round the sun”.
Sol. Let P : Tigers have wings have truth value F
Q : The earth travels round the sun have truth value T
Therefore, P  Q has the truth value T.
3. Construct truth table for (P  Q)  (P  Q).

Sol.
P Q P  Q P  Q (P  Q)  (P  Q)
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F F
F F T F F
4. Prove that (P  Q)  7(P  Q) is a contradiction.

Sol.
P Q P  Q P  Q 7(P  Q) (P  Q)  7(P  Q)
T T T T F F
T F F T F F
F T F T F F
F F F F T F
 (P  Q)  7(P  Q) is a contradiction.
5. Give an example of tautology and contradiction.
Sol. P  (7P) is a tautology and P  (7P) is a contradiction.
6. Prove that 7(P  Q)  7P  7Q is a tautology.

Sol.
P Q 7P 7Q P  Q 7(P  Q) 7P  7Q (1)  (2)
(1) (2)
T T F F T F F T
T F F T T F F T
F T T F T F F T
F F T T F T T T
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M.A.M COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DISCRETE MATHEMATICS UNIT-1 2
Since (1)  (2) are all true, 7(P  Q)  7P  7Q is a

tautology.
7. Prove that P  Q  7P  Q
Sol.
P Q 7P P Q 7P  Q (1)  (2)
(1) (2)
T T F T T T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F F T T T T
Since (1)  (2) are all true, it is tautology.
 (1)  (2)
(i.e) P  Q  7P  Q
8. Prove that P  (Q  R)  ( P  Q)  R.
Sol. P  (Q  R)  P  (7Q  R)
 7P  (7Q  R)
 (7P  7Q)  R
 7(P  Q)  R
 (P  Q)  R.
9. Find the converse and contrapositive of the implication “If it is

raining then I get wet.”
Sol. Let P : It is raining and Q : I get wet
Then the given statement is P  Q .
The converse of P  Q is Q  P
The contrapositive of P  Q is 7Q  7P
10. Prove that 7Q  ( P  Q)  7P

Sol. Assume 7Q  ( P  Q) is true.
(i.e) Both 7Q and P  Q is true
If 7Q is true then Q is false.
and P  Q is true, when P is false and Q is false.
(i.e) P is false
Hence 7P is true.
11. Define functionally complete set of connectives and give an

example.
Sol. A set of connectives in which every formula can be expressed in
terms of an equivalent formula containing the connectives from
this set is called functionally complete set of connectives.
Eg : P  Q  (P  Q)  (Q  P)
 (7P  Q)  (7Q  P).
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12. Show that , is not functionally complete.

Sol. Consider the statement 7P.
7P cannot be expressed using the connectives  ,  .
Hence , is not functionally complete.

13. Show that  is minimal functionally complete set.
Sol. We can express 7,  ,  in terms of  alone.
P  P  7(P  P)
 7P
(P  Q)  (P  Q)  7(P  Q)
 7(7(P  Q))
 PQ
(P  P)  (Q  Q)  7P  7Q
 7(7P  7Q)
 7(7(P  Q))
PQ
  is minimal functionally complete set.

14. Show that  is minimal functionally complete set.
Sol. We can express 7,  ,  in terms of  alone.
P  P  7(P  P)
 7P
(P  Q)  (P  Q)  7(P  Q)
 7(7(P  Q))
PQ
(P  P)  (Q  Q)  7P  7Q
 7(7P  7Q)
 7(7(P  Q))
 PQ
  is minimal functionally complete set.
15. Define Principal disjunctive normal form.
Sol. For a given formula, an equivalent formula consisting of
disjunction of minterms only is known as Principal disjunctive
normal form.
16. Define Principal conjunctive normal form.

Sol. For a given formula, an equivalent formula consisting of
conjunction of maxterms only is known as Principal conjunctive
normal form.
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17. Define the two rules of inference for statement calculus.

Sol. Rule P : A premise can be introduced at any point in the
derivation.
Rule T : A formula S can be introduced in a derivation if S is
tautologically implied by any one or more of the
preceding formulas in the derivation.
18. When the set of premises H1 , H 2 ,.......H m is said to be
inconsistent.
Sol. The set of premises H1 , H 2 ,.......H m are said to be
inconsistent provided their conjunction implies a contradiction.
19. Show that 7Q, P  Q  7P.
Sol. Argument
1. 7Q Rule P
2. P  Q Rule P
3. 7Q  7P Rule T
4. 7P Rule T ( From 1,3)
20. Show that 7(P  Q) follows from 7P  7Q by using indirect

method.
Sol. Argument
1. 7(7(P  Q)) Rule P ( assumed premise)
2. P  Q Rule T
3. P Rule T
4. 7P  7Q Rule P
5. 7P Rule T
6. P  7P Rule T
which is a contradiction.
21. Symbolize the statement: “If Vani attends classes regularly and
if either she is attentive in the class or studies well then she gets
the top grade.”
Sol. Let P: Vani attends classes regularly.
Q: She is attentive in the class
R: She studies well
S: She gets the top grade.
The given statement can be written as P  (Q  R)  S.
22. Show that 7(P  Q)  (7P  (7P  Q))  7P  Q.

Sol. 7(P  Q)  (7P  (7P  Q))  (P  Q)  (7P  (7P  Q))
 (P  Q)  ((7P  7P)  Q)
 (P  Q)  (7P  Q)
 (P  Q)  (Q  7P)
 [(P  Q)  Q]  7P
 Q  7P
 7P  Q.
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23. Express the premises in symbols for the following argument:

If I like mathematics, then I will study. Either I study or
fail.Therefore, if I fail then I do not like mathematics.
Sol. Let P: I like mathematics
Q: I will study
R: I fail
The given premises are
P  Q, Q  R  R  7P.
24. Find PCNF of P  Q if the PDNF of P  Q

is (P  Q)  (7P  7Q)
Sol. Given P  Q  (P  Q)  (7P  7Q)
Now, 7A  (7P  Q)  (P  7Q)
7(7A)  7[(7P  Q)  (P  7Q)]
A  7[7P  Q]  7[P  7Q]
A  (P  7Q)  (7P  Q), which is PCNF.
25. Prove that P  Q  7Q  7P.

Sol. P  Q  7P  Q
 Q  7P
 7(7Q)  7P
 7Q  7P.
26. Define Tautology.

Sol. A statement formula which is True regardless of the truth values
of the statements which replace the variables in it is called a
Tautology.
(i.e) The proposition P(P1,P2,……) is a tautology if it
contains only T in the last column of its truth values.
27. Define Contradiction.

Sol. A statement formula which isFalse regardless of the truth values
of the statements which replace the variables in it is called a
Contradiction.
(i.e) The proposition P(P1,P2,……) is a contradiction if it
contains only F in the last column of its truth values.
28. Test whether the following formula P  (Q  P) is a tautology?

Sol. P  (Q  P)  P  (7Q  P)
 7P  (P  7Q)
 (7P  P)  7Q
 T  7Q
 T
Hence P  (Q  P) is a tautology.
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29. Show that 7(P  Q)  7P  7Q

Sol. 7(P  Q)  7[7(P  Q)]
 7[7P  7Q]
 7P  7Q.
30. Establish P  Q  (P  Q)  (7P  7Q)

Sol.
P Q P  Q P  Q 7P 7Q 7P  7Q (P  Q)  (7P  7Q)
T T T T F F F T
T F F F F T F F
F T F F T F F F
F F T F T T T T
Hence P  Q  (P  Q)  (7P  7Q).
31. Make a truth table for the statement ( p  q)  (~ p)

Sol.
p q p  q ~ p ( p  q)  (~ p)
T T T F T
T F F F F
F T F T T
F F F T T
32. Express the biconditional P  Q in any form using only disjunction

(  ), conjunction (  ) and negation (~ ).
Sol. P  Q  (P  Q)  (~ P  ~ Q)
(or) P  Q  (P  Q)  (Q  P)
 (~ P  Q)  (~ Q  P)
33. If P, Q, R are statement variables, Prove that

P  ((7P  Q)  (7P  7Q))  R.
Sol. P  ((7P  Q)  (7P  7Q))  P  [7P  (Q  7Q)]
 P  [7P  T]
 P  7P
F
 R [  F  any statement formula]
34. Prove that whenever A  B  C, we also have A  (B  C) and vice

versa.
Sol. Let A  B  C
 (A  B)  C is a tautology.
 A  (B  C) is a tautology [ P  (Q  R)  ( P  Q)  R]
 A  (B  C).
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35. Write the negation of the statement below:

‘If there is a will, then there is a way’.
Sol. Let P: There is a will ; Q: There is a way.
Then the negation of the given statement (P  Q) can be written as
7(P  Q)  7(7P  Q)
 P  7Q.
36. Obtain the DNF for the formula (P  (Q  R))  R

Sol. (P  (Q  R))  R  [P  (7Q  R)]  R
 7[P  (7Q  R)]  R
 7P  7(7Q  R)  R
 7P  (Q  7R)  R.
37. Obtain PDNF for ~ P  Q.

Sol. ~ P  Q  7P  Q
 [7P  (Q  7Q)]  [Q  (P  7P)]
 (7P  Q)  (7P  7Q)  (Q  P)  (Q  7P)
 (7P  Q)  (7P  7Q)  (P  Q).
38. Write the dual of (P  Q)  (T  R).

Sol. The dual of (P  Q)  (T  R) is (P  Q)  (F  R).
39. Does Q  (P  Q).

Sol. Assume P  Q is False.
 P is True and Q is False.
(i.e.) Q is False
 Q  (P  Q).
(OR)
We have to prove Q  (P  Q) is tautology
Q  (P  Q)  Q  (7P  Q)  7Q  (7P  Q)
 (7Q  Q)  7P
 T  7P
T
 Q  (P  Q).
40. Express the statement “Good food is not cheap” in symbolic form.
Sol. Let P: Food is good
Q: Food is cheap
Then the given statement is P  7Q.
41. Write an equivalent formula for P  (Q  R) which contains neither

the biconditional nor the conditional.
Sol. P  (Q  R)  P  [(Q  R)  (R  Q)]
 P  [(7Q  R)  (7R  Q)].
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42. What is duality law of logical expression? Give the dual of

(P  F)  (Q  T).
Sol. In the expression A replace  ,  , T, F respectively by  ,  , F, T. New
formula is dual.
Dual of (P  F)  (Q  T) is (P  T)  (Q  F).
43. If the premises P, Q and R are inconsistent Prove that 7R is a
conclusion from P and Q.
Sol. Given that P  Q  R  F ( a contradiction )
To prove that P  Q  7R
Assume that P  Q is true. To show that 7R is true.
If 7R is false, R must be true.
Hence P  Q  R is true.
By hypothesis this cannot happen, hence 7R is true.
 P  Q  7R.
44. Prove by truth tables that 7(P  Q)  (7P  7Q)  (P  Q)
Sol.
P Q 7P 7Q P  Q 7P  7Q (1)  (2) 7(P  Q)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
T T F F T F F F
T F F T T T T T
F T T F T T T T
F F T T F T F F
 From (3) and (4), we see that
7(P  Q)  (7P  7Q)  (P  Q)
45. What are the possible truth values of an atomic statement.
Sol. The truth value of an atomic statement is true, denoted by T, if it is a true
proposition and false, denoted by F, if it is a false proposition.
46. Express the statement “ The crop will be destroyed if there is a flood ”
in symbolic form.
Sol. Let P: There is a flood
Q: The crop will be destroyed
The given statement can be written as P  Q.
47. How many rows are needed for the truth value of the formula
(p  7q)  (( 7r  s)  t) ?
Sol. 32 rows.
48. Say Yes or No

(a)The negative of a conditional statement is also a conditional statement.
(b) A tautology implies only a tautology.
Sol. (a) No
(b) Yes
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49. Prove that the statements “ P  Q  R  S ” and “ P  Q  R  S ”

are equivalent.
Sol. Given P  Q  R  S
 (P  Q)  (R  S) is a tautology.
 ((P  Q)  R)  S is a tautology [ P  (Q  R)  (P  Q)  R]
 P  Q  RS
50. Write the following statements in symbols using logical connectives

“ It is either hot or cold but it is not cold if it is hot ”.
Sol. Let P: It is hot
Q: It is cold
The given statement is (P  Q)  (P  7Q).
51. Write the converse and contra-positive of the conditional statement:

If you obey the traffic rules, then you will not be fined.
Sol. Let P: You obey the traffic rules
Q: You will not be fined.
The given statement is P  Q.
Converse: Q  P. If you will not be fined then you obey traffic rules
Contra-positive: 7Q  7P. If you will be fined then you do not obey traffic
rules.
52. Define Predicate Calculus

Sol. The logic based upon the analysis of predicates of any statement is called
Predicate logic (or) Predicate calculus.
53. Define simple statement function with an example

Sol. It is defined to be an expression consisting of a predicate symbol and an
individual variable.
Ex: Let B be the predicate “is a Bachelor” and j the name “Mr.John”,
c “Mr. Chandran” and s “Mr. Senthil”, then B(j), B(c) and B(s) are all simple
statement function.
54. Define compound statement function with an example

Sol. It is obtained by combining one or more simple statement function with
logical connectives.
Ex: M(x)  H(x), M(x)  H(x), M(x)  H(x), 7H(x), etc.
55. Define Universal Quantifier with an example

Sol. The Quantifiers which are introduced to symbolize expressions such as
“for all”, “every” and “for any” is called Universal Quantifier.
Ex: All roses are red. (i.e) If x is rose then x is red.
Let A(x): x is rose, B(x): x is red.
Then the statement “All roses are red” can be written as “For all x, if x is a rose
then x is red” and it is (  x)[A(x)  B(x)] or (x) [A(x)  B(x)]
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56. Define Existential Quantifier with an example

Sol. The Quantifiers which are introduced to symbolize expressions such as
“for some”, “there is at least one” and “there exists some” is called Existential
Quantifier.
Ex: Some men are clever.
Let M(x): x is a man
C(x): x is clever
Then the statement “Some men are clever” can be written as “There exists
some x such that x is a man and x is clever” and it is (  x) [M(x)  C(x)]
57. Write the following statement in the symbolic form “Some monkeys
have no tails”
Sol. Let M(x): x is a monkey
T(x): x has a tail
The given statement can be written as “There is an x such that x is a monkey
and x has no tail” and it is (  x) [M(x)  7 T(x)].
58. Write the following statement in the symbolic form

“It is not true that all roads lead to Rome”
Sol. Let R(x): x is a road
L(x): x lead to Rome
The given statement can be written as “It is not true that for all x if x is a road
then x leads to Rome” or “ There is an x such that x is a road and x does not
lead to Rome” and it is
7(  x) [R(x)  L(x)] (or) (  x) [R(x)  7 L(x)].
59. Symbolize : “For any x and for any y , if x is taller than y then y is not
taller than x”
Sol. Let T(x, y) : x is taller than y.
The given statement can be written as “For any x and for any y, if x is taller
than y then it is not true that y is taller than x” and it is
(  x) (  y)[T(x, y)  7 T(y, x)]
60. Express 2 is an irrational number using quantifiers.

Sol. Consider the equation x  2 It does not posses any integer solution.
2
Hence we can express 2 is an irrational number as 7(  x) ( x  2 ).

2
61. Symbolize: For every x, there exists a y such that x2  y 2  100.

Sol. Let P(x, y) : x2  y 2  100. For every x, there exists a y such that
x 2  y 2  100 can be symbolized as (  x) (  y) P(x, y).
62. Symbolize : For any given positive integer, there is a greater positive
integer.
Sol. Let P(x): x is a positive integer
G(x, y): x is greater than y
10
The statement can be written as “For any x, if x is a positive integer then there
exists some y such that y is a positive integer and y is greater than x” and it is
(  x)[P(x)  (  y)( P(y)  G(y, x))]
63. Symbolize: Some people are not admired by everyone.

Sol. Let P(x): x is a person
A(x,y): x admires y
The given statement can be written as “There is a person who is not admired by
some person” and it is (  x) (  y)[P(x)  P(y)  7 A(x, y)].
64. Symbolize: Every book with a blue cover is a mathematics book.

Sol. Let P(x) : x is a book
B(x) : x has a blue cover
M(x) : x is a mathematics book
The statement can be written as “For all x, if x is a book and x has a blue cover
then x is a mathematics book” and it is (  x)[P(x)  B(x)  M(x)]
65. Symbolize: Every one who likes fun will enjoy each of these plays.
Sol. Let L(x) : x likes fun
P(y) : y is a play
E(x,y) : x will enjoy y.
The statement can be written as “For each x, if x likes fun and for each y, if y is
a play, then x enjoys y” and it is (  x)(  y)[ L(x)  P(y)  E(x,y)].
66. Symbolize: Every one should help his neighbours or his neighbours will
not help him.
Sol. Let N(x,y) : x and y are neighbours
H(x,y) : x should help y
P(x,y) : x will help y
The statement can be written as “For every person x and every person y, if x
and y are neighbors, then either x should help y or y will not help x” and it is
(  x) (  y)[ N(x,y)  ( H(x,y)  7 P(y,x))]
67. Symbolize : Every one who is healthy can do all kinds of work.
Sol. Let H(x) : x is a healthy person
W(y): y is a kind of work
D(x,y): x can do y
The statement can be written as “For all x, if x is healthy and for all y, if y is a
kind of work then x can do y” and it is (  x) (  y)[ H(x)  W(y)  D(x,y)].
68. Symbolize: Some people who trust others are rewarded.

T(x): x trust others
R(x): x is rewarded
The statement can be written as “There is one x such that x is a person, x trust
others and x is rewarded” and it is (  x)[P(x)  T(x)  R(x)]
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69. Symbolize: If any one is good then John is good.

G(x) : x is good
G(j) : John is good
The statement can be written as “If there is one x such that x is a person and x
is good then John is good” and it is (  x)[P(x)  G(x)]  G(j).
70. Symbolize: He is ambitious or no one is ambitious.

A(x): x is ambitious
‘He’ represents a particular person. Let that person be y. So the statement is “y
is ambitious or for all x, if x is a person then x is not ambitious” and it is
A(y)  (  x)[ P(x)  7 A(x)].
71. Symbolize: Every student in this class has studied calculus.

Sol. Let S(x) : x is a student in this class
C(x) : x has studied calculus
The statement can be written as “For all x, if x is a student in this class then x
has studied calculus” and it is (  x)[ S(x)  C(x)].
72. Express the following statement in symbolic form “Any integer is either
positive or negative”.
Sol. Let I(x) : x is an integer
P(x) : x is a positive integer
N(x) : x is a negative integer
The statement can be written as “For all x, if x is an integer then either x is a
positive or negative integer” and it is (  x)[ I(x)  {P(x)  N(x)}].
73. If S = {–2, –1, 0,1,2} determine the truth value of  x  S, x  3 x  2.

2
Sol. False.
Because x = 0 does not satisfy the condition x  3 x  2.
2
74. Determine the truth value of each of the following statements.

i)  x, x   x ii)  x, x  2  x
iii)  x, x  x iv)  x, x  2  x
4
Sol. i) False ii) True iii) True iv) False.
75. Find the truth value of ( x)( P  Q( x))  (x) R( x) where P:2 >1,
Q(x) : x >3, R(x) : x >4, with the universe of discourse E being
E = {2,3,4}.
Sol. P is True and Q(3) is False. Hence P  Q(3) is False.
 (x)(P  Q(x)) is False.
Since R(2), R(3), R(4) are all False, (  x)R(x) is also False.
Hence ( x)( P  Q( x))  (x) R( x) is False.
12
76. Give an example to show that (x)( A( x)  B( x)) need not be a

conclusion from (x) A( x) and (x)B(x) .
Sol. Let A(x): x  A and B(x) : x  B.
Let A = {1} and B = {2}. Since A and B are non-empty,
(x) A( x) and (x)B(x) are both true. But (x)( A( x)  B( x)) is false since
A  B = .
77. Translate the following predicate calculus formula into English

sentence (x)[C ( x)  (y){C ( y)  F ( x, y)}]
Here C(x) : x has a computer
F(x,y) : x and y are friends.
The universe for both x and y is the set of all students of your college.
Sol. For every student x, x has a computer or there exists a student y such that
y has a computer and x and y are friends.
(i.e.) Every student has a computer or his friend has a computer.
78. Express the following two statements symbolically using quantifiers.

a. Some students in this examination hall know Java.
b. Every student in this examination hall knows C++ or Java.
Sol. Let S(x) : x is a student
J(x) : x knows Java
C(x) : x knows C++.
i) “There is an x such that x is a student and x knows Java”
and it is (  x)[S(x)  J(x)].
ii) “For every x, if x is a student then either x knows C++
or Java” and it is (  x)[ S(x)  (C(x)  J(x))].
79. Define statement function of one variable. When it will become a

statement?
Sol. A expression containing predicate symbols and an individual variable.
When the variable is replaced by any particular value then it will become a
statement.
80. Use quantifiers to express the associative law for multiplication of real
numbers.
Sol. (  x)(  y)(  z) ((x.y).z = x.(y.z)) where the universe of discourse for x,
y and z is the set of real numbers.
81. Let the universe of discourse be E = {5,6,7}. Let A = {5,6} and B = {6,7}.
Let P(x): x is in A, Q(x): x is in B and R(x,y): x + y < 12. Find the truth
value of ((  x) (P(x)  Q(x))  R(5,6).
Sol. R(5,6) is true [ since 5 + 6 = 11 < 12 ]
P(5) is true and Q(5) is false
 P(5)  Q(5) is false
P(6) is true and Q(6) is true
 P(6)  Q(6) is true
P(7) is false and Q(7) is true
13
 P(7)  Q(7) is true

 (  x) (P(x)  Q(x)) is true
Hence ((  x) (P(x)  Q(x))  R(5,6) is true.
82. Give an example in which (  x) (P(x)  Q(x)) is true but
((  x) P(x))  ((  x) Q(x)) is false.
Sol. Let the universe of discourse be E = {3,4,6}
Let P(x): x < 5 , Q(x): x > 7.
P(3) is true.  (  x) P(x) is true.
For any x in E, Q(x) is false.
 ((  x) P(x))  ((  x) Q(x)) is false.
P(6) is false and Q(6) is false.
 P(6)  Q(6) is true
 (  x) (P(x)  Q(x)) is true.
83. Give an example of free and bound variable in predicate logic.
Sol. (  x) P(x,y)
x: bound variable
y: free variable
84. Define bound and free variables.
Sol. A variable is called a free variable in a formula if atleast one occurence of
the variable is a free occurrence.
A variable is called a bound variable in a formula if atleast one occurence
of the variable is a bound occurrence.
85. Let the universe of discourse E = { 1, –1, 2, 3}. Let G(x): x > 5 and
H(x): x divides 6. Find the truth value of (x) H ( x)  (x)G( x) .
Sol. (x) H ( x) is true
(x)G( x) is false.
Hence (x) H ( x)  (x)G( x) is false.
86. Express the negations of the following statement using quantifiers and
in statement form: “ No one has done every problem in the exercise ”.
Sol. Let D(x,y): x has done problem y
The given statement is 7(  x) (  y) D(x,y)
Its negation is (  x) (  y) D(x,y)
(i.e.) Some one has done every problem in the exercise.
87. Let the universe of discourse be the set {1, 4, 5, 8, 10}. Let D(x,y): x
divides y and S(x,y): x + y = 6. Find the truth values of the predicate
formula (  x)(  y) ( D(x,y)  S(x,y) )  (  x) (  y) D(x,y)
Sol. (  x)(  y) ( D(x,y)  S(x,y) ) is true
(  x)(  y) D(x,y) is true.
 Truth value of (  x)(  y) ( D(x,y)  S(x,y) )  (  x) (  y) D(x,y) is
true.
14
88. Define atomic and compound statements.

Sol. Any proposition without any connectives (operators) is said to be simple
(or) atomic (or) primary statement.
Any proposition with some connectives is said to be compound (or)
molecular proposition.
89. When a set of formulae is consistent and inconsistent?

Sol. The given set of premises P1, P2, …….Pm are said to be
(i) consistent if P1  P2  ……..  Pm  T
(ii) inconsistent if P1  P2  ……..  Pm  F.
PART - B
1. Prove that ((P  Q)  7(7P  (7Q  7R)))  (7P  7Q)  (7P  7R)
is a Tautology.
Sol. ((P  Q)  7(7P  (7Q  7R)))  (7P  7Q)  (7P  7R)
 ((P  Q)  7(7P  7(Q  R)))  7(P  Q)  7(P  R)
 ((P  Q)  (P  (Q  R))))  7[(P  Q)  (P  R)]
 ((P  Q)  (P  Q)  (P  R))  7[P  (Q  R)]
 ((P  Q)  (P  R))  7[P  (Q  R)]
 [P  (Q  R)]  7[P  (Q  R)]
 T.
Hence the given statement formula is a tautology.
2. Show that 7(P  Q)  (7P  (7P  Q))  (7P  Q)

and hence prove that (P  Q)  (7P  (7P  Q))  (7P  Q).
Sol. 7(P  Q)  (7P  (7P  Q))  (P  Q)  (7P  (7P  Q))------(1)
 (P  Q)  ((7P  7P)  Q)
 (P  Q)  (7P  Q)
 (P  Q)  (Q  7P)
 [(P  Q)  Q]  7P
 Q  7P  7P  Q.
From (1) we have
(P  Q)  (7P  (7P  Q))  (7P  Q)
Its dual is (P  Q)  (7P  (7P  Q))  (7P  Q).
3. If H1,H2,…..Hm and P imply Q then H1,H2,…..Hm imply P  Q.

Sol. We know that A  B iff A  B is a tautology.
Given that H1,H2,…..Hm and P imply Q
(i.e) (H1  H2  .…..  Hm  P)  Q
(i.e) (H1  H2  .…..  Hm  P)  Q is a tautology. -----(1)
Since we know that
A  (B  C)  (A  B)  C
15
Equation (1) becomes

(H1  H2  .…..  Hm )  (P  Q) is a tautology
(i.e) H1  H2  .…..  Hm  (P  Q).
{Hint: A  (B  C)  A  (7B  C)
 7A  (7B  C)
 (7A  7B)  C
 7(A  B)  C
 (A  B)  C }
4. Obtain PDNF of (P  Q)  R  7P and hence find its PCNF.

Sol. (P  Q)  R  7P
 7[(P  Q)  R]  7P
 [7(P  Q)  7R]  7P
 [(7P  7Q)  7R]  7P
 (7P  7R)  (7Q  7R)  7P
 [(7P  7R)  (Q  7Q)]  [(7Q  7R)  (P  7P)]
 [7P  (Q  7Q)]
 (7P  7R  Q)  (7P  7R  7Q)  (7Q  7R  P)
 (7Q  7R  7P)  (7P  Q)  (7P  7Q)
 (7P  Q  7R)  (7P  7Q  7R)  (P  7Q  7R)
 [(7P  Q)  (R  7R)]  [(7P  7Q)  (R  7R)]
 (7P  Q  7R)  (7P  7Q  7R)  (P  7Q  7R)
 (7P  Q  R)  (7P  Q  7R)  (7P  7Q  R)
 (7P  7Q  7R)
 (7P  Q  7R)  (7P  7Q  7R)  (P  7Q  7R)
 (7P  Q  R)  (7P  7Q  R), which is PDNF.
Now, 7A  (P  Q  R)  (P  Q  7R)  (P  7Q  R)
7(7A)  7[(P  Q  R)  (P  Q  7R)  (P  7Q  R)]
A  7(P  Q  R)  7(P  Q  7R)  7(P  7Q  R)
A  (7P  7Q  7R)  (7P  7Q  R)  (7P  Q  7R)
which is PCNF.
5. Obtain the PCNF of (7P  R)  (Q  P) and hence find

its PDNF.
Sol. (7P  R)  (Q  P)
 (P  R)  (Q  P)  (P  Q)
 (P  R)  (7Q  P)  (7P  Q)
 [(P  R)  (Q  7Q)]  [(7Q  P)  (R  7R)]
 [(7P  Q)  (R  7R)]
 (P  R  Q)  (P  R  7Q)  (7Q  P  R)  (7Q  P  7R)
 (7P  Q  R)  (7P  Q  7R)
 (P  Q  R)  (P  7Q  R)  (P  7Q  7R)  (7P  Q  R)
 (7P  Q  7R) which is PCNF.
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Now, 7A  (7P  7Q  R)  (7P  7Q  7R)  (P  Q  7R)

7(7A)  7[(7P  7Q  R)  (7P  7Q  7R)  (P  Q  7R)]
A  7(7P  7Q  R)  7(7P  7Q  7R)  7(P  Q  7R)
A  (P  Q  7R)  (P  Q  R)  (7P  7Q  R)
which is PDNF.
6. Using truth tables, verify if 7P is a valid conclusion from the

premises 7P  Q, 7(Q  7R) and 7R.
Sol. Let H1:7P  Q , H2: 7(Q  7R) , H3: 7R C: 7P
P Q R C:7P H3:7R H1:7P  Q Q  7R H2:7(Q  7R)

T T T F F T F T
T T F F T T T F
T F T F F F F T
T F F F T F F T
F T T T F T F T
F T F T T T T F
F F T T F T F T
F F F T T T F T
th
In the 8 row, H1, H2, H3 are all true and C is also true.
Hence the argument is valid.
7. Show that P  Q, Q  7R, R, P  (J  S)  J  S

Sol.
Argument
1. P  Q Rule P
2. Q  7R Rule P
3. P  7R Rule T (From 1,2)
4. R  7P Rule T
5. R Rule P
6. 7P Rule T (From 4,5)
7. P  (J  S) Rule P
8. 7P  (J  S) Rule T
9. J  S Rule T (From 6,8)
 The argument is valid.
8. Prove the validity of the following argument:
If I get the job and work hard, then I will get promoted. If I
get promoted, then I will be happy. I will not be happy.
Therefore, either I will not get the job or I will not work hard.
Sol. Let P: I get the job
Q: I work hard
R: I will get promoted
S: I will be happy
Then the given premises are
(P  Q)  R, R  S , 7S and the conclusion is 7P  7Q.
17
Argument
1. (P  Q)  R Rule P
2. R  S Rule P
3. (P  Q)  S Rule T (From 1,2)
4. 7S  7(P  Q) Rule T
5. 7S Rule P
6. 7(P  Q) Rule T (From 5,4)
7. 7P  7Q Rule T
9. Using Rule CP,derive P  (Q  S) from P  (Q  R), Q  (R  S).
Sol. Argument
1. P Rule CP (Assumed premise)
2. P  (Q  R) Rule P
3. Q  R Rule T
4. 7Q  R Rule T
5. Q  (R  S) Rule P
6. 7Q  (R  S) Rule T
7. [7Q  R]  [7Q  (R  S)] Rule T
8. 7Q  [R  (R  S)] Rule T
9. 7Q  S Rule T
10. Q  S Rule T
11. P  (Q  S) Rule CP
10. Determine the validity of the following argument:
My father praises me only if I can be proud of myself. Either I
do well in sports or I can’t be proud of myself. If I study hard, then
I can’t do well in sports. Therefore if father praises me, then I do
not study well.
Sol. Let P: My father praises me
Q: I can be proud of myself
R: I do well in sports
S: I study hard
Given premises are P  Q, R  7Q, S  7R and the conclusion is P  7S
Argument
1. P Rule CP (Assumed premise)
2. P  Q Rule P
3. Q Rule T
4. R  7Q Rule P
5. 7Q  R Rule T
6. Q  R Rule T
7. R Rule T
8. S  7R Rule P
9. R  7S Rule T
10. 7S Rule T
11. P  7S Rule CP
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11. Show that the conclusion R follows from P  Q , Q  R , P  R by

using indirect method.
Sol. 1. 7R Rule P (Assumed premise)
2. P  R Rule P
3. R  P Rule T
4. 7R  P Rule T
5. P Rule T
6. P  Q Rule P
7. Q Rule T
8. Q  R Rule P
9. R Rule T
10. R  7R Rule T
12. Show that the following set of premises is inconsistent.

If the contract is valid then John is liable for penality. If John is
liable for penality then he will go bankrupt. If the bank will loan
him money then he will not go bankrupt. As a matter of fact, the
contract is valid and the bank will loan him money.
Sol. Let P: The contract is valid

Q: John is liable for penality
R: He will go bankrupt
S: The bank will loan him money
Given premises are
P  Q , Q  R , S  7R , P  S
1. P  Q Rule P
2. Q  R Rule P
3. P  R Rule T
4. S  7R Rule P
5. R  7S Rule T
6. P  7S Rule T
7. 7P  7S Rule T
8. 7(P  S) Rule T
9. P  S Rule P
10. (P  S)  7(P  S) Rule T
13. Test whether the following formula Q  (P  7Q)  (7P  7Q)

is a tautology or contradiction without constructing the truth
table.
Sol. Q  (P  7Q)  (7P  7Q)  [(Q  P)  (Q  7Q)]  7(P  Q)
 [(P  Q)  T]  7(P  Q)
 (P  Q)  7(P  Q)
 T
 The given formula is tautology.
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14. Obtain PCNF of (Q  P)  (7P  Q) and hence find its PDNF.

Sol. (Q  P)  (7P  Q)
 (7Q  P)  7P  Q
 (P  7Q)  [7P  (Q  7Q)]  [Q  (P  7P)]
 (P  7Q)  (7P  Q)  (7P  7Q)  (Q  P)  (Q  7P)
 (P  7Q)  (7P  Q)  (7P  7Q)  (P  Q)
which is PCNF.
Here PDNF does not exists.
15. Obtain PDNF of the formula (P  (Q  R))  (7P  (7Q  7R)).

Hence obtain the PDNF of its negation.
Sol. (P  (Q  R))  (7P  (7Q  7R))
 (7P  (Q  R))  (P  (7Q  7R))
 (7P  P)  (7P  7Q  7R)  (Q  R  P)
 (Q  R  7Q  7R)
 F  (7P  7Q  7R)  (P  Q  R)  F
 (7P  7Q  7R)  (P  Q  R) , which is PDNF.
Its negation is
(P  Q  7R)  (P  7Q  R)  (P  7Q  7R)
 (7P  Q  R)  (7P  Q  7R)  (7P  7Q  R).
16. By using truth tables verify whether the following specifications are
consistent.
Whenever the system software is being upgraded users can not
access the file system. If users can access the file system then they can
save new files. If users can not save new files then the system
software is not being upgraded.
Sol. Let P : The system software is being upgraded.
Q : Users can access the file system
R : Users can save new files.
The premises are P  7Q, Q  R, 7R  7P.
We must verify whether the conjunction of these premises leads to a
contradiction or not.
Let S = ( P  7Q)  ( Q  R)  ( 7R  7P)
P Q R 7P 7Q 7R P  7Q Q  R 7R  7P S
T T T F F F F T T F
T T F F F T F F F F
T F T F T F T T T T
T F F F T T T T F F
F T T T F F T T T T
F T F T F T T F T F
F F T T T F T T T T
F F F T T T T T T T
 The given premises are consistent.
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17. Prove that P  Q  P  Q

Sol. To prove P  Q  P  Q , we must prove that (P  Q)  (P  Q) is a
tautology.
(P  Q)  (P  Q)  (P  Q)  (7P  Q)
 7(P  Q)  (7P  Q)
 (7P  7Q)  (7P  Q)
 (7P  7P)  (7Q  Q)
 7P  T  T.
 P  Q  P Q
18. Obtain PCNF and PDNF of P  [(P  Q)  7(7Q  7P)]

Sol. P  [(P  Q)  7(7Q  7P)]  7P  [(P  Q)  7(7Q  7P)]
 7P  [(7P  Q)  (Q  P)]
 [7P  (7P  Q)]  [7P  (Q  P)]
 [(7P  7P)  Q]  [(7P  Q)  (7P  P)]
 (7P  Q)  [(7P  Q)  T]
 (7P  Q)  (7P  Q)
 (7P  Q), which is PCNF.
To find PDNF
Now, 7A  (P  Q)  (P  7Q)  (7P  7Q)
7(7A)  7 [(P  Q)  (P  7Q)  (7P  7Q)]
A  7(P  Q)  7(P  7Q)  7(7P  7Q)
A  (7P  7Q)  (7P  Q)  (P  Q)
which is PDNF.
19. Show that 7p  (q  r) and q  (p  r) are logically equivalent.

Sol. 7p  (q  r)  7p  (7q  r)
 7(7p)  (7q  r)
 p  (7q  r)
 7q  (p  r)
 q  (p  r).
20. Find the consistency of the following premises

p  q, p  r, q  7r, p.
Sol. 1. p Rule P
2. p  q Rule P
3. q Rule T
4. q  7r Rule P
5. 7r Rule T
6. p  r Rule P
7. 7r  7p Rule T
8. 7p Rule T
9. p  7p Rule T
 The given premises are inconsistent.
21
21. Using derivation process prove that

S  7Q, S  R, 7R, (7R  Q)  7P.
Sol. 1. S  7Q Rule P
2. S  R Rule P
3. 7R  S Rule T
4. 7R  7Q Rule T [ from 3,1 ]
5. 7R Rule P
6. 7Q Rule T [ from 5,4 ]
7. 7R  Q Rule P
8. 7R  Q Rule T
9. 7Q  R Rule T
10. R Rule T [ from 6,9]
11. R  7R Rule T
12. 7P Rule T ( a contradiction  Any formula ).
22. Prove that (7Q  7P)  (7R  7Q)  (P  R)

Sol. From truth table we can prove (7Q  7P)  (7R  7Q)  (P  R) is a
Tautology. (or) we can prove using derivation process.
23. Find the principle disjunctive and conjunctive normal form of the
formula S  [(7Q  7R)  7P]  (Q  R)  P.
Sol. S  [(7Q  7R)  7P]  (Q  R)  P
 [7(7Q  7R)  7P]  [7(Q  R)  P]
 [(Q  R)  7P]  [(7Q  7R)  P]
 [(Q  R)  (7Q  7R)]  [(Q  R)  P]  [7P  (7Q  7R)]
 [7P  P]
 [(Q  7Q)  (R  7R)]  (P  Q  R)  (7P  7Q  7R)  F
 F  (P  Q  R)  (7P  7Q  7R)  F
 (P  Q  R)  (7P  7Q  7R)
which is PDNF.
7S  (P  Q  7R)  (P  7Q  R)  (P  7Q  7R)  (7P  Q  R)
 (7P  Q  7R)  (7P  7Q  R)
7(7S)  7[ (P  Q  7R)  (P  7Q  R)  (P  7Q  7R)
 (7P  Q  R)  (7P  Q  7R)  (7P  7Q  R)]
S  (7P  7Q  R)  (7P  Q  7R)  (7P  Q  R)  (P  7Q  7R)
 (P  7Q  R)  (P  Q  7R).
which is PCNF.
24. Without constructing the truth tables show that A  C is not a valid
consequence of the premises
A  (B  C), B  (7A  7C), C  (A  7B), B.
Sol. When A and C are false and B is true, the given premises are all true
while A  C is false. Hence A  C is not a valid conclusion of the given
premises.
22
25. Verify the validity of the following argument.

“All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore Socrates is a
mortal.”
Sol. Let H(x): x is a man
M(x): x is a mortal, s: Socrates
We need to show (  x)[H(x)  M(x)], H(s)  M(s)
Argument
1. (  x)[H(x)  M(x)] Rule P
2. H(s)  M(s) Rule US
3. H(s) Rule P
4. M(s) Rule T

Lions are dangerous animals. There are Lions. Therefore, there are
dangerous animals.
Sol. Let L(x) : x is a Lion
D(x) : x is a dangerous animal
We need to show (  x)[L(x)  D(x)], (  x) L(x)  (  x) D(x)
Argument
1. (  x) L(x) Rule P
2. L(a) Rule ES
3. (  x)[L(x)  D(x)] Rule P
4. L(a)  D(a) Rule US
5. D(a) Rule T
6. (  x) D(x) Rule EG

Every living thing is a plant or an animal. John’s gold fish is alive and
it is not a plant. All animals have hearts. Therefore John’s gold fish
has a heart.
Sol. Let P(x) : x is a plant
A(x) : x is an animal
H(x) : x has a heart, g : John’s gold fish
We need to show (  x)[P(x)  A(x)] , 7P(g) ,(  x)[A(x)  H(x)]  H(g)
Argument
1. (  x)[P(x)  A(x)] Rule P
2. P(g)  A(g) Rule US
3. 7P(g) Rule P
4. A(g) Rule T [ From 2,3 i.e. 7P, P  Q  Q]
5. (  x)[A(x)  H(x)] Rule P
6. A(g)  H(g) Rule US
7. H(g) Rule T
23

All integers are rational numbers. Some integers are powers of 2.
Therefore, some rational numbers are powers of 2.
Sol. Let P(x) : x is an integer
R(x) : x is a rational number
S(x) : x is a power of 2
We need to show (  x) [P(x)  R(x)], (  x)[P(x)  S(x)]
 (  x)[R(x)  S(x)]
Argument
1. (  x)[P(x)  S(x)] Rule P
2. P(a)  S(a) Rule ES
3. P(a) Rule T
4. S(a) Rule T
5. (  x)[P(x)  R(x)] Rule P
6. P(a)  R(a) Rule US
7. R(a) Rule T ( From 3,6 )
8. R(a)  S(a) Rule T ( From 7,4 )
9. (  x)[R(x)  S(x)] Rule EG.
29. Show that (  x)[P(x)  Q(x)], (  x)[R(x)  7 Q(x)]

 (  x)[R(x)  7 P(x)]
Sol. Argument
1. (  x)[P(x)  Q(x)] Rule P
2. P(a)  Q(a) Rule US
3. (  x)[R(x)  7 Q(x)] Rule P
4. R(a)  7 Q(a) Rule US
5. Q(a)  7R(a) Rule T
6. P(a)  7 R(a) Rule T (From 2,5)
7. R(a)  7 P(a) Rule T
8. (  x)[R(x)  7 P(x)] Rule UG.
30. Give a proof that the conclusion (  x)[F(x)  7 S(x)]

follows from the premises (  x)[F(x)  S(x)]  (  y)[M(y)  W(y)]
and (  y)[M(y)  7 W(y)].
Sol. Argument
1. (  y)[M(y)  7 W(y)] Rule P
2. M(a)  7 W(a) Rule ES
3. 7 [M(a)  W(a)] Rule T
[ P  7Q  7(P  Q)]
4. (  y) 7[M(y)  W(y)] Rule EG
5. 7(  y)[M(y)  W(y)] Rule T
6. (  x)[F(x)  S(x)]  (  y)[M(y)  W(y)] Rule P
7. 7(  x)[F(x)  S(x)] Rule T
24
8. (  x) 7[F(x)  S(x)] Rule T

9. 7 [F(a)  S(a)] Rule US
10. F(a)  7 S(a) Rule T
[ 7(P  Q)  P  7Q)]
11. (  x)[F(x)  7 S(x)] Rule UG.
31. Prove that (  x)[P(x)  Q(x)]  (  x)P(x)  (  x)Q(x)

Sol. Argument
1. (  x)[P(x)  Q(x)] Rule P
2. P(a)  Q(a) Rule ES
3. P(a) Rule T
4. Q(a) Rule T
5. (  x)P(x) Rule EG
6. (  x)Q(x) Rule EG
7. (  x)P(x)  (  x)Q(x) Rule T.
32. Prove that (  x)[P(x)  Q(x)]  (  x)P(x)  (  x)Q(x)

Sol. Argument
1. (  x)[P(x)  Q(x)] Rule P
2. P(a)  Q(a) Rule US
3. P(a) Rule T
4. Q(a) Rule T
5. (  x)P(x) Rule UG
6. (  x)Q(x) Rule UG
7. (  x)P(x)  (  x)Q(x) Rule T.
33. Prove that (  x)[P(x)  Q(x)]  (  x)P(x)  (  x)Q(x)

Sol. We shall use indirect method.
Argument
1. 7[(  x)P(x)  (  x)Q(x)] Rule P (assumed premise)
2. 7(  x)P(x)  7(  x)Q(x) Rule T
3. 7(  x)P(x) Rule T
4. 7(  x)Q(x) Rule T
5. (  x)7P(x) Rule T
6. (  x)7Q(x) Rule T
7. 7P(a) Rule ES
8. 7Q(a) Rule US
9. 7P(a)  7Q(a) Rule T
10. 7[P(a)  Q(a)] Rule T
11. (  x)[P(x)  Q(x)] Rule P
12. P(a)  Q(a) Rule US
13. [P(a)  Q(a)]  7[P(a)  Q(a)] Rule T
25
34. Prove that (  x)P(x)  (  x)Q(x)  (  x)[P(x)  Q(x)]

Sol. We shall use indirect method.
1. 7(  x)[P(x)  Q(x)] Rule P (assumed premise)
2. (  x)7[P(x)  Q(x)] Rule T
3. (  x)[7P(x)  7Q(x)] Rule T
4. 7P(a)  7Q(a) Rule T
5. 7P(a) Rule T
6. 7Q(a) Rule T
7. (  x)7P(x) Rule EG
8. (  x)7Q(x) Rule EG
9. (  x)7P(x)  (  x)7Q(x) Rule T
10. 7(  x)P(x)  7(  x)Q(x) Rule T
11. 7[(  x)P(x)  (  x)Q(x)] Rule T
12. (  x)P(x)  (  x)Q(x) Rule P
13. [(  x)P(x)  (  x)Q(x)]  7[(  x)P(x)  (  x)Q(x)] Rule T
35. Prove that (  x)[P(x)  Q(x)], (  x)P(x)  (  x)Q(x) by using
indirect method.
Sol. 1. 7(  x)Q(x) Rule P (assumed premise)
2. (  x)7Q(x) Rule T
3. 7Q(a) Rule US
4. (  x)P(x) Rule P
5. P(a) Rule ES
6. (  x)[P(x)  Q(x)] Rule P
8. Q(a) Rule T [ From 5,7]
9. Q(a)  7Q(a) Rule T [ From 8,3]
36. Verify the validity of the following inference.
If one person is more successful than another, then he has worked
harder to deserve success. John has not worked harder than Peter.
Therefore John is not more successful than Peter.
Sol. Let S(x,y) : x is more successful than y
W(x,y) : x has worked harder than y to deserve success.
a : John, b : Peter
We need to show (  x) (  y)[S(x,y)  W(x,y)] , 7W(a,b)  7S(a,b)
Argument
1. (  x) (  y)[S(x,y)  W(x,y)] Rule P
2. (  y)[S(a,y)  W(a,y)] Rule US1
3. S(a,b)  W(a,b) Rule US2
4. 7W(a,b)  7S(a,b) Rule T
5. 7W(a,b) Rule P
6. 7S(a,b) Rule T
26
37. Symbolize the expression“x is the father of the mother of y”

Sol. We can note that in the expression “x is the father of the mother of y”, in
between x and y there is a person. Let z be a person as the mother of y.
Let P(z) : z is a person
F(x,z) : x is the father of z
M(z,y) : z is the mother of y
“x is the father of z and z is the mother of y” is true only for some z
and it is (  z)[P(z)  F(x ,z)  M(z ,y)].
38. Symbolize the expression “All world loves a lover”

Sol. All world loves a lover means that Everybody loves a lover.
Let P(x) : x is a person
S(x ,y) : x loves y
Let y be any person who is a lover.
P(y) : y is a person
L(y) : y is a lover
The statement is “For all x, if x is a person then for all y, if y be any person
who is a lover then x loves y” and it is
(  x)[P(x)  (  y){(P(y)  L(y))  S(x,y)}].
39. Show that (x)[P(x)  Q(x)]  (x)[Q(x)  R(x)]  (x)[P(x)  R(x)]

Sol. Argument
1. (x)[P(x)  Q(x)] Rule P
3. (x)[Q(x)  R(x)] Rule P
4. Q(a)  R(a) Rule US
5. P(a)  R(a) Rule T
6. (x)[P(x)  R(x)] Rule UG
40. Use conditional proof to prove that

(x)[P(x)  Q(x)]  (x)P(x)  (x)Q(x)
Sol. Argument
1. (x)P(x) Rule CP
2. P(a) Rule US
3. (x)[P(x)  Q(x)] Rule P
5. Q(a) Rule T
6. (x)Q(x) Rule UG
7. (x)P(x)  (x)Q(x) Rule CP.
41. Prove that (  x)P(x)  (x)Q(x)  (x)[P(x)  Q(x)]

Sol. We will prove by indirect method.
Argument
1. 7(x)[P(x)  Q(x)] Rule P
27
2. (  x)7(P(x)  Q(x)) Rule T

3. 7(P(a)  Q(a)) Rule ES
4. P(a)  7Q(a) Rule T
5. 7Q(a) Rule T
6. P(a) Rule T
7. (  x)P(x) Rule EG
8. (  x)P(x)  (x)Q(x) Rule P
9. (x)Q(x) Rule T
10. Q(a) Rule US
11. Q(a)  7Q(a) Rule T
42. Prove that (  x)(A(x)  B(x))  (  x)A(x)  (  x)B(x).

Sol. Assume (  x)(A(x)  B(x)) is true.
 A(y)  B(y) is true for some y
 A(y) is true or B(y) is true.
 (  x)A(x) or (  x)B(x) is true
 (  x)A(x)  (  x)B(x) is true.
Conversely, assume that (  x)A(x)  (  x)B(x) is true
 (  x)A(x)is true or (  x)B(x) is true
If (  x)A(x) is true, A(y) is true for some y.
 A(y)  B(y) is true
 (  x)(A(x)  B(x)) is true.
If (  x)B(x) is true, B(y) is true for some y.
 A(y)  B(y) is true
 (  x)(A(x)  B(x)) is true.
Hence in both the cases, (  x)(A(x)  B(x)) is true.
43. Find the scope of the quantifier and the nature of occurence of the
variables in the formula (  x)[P(x)  (  y)R(x,y)].
Sol. Scope of (  x) : P(x)  (  y)R(x,y)
Scope of (  y) : R(x,y)
Occurence of x : bound
Occurence of y : bound
44. Is the following argument valid?

All lecturers are determined. Anyone who is determined and
intelligent will give satisfactory service. Clare is an intelligent lecturer.
Therefore
Clare will give satisfactory service ( use predicates ).
Sol. Let L(x) : x is a lecturer
D(x) : x is determined
I(x) : x is intelligent
S(x) : x will give satisfactory service.
c : Clare
28
Given (  x) [L(x)  D(x)], (  x)[D(x)  I(x)  S(x)], L(c)  I(c)  S(c)
Argument
1. (  x) [L(x)  D(x)] Rule P
2. L(c)  D(c) Rule US
3. (  x)[D(x)  I(x)  S(x)] Rule P
4. D(c)  I(c)  S(c) Rule US
5. L(c)  I(c) Rule P
6. L(c) Rule T
7. I(c) Rule T
8. D(c) Rule T [ From 2,6]
9. D(c)  I(c) Rule T [ From 7,8]
10. S(c) Rule T [ From 4,9]
45. Prove that

(x) [H(x)  A(x)]  (x)[(  y)(H(y)  N(x,y))  (  y)(A(y)  N(x,y))]
Sol. We assume that (x) [H(x)  A(x)] is true and
(x)[(  y)(H(y)  N(x,y))  (  y)(A(y)  N(x,y))] is false.
Hence for some z in the universe of discourse,
(  y)(H(y)  N(z,y))  (  y)(A(y)  N(z,y)) is false.
 (  y)(H(y)  N(z,y)) is true and (  y)(A(y)  N(z,y)) is false so we
have that H(y1)  N(z,y1) is true for some y1 ------------(1)
and A(y1)  N(z,y1) is false for some y1 -------------(2)
From (1), N(z,y1) is true.
Hence (2)  A(y1) is false.
Again from (1), H(y1) is true.
 H(y1)  A(y1) must be false.
This cannot happen since we assumed that (x) [H(x)  A(x)] is true.
Hence (x)[(  y)(H(y)  N(x,y))  (  y)(A(y)  N(x,y))] is true.
46. Prove that (  x)A(x)  B  (x)(A(x)  B).

Sol. Suppose that (  x)A(x)  B is true.
Assume that (x)(A(x)  B) is false. Hence A(y)  B is false for some y.
Thus A(y) is true and B is false.
Since A(y) is true, (  x)A(x) is true. Hence (  x)A(x)  B must be false
contrary to our assumption. This proves that (x)(A(x)  B) is true.
Thus (  x)A(x)  B  (x)(A(x)  B).
For the reverse implication, assume that (x)(A(x)  B) is true and
(  x)A(x)  B is false. Hence (  x)A(x) is true and B is false.
So A(y) is true for some y.  A(y)  B is false.
Hence (x)(A(x)  B) is false contrary to our assumption.
 (  x)A(x)  B is true.
Thus (x)(A(x)  B)  (  x)A(x)  B.
Hence (  x)A(x)  B  (x)(A(x)  B).
29
47. Show that the premises “One student in this class knows how to write
programs in JAVA” and “Everyone who knows how to write
programs in JAVA can get a high paying job” imply the conclusion
“Someone in this class can get a high paying job”.
Sol. Let C(x): x is a student in this class
J(x): x knows JAVA programming
H(x): x can get a high paying job.
We need to show
(  x)(C(x)  J(x)) , (  x)( J(x)  H(x))  (  x)(C(x)  H(x))
Argument
1. (  x)(C(x)  J(x)) Rule P
2. C(a)  J(a) Rule ES
3. C(a) Rule T
4. J(a) Rule T
5. (  x)( J(x)  H(x)) Rule P
6. J(a)  H(a) Rule US
7. H(a) Rule T
8. C(a)  H(a) Rule T
9. (  x)(C(x)  H(x)) Rule EG
All parrots are green. Eagles do not live on honey. Birds that do
not live on honey are not green. Hence parrots are not eagles.
Sol. Let P(x): x is a parrot
G(x): x is a green
E(x): x is an eagle
H(x): x lives on honey.
We need to show
(  x)( P(x)  G(x)), (  x)( E(x)  7H(x)), (  x)( 7H(x)  7G(x))
 (  x)( P(x)  7E(x))
Argument
1. (  x)( P(x)  G(x)) Rule P
2. P(a)  G(a) Rule US
3. (  x)( 7H(x)  7G(x)) Rule P
4. 7H(a)  7G(a) Rule US
5. G(a)  H(a) Rule T
6. P(a)  H(a) Rule T
7. (  x)( E(x)  7H(x)) Rule P
8. E(a)  7H(a) Rule US
9. H(a)  7E(a) Rule T
10.P(a)  7E(a) Rule T
11. (  x)( P(x)  7E(x)) Rule UG.
30
49. Prove that

(  x)[ P(x)  ( Q(y)  R(x))], (  x)P(x)  Q(y)  (  x)[P(x)  R(x)]
Sol. Argument
1. (  x)[ P(x)  ( Q(y)  R(x))] Rule P
2. P(a)  (Q(y)  R(a)) Rule US
3. (  x) P(x) Rule P
4. P(a) Rule ES
5. Q(y)  R(a) Rule T
6. Q(y) Rule T
7. R(a) Rule T
8. P(a)  R(a) Rule T
9. (  x)( P(x)  R(x)) Rule EG
10. Q(y)  (  x)[P(x)  R(x)] Rule T
50. Prove that
(  x)[P(x)  Q(x)], (  x)[R(x)  7 Q(x)]  (  x)[R(x)  7 P(x)]
Sol. Argument
1. (  x)[P(x)  Q(x)] Rule P
3. 7Q(a)  7P(a) Rule T
4. (  x)[R(x)  7 Q(x)] Rule P
5. R(a)  7Q(a) Rule US
6. R(a)  7P(a) Rule T
7. (  x)[R(x)  7 P(x)] Rule UG
51. Prove that
(  x)[P(x)  Q(x)], (  x)[P(x)  7 R(x)]  (  x)[Q(x)  7 R(x)]
Sol. Argument
1. (  x)[P(x)  7 R(x)] Rule P
2. P(a)  7R(a) Rule ES
3. P(a) Rule T
4. 7R(a) Rule T
5. (  x)[P(x)  Q(x)] Rule P
7. Q(a) Rule T
8. Q(a)  7R(a) Rule T
9. (  x)[Q(x)  7 R(x)] Rule EG.
31
52. Show that (  x)[P(x)  Q(x)] and (  x) P(x)  (  x) Q(x) have the
same truth values.
Sol. (  x)[P(x)  Q(x)] is true.
 P(y)  Q(y) is true for some y.
 P(y) is true for some y or Q(y) is true for some y.
 (  x) P(x) is true or (  x) Q(x) is true.
 (  x) P(x)  (  x) Q(x) is true.
53. Let M(x,y) be ‘ x has sent an email message to y ’ and T(x,y) be ‘ x has
telephoned y ’ where the universe of discourse is the set of all students
in your class. Use quantifiers to express each of the following
statements.
a. There is a student in your class who has sent an email message
and telephoned to everyone else in the class.
b. Everyone in your class has either telephoned Vijay or sent him an
email message.
iii) Ajay has never received an email or a telephone call from Vijay.
Sol. i) (  x) (  y) [ M(x,y)  T(x,y)]
ii) (  x)[ M(x, Vijay)  T(x, Vijay)]
iii) 7 [ M(Vijay, Ajay)  T(Vijay, Ajay)].
32
M.A.M COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DISCRETE MATHEMATICS UNIT II
DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
UNIT – II COMBINATORICS
PART – A
1. State the principle of mathematical induction

Sol. The proposition P(n) is true for every positive integer n consists of two steps:
(i) Basic Step: The proposition P(1) is shown to be true.
(ii)Inductive Step: Assume that P(k) is true and show that P(k+1) to be true,
then we say that P(n) is true for all n.
2. A label identifier for a computer system consists of one English alphabet
in capital letter followed by two non zero digits. If repetition of digits is
allowed, how many label identifiers are possible?
Sol. 26×9×9 = 2106.
3. How many different permutations of the letters in the word BANANA are
there?
Sol. Here n = 6
A repeated 3 times, N repeated 2 times and B has occurred once.
n! 6!
  60.
n1 !n2 !n3 ! 3! 2!1!
4. Find the number of distinguishable permutations of the letters in

SCIENCE.
7!
Sol. = 1260.
2! 2!
5. How many different eight letter words can be made with four A’s, two B’s
and two C’s?
8!
Sol. = 420.
4! 2! 2!
6. How many three letters words can be formed from letters in the set
{a, b, y, z}
i) if repetition of letters are allowed?
ii) if repetition not allowed?
Sol. n = 4, r = 3
(i) Total number of words = 43 = 64words
(with repetition)
(ii) Total number of words = 4P3 = 4.3.2 = 24 words.
(without repetition)
7. In how many ways can 9 people be seated in a circle?
Sol. Total number of ways = (n – 1)!
= (9 – 1)! = 8! = 40320
8. Prove that nCr  nCnr
n! n!
Sol. nCnr  (n  r )!(n  n  r )!  (n  r )!r !  nCr
1
9. Prove that C(n + 1, r) = C(n, r – 1) + C(n, r)

n! n!
Sol. C ( n, r  1)  C ( n, r )  
(r  1)!(n  r  1)! r !(n  r )!
n ! [r  n  r  1] n ! [n  1]
 
r !(n  r  1)! r !(n  r  1)!
(n  1)!

r !(n  r  1)!
 (n  1)Cr
10. How many teams of six with a captain can be selected from 12 persons?
Sol. 12C1×11C5.
11. Find the number of arrangements of the letters in DISCRETE. How
many of these arrangements have no adjacent E’s?
8!
Sol. Number of arrangements in DISCRETE = = 20160.
2!
Number of arrangements have no adjacent E’s = 7C2 ×6!
12. Find the number of arrangements of the letters in MAPPANASSRR.
Also find how many of these arrangements have no adjacent A’s?
11!
Sol. Number of arrangements in MAPPANASSRR =
3!2!2!2!
8!
Number of arrangements have no adjacent A’s = 9C3 ×
2! 2! 2!
13. Find the coefficient of x in (1  x  x  ........)

10 5 10 3
Sol. (1  x  x  ........)  [1  x  ( x )  ......]

5 10 3 5 5 2 3
 [(1  x5 )1 ]3  (1  x5 )3

  C (3  r  1, r ) x5r
10
To find coefficient of x , put r = 2
10
Coeff. of x = C(3 + 2 – 1, 2) = C(4,2) = 6.
14. State Pigeonhole principle.
Sol. If n pigeons are assigned to m pigeonholes and n > m, then at least one
pigeonhole contains two or more pigeons.
15. State generalized (extended) Pigeonhole principle.
Sol. If n pigeons are assigned to m pigeonholes and n > m, then one of the
 n  1
pigeonhole must contain at least   1 pigeons, where  x  denotes the
 m 
greatest integer less than or equal to x, which is a real number.
16. Among 100 people show that at least 9 of them were born in the same
month?
Sol. n = 100, m = 12 months
By generalized pigeonhole principle,
2
100  1
 12   1  8  1  9
Hence at least 9 were born in the same month.
17. How many positive integers not exceeding 100 that is divisible by 5?
100 
Sol.    20
 5 
Hence 20 positive integers not exceeding 100 that is divisible by 5.
18. Define recurrence relation
Sol. A recurrence relation for the sequence a0, a1, a2,…..an,…… is an equation
that relates an to some of its previous terms a0, a1, a2,…….an – 1. The terms
not defined by the equation are called initial (boundary) conditions or basis
of the recurrence relation.
19. Define Fibonacci recurrence relation
Sol. The recurrence relation Fn = Fn – 1 + Fn – 2 , n  2 with initial conditions
F0 = F1 = 1 is known as Fibonacci recurrence relation.
20. Write the Fibonacci sequence.
Sol. The Fibonacci sequence is { 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, ……….}
21. Give the properties of Fibonacci numbers.
Sol. (i) F0 + F1 + F2 + ………. + Fn = Fn + 2 – 1
(ii) F0 + F2 + F4 + ………. + F2n = F2n + 1
(iii) F02 + F12 + F22 + ………. + Fn2 = Fn.Fn + 1
22. If S(k) = 5.2k find the recurrence relation
Sol. S(k) = 5.2k
k–1 5.2 k
S(k – 1) = 5.2 =
2
(i.e.) S(k) = 2 S(k – 1) is the recurrence relation with S(0) = 5 as basis.
23. Find the recurrence relation satisfying yn = (A + Bn)5n
Sol. yn = (A + Bn)5n
yn – 1 = [ A + B(n – 1)] 5n – 1
5 yn – 1 = A.5n + B(n – 1).5n
yn – 5.yn – 1 = Bn5n – B(n – 1)5n
= B.5n ------------(1)
n–1
yn – 1 – 5.yn – 2 = B.5 ------------(2)
From (1), we have
yn – 5.yn – 1 = 5B5n – 1
= 5 (yn – 1 – 5.yn – 2 ) [ using (2) ]
(i.e.) yn – 10.yn – 1 + 25 yn – 2 = 0 is the recurrence relation with
y0 = A, y1 = 5(A + B) as basis.
24. Find the recurrence relation for the sequence given by A(k) = k2 – k.
Sol. A(k) = k2 – k
A(k – 1) = (k – 1) 2 – (k – 1)
= k2 – 3k + 2
3
A(k – 2) = (k – 2) 2 – (k – 2)
= k2 – 5k + 6
A(k) – 2A(k – 1) + A(k – 2) = k2 – k – 2 ( k2 – 3k + 2 ) + k2 – 5k + 6
= 2.
(i.e.) A(k) – 2A(k – 1) + A(k – 2) = 2 is the recurrence relation with
A(0) = 0, A(1) = 0 as basis.
25. Solve the recurrence relation an = 2.an – 1 subject to a0 = 1
Sol. an = 2.an – 1
a1 = 2.a1 – 1 = 2.a0 = 2.1 = 2
a2 = 2.a1 = 2.2 = 22
a3 = 2.a2 = 2.22 = 23
……………………
 an = 2n , n  1.
26. Solve an = an – 1 + 3n, n  1 , a0 = 1
Sol. an = an – 1 + 3n
a1 = a0 + 31 = 1 + 3
a2 = a1 + 32 = 1 + 3 + 32
a3 = a2 + 33 = 1 + 3 + 32 + 33
………………………………
 an = 1 + 3 + 32 + 33 + ………3n
3 n1  1 3 n1  1
(i.e.) an = 3  1 = 2
27. Solve S(n) + 5 S(n – 1) = 0, S(0) = 3.
Sol. S(n) = – 5 S(n – 1)
S(1) = – 5 S(0) = – 5 (3)
S(2) = – 5 S(1) = (– 5)2.3
S(3) = – 5 S(2) = (– 5)3.3
…………………………
 S(n) = (– 5)n.3
= 3.(– 5)n
28. Write an explicit formula for an, if an = 3.an – 1 and a1 = 2.
Sol. Given an – 3.an – 1 = 0
The characteristic equation is
r–3=0
r=3
 an = b1.3n
Given a1 = 2  2 = b1.31
 3b1 = 2
2
 b1 =
3
2 n
Hence an = .3 = 2.3n – 1
3
4
29. Find the generating function of the sequence 1, a, a2, a3,………...

Sol. The generating function is given by
G(x) = 1.x0 + a.x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + …………….
= (1 – ax) –1 for | ax | < 1
1 1
 for | x |  (a  0)
1  ax |a|
30. Find the generating function for the sequence of positive integers?
Sol. The generating function for positive integers 1,2,3,4,……is given by
G(x) = 1.x0 + 2.x1 + 3.x2 + 4.x3 + 5.x4 + .…………….
(i.e.) G(x) = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 + 5x4 + .…………….
31. Find the generating function of the sequence 1, 1, 1, 1,………...
Sol. The generating function is given by
G(x) = 1.x0 + 1.x1 + 1.x2 + 1.x3 + …………….
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + ………….
= (1 – x) –1
1
 for | x |  1
1 x
32. Find the generating function of Sk – 2Sk – 1 = 0, S(0) = 1.
Sol. Sk – 2Sk – 1 = 0, k  1

 S
k 1
k  2 Sk 1  z k  0
 
S
k 1
k z  2 S k 1 z k  0
k
k 1
  
 
 k 0
S k z k
 S 0 

 2 z 
k 1
S k 1 z k 1
0
G(s,z) – 1 – 2z G(s,z) = 0
G(s,z) [1 – 2z] = 1
1
(i.e.) G(s,z) =
1  2z
33. Let S  Z+ where | S | = 26. Show that S contain 2 elements that the same
remainder upon division by 25.
Sol. Let S = {The set of 26 positive integers}
When these are divided by 25, two of the numbers will give the same
remainder [ (i.e.) 1, 2, 3, ……….. 24] { Here 0  Z+ }
Now, Number of pigeon = n = No. of positive integers = 26
Number of pigeonholes = m = No. of remainder = 25
Then by generalized pigeonhole principle, at least one remainder contains
 26  1
 25   1  2 positive integers.
Hence S contain 2 elements that the same remainder upon division by 25.
5
PART – B
1. Use mathematical induction to prove that an – bn is divisible by a – b for
all n = 1,2,3,……
Sol. Let P(n) : an – bn is divisible by a – b
P(1) : a1 – b1 = a – b is divisible by a – b.
 P(1) is true.
Assume that P(k) is true. (i.e.) ak – bk is divisible by a – b
(i.e.) ak – bk = q(a – b), q  I.
Consider P(k+1)
ak+1 – bk+1 = a.ak – b.bk
= a[q(a – b) + bk] – b.bk
= aq(a – b) + a.bk – b.bk
= aq(a – b) + (a – b)bk
= (a – b)[aq + bk]
= a multiple of (a – b)
 a – bk+1 is divisible by a – b
k+1
 P(k+1) is true.
Hence the result is true for all n.
2. Show that 8n – 3n is a multiple of 5 by using method of induction.
Sol. Let P(n) : 8n – 3n is a multiple of 5
P(1) : 8 – 3 = 5 is a multiple of 5.
 P(1) is true.
Assume that P(k) is true.
(i.e.) 8k – 3k is a multiple of 5
(i.e.) 8k – 3k = 5q, q  I.
Consider P(k+1)
8k+1 – 3k+1 = 8.8k – 3.3k
= 8(5q + 3k) – 3.3k
= 40q + 5.3k
= 5(8q + 3k)
= a multiple of 5.
 P(k+1) is true.
3. Use mathematical induction to prove that 3n + 7n – 2 is divisible by 8 for
all n  1.
Sol. Let P(n) : 3n + 7n – 2 is divisible by 8
P(1) : 3 + 7 – 2 = 8 is divisible by 8.
 P(1) is true.
(i.e.) 3k + 7k – 2 is divisible by 8.
(i.e.) 3k + 7k – 2 = 8q, q  I.
Consider P(k+1)
3k+1 + 7k+1 – 2 = 3.3k + 7.7k – 2
= 3(8q – 7k + 2) + 7.7k – 2
= 24q + 4.7k +4
= 8(3q) + 4(7k+1) ---------(1)
6
Now 7k + 1 is an even number for k  1

 4(7k + 1) is divisible by 8.
Thus RHS of (1) is divisible by 8.
 P(k+1) is true.
4. Using mathematical induction prove that
n(2n  1)(2n  1)
12  32  52  .........  (2n  1)2 
3
n(2n  1)(2n  1)
Sol. Let P(n) : 12  32  52  .........  (2n  1)2 
3
1(2  1)(2  1)
P(1) : 12  = 1  P(1) is true.
3
k (2k  1)(2k  1)
(i.e.) 12  32  52  .........  (2k  1)2 
3
Consider P(k+1)
k (2k  1)(2k  1)
12  32  52  .........  (2k  1) 2  (2 k  1) 2   (2 k  1) 2
3
 k (2k  1)  3(2k  1) 
 (2k  1)  
 3
 2k 2  5k  3 
 (2k  1)  
 3 
(2k  1) (k  1)(2k  3)

3
 P(k+1) is true.
5. Prove by mathematical induction that
1 1 1 1 n
   .........  
1.2 2.3 3.4 n(n  1) n  1
1 1 1 1 n
Sol. Let P(n) :    .........  
1.2 2.3 3.4 n(n  1) n  1
1 1 1 1
P(1) :     P(1) is true.
1.2 1  1 2 2
1 1 1 1 k
(i.e.)    .........  
1.2 2.3 3.4 k (k  1) k  1
Consider P(k+1)
1 1 1 1 1 k 1
   .........    
1.2 2.3 3.4 k ( k  1) ( k  1)( k  2) k  1 ( k  1)( k  2)
k (k  2)  1

(k  1)(k  2)
k 2  2k  1 (k  1) 2
 
(k  1)(k  2) (k  1)(k  2)
k 1

k 2
7
 P(k+1) is true.
6. Prove by mathematical induction 2  n for all n  N.
n
Sol. Let P(n) : 2  n

n
P(1) : 21  1 is true.  P(1) is true.

(i.e.) 2  k for all k  N
k
Consider P(k+1)
k  1  2k  1
 2k  2k as 1  2k
 2.2k  2k 1
(i.e.) 2k 1  k  1
 P(k+1) is true.
7. Prove that n2 < 2n for all positive integers n > 4.
Sol. Let P(n) : n2 < 2n , n > 4
P(5) : 52 < 25
25 < 32 is true.  P(5) is true.
(i.e.) k2 < 2k for all k > 4
Consider P(k+1)
(k+1)2 = k2 + 2k + 1
< 2k + (2k+1)
< 2k + 2k [ as 2k + 1 < 2k ]
= 2. 2k = 2k+1
(i.e.) (k+1)2 < 2k+1
 P(k+1) is true.
8. A computer password consists of a letter of English alphabet followed by
2 or 3 digits. Find the following
i) The total number of passwords that can be formed.
ii) The number of passwords in which no digit repeats.
Sol. (i) Number of three character passwords = 26×10×10
= 2600
Number of four character passwords = 26×10×10×10
= 26000
 Total number of passwords = 2600 + 26000
(with repetition) = 28600 words.
(ii) Number of three character passwords = 26×10×9
= 2340
Number of four character passwords = 26×10×9×8
= 18720
 Total number of passwords = 2340 + 18720
(without repetition) = 21060 words.
8
9. A bit is either 0 or 1. A byte is a sequence of 8 bits. Find the number of

bytes. Among these how many are
i) Starting with 11 and ending with 00
ii) Starting with 11 but not ending with 00 or not starting with 11 but
ending with 00?
Sol. Number of bytes = 28 = 256.
(i) 1 1 . . . . . . 0 0
There are 24 = 16 such bytes.
(ii) Starting with 11 and not ending with 00,
the number of bytes = 64 – 16 = 48.
Not starting with 11 but ending with 00,
the number of bytes = 64 – 16 = 48.
Hence required number of bytes = 48 + 48 = 96.
10. A question paper has 3 parts Part A, Part B and Part C having 12, 4 and
4 questions respectively. A student has to answer 10 questions from Part
A and 5 questions from Part B and Part C put together selecting at least
2 from each one of these 2 parts. In how many ways the selection of
questions can be done?
Sol. A B C
Total 12 4 4
To select 10 2 3
10 3 2
Number of ways:
12C10 × 4C2 × 4C3 = 1584
12C10 × 4C3 × 4C2 = 1584
Hence total number of ways = 3168.
11. In how many ways a football team of eleven players can be chosen out of
18 players when
(a) four particular players are to be always included
(b) three particular players are to be always excluded.
Sol. (a) Four players are fixed. The remaining players are 14. Out of these 14
players we have to select 7 players in 14C7 ways.
14.13.12.11.10.9.8
(i.e.)
1.2.3.4.5.6.7
(i.e.) 3432 ways.
(b) Three players are always excluded. Then out of 15 players we have to
select 11 players in 15C11 ways. (i.e.) 15C4 ways.
15.14.13.12
(i.e.)
1.2.3.4
(i.e.) 1365 ways.
12. Show that among any (n + 1) positive integers not exceeding 2n there
must be an integer that divides one of the other integers.
Sol. Let the (n + 1) integers be a1, a2, …..an + 1. Each of these numbers can be
expressed as an odd multiple of a power of 2.
(i.e.) ai  2 mi where m is odd and k  0.
ki
9
This can be seen by simply factoring all factors of 2 (if any) out of n.
The integers m1, m2, ……mn + 1 are all odd positive integers less than 2n
(pigeons). Since there are only n odd positive integers less than 2n
(pigeonholes), it follows from the pigeonhole principle that two of the integers
must be equal. Let them be mi  m j .
 ai  2 i mi and a j  2 j m j
k k
ai 2ki
  ( mi  m j )
a j 2k j
If ki  k j then 2 i divides 2
k kj
and hence ai divides a j .
If ki  k j then a j divides ai .
13. Show that if any 11 numbers are chosen from the set {1, 2, ……20} then
one of them will be a multiple of another.
Sol. Every positive integer can be written as n = 2k m where m is odd and k  0.
This can be seen by simply factoring all factors of 2 (if any) out of n. In this
case let us call m the odd part of n. If 11 numbers are chosen from the set
{ 1, 2, …..20}, then two of them must have the same odd part. This follows
from the pigeonhole principle since there are 11 numbers (pigeons) but only
10 odd numbers between 1 and 20 (pigeonholes) that can be odd parts of
these numbers.
Let n1 and n2 be chosen numbers with the same odd part. We must have
n1  2k 1 m and n2  2 2 m for some k1 and k2.
k
n1 2k1
  k2
n2 2
If k1  k 2 then n1 is a multiple of n2 , otherwise n2 is a multiple of n1.
14. Prove that if 51 integers are selected from the set S = {1, 2, 3, …….100}
then there are two integers such that one divides the other.
Sol. Every positive integer can be written as n = 2k m where m is odd and k  0.
This can be seen by simply factoring all factors of 2 (if any) out of n. In this
case let us call m the odd part of n. If 51 numbers are chosen from the set
{ 1, 2, …..100}, then two of them must have the same odd part. This
follows from the pigeonhole principle since there are 51 numbers (pigeons)
but only 50 odd numbers between 1 and 100 (pigeonholes) that can be odd
parts of these numbers.
Let n1 and n2 be chosen numbers with the same odd part. We must have
n1  2k 1 m and n2  2 2 m for some k1 and k2.
k
n1 2k1
  k2
n2 2
If k1  k2 then n1 divides n2 .
If k1  k2 then n2 divides n1 .
10
15. If we select 10 points in the interior of an equilateral triangle of side 1

unit, show that there must be at least 2 points whose distance apart is
less than 1/3. A
Sol. Let ABC be the given equilateral triangle.
1
Let D and E are the points of trisection of the side AB, D I
F and G are the points of trisection of the side BC 3
2 4
and H and I are the points of trisection of the side AC E H
6
so that the triangle ABC divided into 9 equilateral 5 7 8 9
triangles each of side 1/3. B C
F G
Now, Number of pigeon = n = No. of interior points = 10
Number of pigeonholes = m = No. of triangles = 9
Then by generalized pigeonhole principle, at least one triangle contains
10  1
 9   1  2 , interior points.
Since each triangles of length 1/3, the distance between any 2 interior
points of any sub triangle cannot exceeds 1/3.
16. Find the minimum number of students in a class to be sure that at least
3 of them are born in the same month.
Sol. Let us assume that the month --- pigeonholes
student --- pigeons
Now 12 pigeonholes and we have to find pigeons.
Using generalized pigeonhole principle,
 n  1
 m   1 where m = 12.
W have to find n.
n 1
(i.e.) 1  3
12
n – 1 + 12 = 36
n = 25.
Thus there are minimum 25 students to be sure that at least 3 of them are
born in the same month.
17. If m is an odd positive integer, prove that there exists a positive integer
n such that m divides 2n – 1.
Sol. Let us consider the (m + 1) positive integers
21 – 1, 22 – 1, 23 – 1, …………,2m – 1 and 2m + 1 – 1.
When these are divided by m, two of the numbers will give the same
remainder, by the pigeonhole principle (m + 1) numbers are (m + 1) pigeons
and the m remainders namely 0, 1, 2, …….(m – 1) are the pigeonholes.
Let the two numbers be 2r – 1 and 2s – 1 which give the same remainder
r′ upon division of m.
(i.e.) 2r – 1 = mq1 + r′ and 2s – 1 = mq2 + r′
 2r – 2s = m(q1 – q2)
 2s (2r – s – 1) = m(q1 – q2)
But m is odd and hence cannot be a factor of 2s.
 m divides 2r – s – 1
(i.e.) m divides 2n – 1, taking n = r – s
11
18. Among 50 students in a class, 26 got an A in the first examination and

21 got A in the second examination. If 17 students did not got an A in
either examination, how many students got an A in both examination?
Sol. Let P be the number of students got an A in the first examination
and Q be the number of students got an A in the second examination
Then n(P) = 26, n(Q) = 21, n(P  Q)c = 17, n(E) = 50
We have n(P  Q) + n[(P  Q)c] = n(E).
n(P  Q) + 17 = 50
n(P  Q) = 50 – 17
= 33
Now, n(P  Q) = n(P) + n(Q) – n(P  Q)
n(P  Q) = n(P) + n(Q) – n(P  Q)
= 26 + 21 – 33
= 14
Hence 14 students got an A in both the examination.
19. A survey of 500 television watchers produced the following information :
285 watch foot ball games ; 195 watch hockey games ; 115 watch basket
ball games ; 45 watch foot ball and basket ball games ; 70 watch foot ball
and hockey games ; 50 watch hockey and basket ball games ; 50 do not
watch any of the three games.
i) How many people watch all the three games.
ii) How many people watch exactly one of the three games.
Sol. n(F  B  H) + n[(F  B  H)c] = n(E).
n(F  B  H) + 50 = 500
n(F  B  H) = 450
Now, n(F  B  H) = n(F) + n(B) + n(H) – n(F  B) – n(F  H)
– n(B  H) + n(F  B  H)
450 = 285 + 115 + 195 – 45 – 70 – 50 + n(F  B  H)
n(F  B  H) = 20.
Thus 20 people watch all the three games.
F B
25
190 40
20
50 30
95
H
Hence number of people watch exactly one game = 190+40+95
= 325.
20. Out of 100 sportsmen in a college, 39 play Tennis, 58 play Cricket and
32 play Hockey, 10 play Cricket and Hockey, 11 play Hockey and
Tennis and 13 play Tennis and Cricket.
How many play i) All the three games.
ii) Just one game
iii) Tennis and Cricket but not Hockey.
12
Sol. n(T) = 39, n(C) = 58, n(H) = 32, n(T  C) = 13, n(C  H) = 10,
n(H  T) = 11, n(T  C  H) = 100.
Now, n(T  C  H) = n(T) + n(C) + n(H) – n(T  C) – n(C  H)
– n(H  T) + n(T  C  H)
100 = 39 + 58 + 32 – 13 – 10 – 11 + n(T  C  H)
n(T  C  H) = 100 – 95
= 5.
Thus 5 play all the three games.
T C
20 8 40
5
6 5
16
H
Hence number of player who play just one game = 20 + 40 + 16
= 76.
Number of players who play Tennis and Cricket but not Hockey = 8.
21. A survey of 100 students was taken concerning their programming
experience. The following results were obtained. 30 students know C++,
19 know Java, 16 know COBOL, 11 know C++ and COBOL, 12 know
C++ and Java, 6 know Java and COBOL and 4 know all 3 programming
languages. Then how many students know
i) None of the 3 languages
ii) C++ and Java but not COBOL
iii) Exactly 2 languages.
Sol. Let A = C++, B = Java, C = COBOL
100 A B
11 8 5
4
7 2
n(A  B  C) + n[(A  B  C)c] = n(E)

n[(A  B  C)c] = n(E) – n(A  B  C)
i) None of 3 languages = 100 – n(A  B  C)
= 100 – [ n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A  B) – n(B  C)
– n(C  A) + n(A  B  C) ]
= 100 – [ 30 + 19 + 16 – 12 – 6 – 11 + 4 ]
= 100 – 40
= 60
ii) C++ and Java but not COBOL = 8
iii) Exactly 2 languages = 8 + 2 + 7 = 17.
13
22. Find the number of divisors between 1 and 500 that are not divisible by
any of the integers 2, 3, 5 and 6.
Sol. Let A, B, C and D be the set of positive integers between 1 and 500 that are
divisible by 2, 3, 5 and 6 respectively.
 500   500 
|A|=   250 |B|=   166
 2   3 
 500   500 
|C|=   100 |D|=   83
 5   6 
 500   500   500    500
| AB | =     6   83 | AC | =      50
 lcm (2,3)     lcm (2,5)   10 
 500   500   500   500
| AD | =     83 | BC | =      33
 lcm(2, 6)   6   lcm(3,5)   15 
 500   500   500    500
| BD | =     83 | CD | =      16
 lcm(3, 6)   6   lcm(5, 6)   30 
 500   500
| ABC | =      16
 lcm(2,3,5)   30
 500   500 
| ABD | =     83
 lcm(2,3, 6)   6 
 500  
 500
| ACD | =      16
 lcm(2,5, 6)   30
 500  
 500
| BCD | =      16
 lcm(3,5, 6)   30 
 
500   500
| ABCD | =      16
 lcm(2,3,5, 6)   30 
| ABCD | = | A | + | B | + | C | + | D | – | AB | – | AC | – | AD |

– | BC | – | BD | – | CD | + | ABC | + | ABD |
+ | ACD | + | BCD | – | ABCD |
= 250 + 166 + 100 + 83 – 83 – 50 – 83 – 33 – 83 – 16 + 16
+ 83 + 16 + 16 – 16
= 366
 There are 366 positive integers between1 and 500 that are divisible
by any of the integers 2, 3, 5 and 6.
Hence there are 500 – 366 = 134 positive integers between1 and 500 that
are not divisible by any of the integers 2, 3, 5 and 6.
23. Determine the number of positive integers n, 1  n  1000 that are not
divisible by 2, 3 or 5 but are divisible by 7.
Sol. Let A, B, C be the set of positive integers between 1 and 1000 that are
divisible by 2, 3, 5 respectively.
1000  1000 
|A|=    500 |B|=    333
 2   3 
1000   1000  1000 
|C|=   200 | AB | =     166
 5   lcm(2,3)   6 
14
 1000  1000 
| AC | =     10   100
 lcm(2,5)   
 1000  1000 
| BC | =     66
 lcm(3,5)   15 
 1000  1000 
| ABC | =     30   33
 lcm(2,3,5)   
| ABC | = | A | + | B | + | C | – | AB | – | AC | – | BC | + | ABC |

= 500 + 333 + 200 – 166 – 100 – 66 + 33
= 734
 There are 734 positive integers between1 and 1000 that are divisible
by any of the integers 2, 3, 5.
Hence there are 1000 – 734 = 266 positive integers which are not
divisible by any of the integers 2, 3, 5.
 There are 266
7
 38 positive integers which are not divisible by
2, 3 or 5 but divisible by 7.
24. In a survey of 100 students it was found that 40 studied Maths, 64
studied Physics, 35 studied Chemistry, 1 studied all the three subjects,
25 studied Maths and Physics, 3 studied Maths and Chemistry and 20
studied Physics and Chemistry. Find the number of students who
studied Chemistry only and the number who studied none of these
subjects.
Sol.
100 M P
13 24 20
1
2 19
13
 13 students studied Chemistry only.

Now, | M  P  C | + | M  P  C |c = | E |
( 13 + 20 + 13 + 24 + 2 + 19 + 1) + | M  P  C |c = 100
| M  P  C |c = 100 – 92
= 8.
Hence 8 students not studied any of the three subjects.
25. How many solution does the equations x1 + x2 + x3 = 11 have, where
x1, x2 and x3  0 such that x1  3, x2  4 and x3  6? Use the principle of
inclusion-exclusion.
15
Sol. Let A be the property that x1 > 3

Let B be the property that x2 > 4
Let C be the property that x3 > 6
Now, the number of solutions satisfying the inequalities x1  3, x2  4 and
x3  6 is | A1 B1 C1 |
By principle of inclusion – exclusion, we have
| A1 B1 C1 | = N – | A  B  C |
= N – { | A | + | B | + | C | – | AB | – | AC | – | BC |
+ | ABC | }
Now N = Total number of solutions
= C( 3 + 11 – 1, 11 )
= 13C11 = 13C2 = 78
| A | = Number of solution with x1  4
= C( 3 + 7 – 1, 7 ) = 9C7 = 36
| B | = Number of solution with x2  5
= C( 3 + 6 – 1, 6 ) = 8C6 = 28
| C | = Number of solution with x3  7
= C( 3 + 4 – 1, 4 ) = 6C4 = 15
| A  B | = Number of solution with x1  4 and x2  5
= C( 3 + 2 – 1, 2 ) = 4C2 = 6
| A  C | = Number of solution with x1  4 and x3  7
= C( 3 + 0 – 1, 0 ) = 2C0 = 1
| B  C | = Number of solution with x2  5 and x3  7
=0
| A  B  C | = Number of solution with x1  4, x2  5 and x3  7
=0
Hence required number of solutions is
| A1 B1 C1 | = 78 – { 36 + 28 + 15 – 6 – 1 – 0 + 0 }
= 78 – 72
=6
Thus there are 6 solutions for the equation x1 + x2 + x3 = 11 with respect
to given constraints.
26. Solve Sk – 10 Sk – 1 + 9 Sk – 2 = 0, S0 = 3, S1 = 11
Sol. The characteristic equation is
r2 – 10r + 9 = 0
(r – 1)(r – 9) = 0
r = 1, 9
Sk = b1.1k + b2.9k
Sk = b1 + b2.9k ----------- (1)
Given S0 = 3  3 = b1 + b2 --------- (2)
and S1 = 11  11 = b1 + 9b2 --------- (3)
(3) – (2)  8b2 = 8
b2 = 1
(2)  b1 + 1 = 3
b1 = 2
Hence Sk = 2 + 9k
16
27. Solve S(k) – 4 S(k – 1) – 11 S(k – 2) + 30 S(k – 3) = 0, S(0) = 0,

S(1) = – 35, S(2) = – 85.
r3 – 4r2 – 11r + 30 = 0 1 – 4 – 11
2 30
r = 2 is a root.
The other roots are r2 – 2r – 15 = 0 0 2 – 4 – 30
(r + 3)(r – 5) = 0 1 – 2 – 15 0
r = – 3, 5
 r = 2, – 3, 5
S(k) = b1.2 + b2.(– 3)k + b3.5k ----------- (1)
k
S(0) = 0  0 = b 1 + b 2 + b3 ------------- (2)

S(1) = – 35  – 35 = 2b1 – 3b2 + 5b3 ------------ (3)
S(2) = – 85  – 85 = 4b1 + 9b2 + 25b3 ------------ (4)
Solving (2), (3) and (4) we get
b1 = 1, b2 = 4, b3 = – 5.
Hence S(k) = 2k + 4 (– 3)k – 5.5k
28. Write recurrence relation for Fibonacci numbers and solve it.
Sol. The recurrence relation of Fibonacci number is
F(n) = F(n – 1) + F(n – 2) , n  2 with F(0) = 1, F(1) = 1.
F(n) – F(n – 1) – F(n – 2) = 0
r2 – r – 1 = 0
1 5
r
2
n n
 1 5   1 5 
F (n)  b1    b2   ----------- (1)
 2   2 
F(0) = 1  1 = b1 + b2 ---------- (2)
 1 5  1 5 
F (1)  1  1  b1  
 2 
b 
 2   2 
 2 = (b1 + b2) + 5 (b1 – b2)
 2 = 1 + 5 (b1 – b2)
1
 b1  b2  --------------------- (3)
5
1 5 1
(2) + (3)  2b1  1   b1 
5 2 5
1 5  1  (1  5)
(2) – (3)  2b2  1   b2  
5 2 5 2 5
n n
1  5  1  5  (1  5)  1  5 
F ( n)      
2 5  2  2 5  2 
n 1 n 1
1  1 5  1 1 5 
(i.e.) F (n)      
5  2  5  2 
17
29. Solve : an = 2 (an – 1 – an – 2) for n  2 with a0 = 1, a1 = 2.

Sol. an – 2an – 1 + 2an – 2 = 0
r2 – 2r + 2 = 0
2  4 8
r
2
2  2i

2
1  i
an  b1 1  i   b2 1  i  ----------- (1)
n n
Now, x  i y  r (cos  i sin  )

1  i  r (cos   i sin  )
 r cos   1, r sin   1
Squaring and adding , we get
r2  11  2
r 2
r sin  1 
and   tan   1   
r cos  1 4
  
1  i  2  cos  i sin 
 4 4
 
n
  n
(1  i )  2  cos  i sin 
n
 4 4
n n 
 
n
 2  cos  i sin 
 4 4 
n n 
 
n
 (1  i ) n  2  cos  i sin 
 4 4 
n n  n n 
   
n n
an  b1 2  cos  i sin 
 2 b 2  cos  i sin 
 4 4   4 4 
n n 
 
n 
 2 (b1  b2 ) cos  i (b1  b2 )sin 
 4 4 
n n 
 
n 
an  2 c1 cos  c2 sin  where b1  b2  c1 , i (b1  b2 )  c2
 4 4 
Given a0 = 1  1 = 1(c1 + 0)
 c1 = 1
a1 = 2  2 =  2  c
1
1
2
 c2
1 
2 
= c1 + c2
 2 = 1 + c2
 c2 = 1
n n 
 
n 
 an  2 cos  sin
4 
 4
18
30. Solve S(k) + 5 S(k – 1) = 9, S(0) = 6.

r+5=0
r=–5
 Homogeneous solution is S(k) = b1 (– 5)k
The form of the particular solution is
S(k) = d ( since RHS is a constant)
Substitute in the given recurrence relation, we get
d + 5d = 9
3
d=
2
 Particular solution is S(k) = 3
2
Hence the general solution is
3
S(k) = b1 (– 5)k +
2
3
Given S(0) = 6  6 = b1 +
2
3 9
 b1 = 6 – =
2 2
 9
S(k) = (– 5)k +
2
3
2
31. Solve Tk – 7 Tk – 1 + 10 Tk – 2 = 6 + 8k with T0 = 1, T1 = 2.
r2 – 7r + 10 = 0
(r – 2)(r – 5) = 0
r = 2, 5
 Homogeneous solution is Tk = b1.2k + b2.5k
The form of the particular solution is
Tk = d0 + d1k
Substitute in the given recurrence relation, we get
(d0 + d1k) – 7 [d0 + d1 (k – 1)] + 10 [d0 + d1(k – 2)] = 6 + 8k
Equating coefficient of k and constants, we get
d1 – 7d1 + 10d1 = 8 ---------------------(1)
and d0 – 7d0 + 10d0 + 7d1 – 20d1 = 8 ----------(2)
(1)  4d1 = 8
 d1 = 2
(2)  4d0 – 13d1 = 6
 4d0 – 13(2) = 6
 4d0 = 32
 d0 = 8
 Particular solution is Tk = 8 + 2k
Tk = b1.2k + b2.5k + 8 + 2k
Given T0 = 1  1 = b1 + b2 + 8
 b1 + b2 = – 7 -------------(3)
19
T1 = 2  2 = 2b1 + 5b2 + 10
 2b1 + 5b2 = – 8 -----------(4)
Solving (3) and (4), we get
b1 = – 9, b2 = 2
 Tk = (– 9) .2k + 2.5k + 8 + 2k
32. Solve S(k) – 4 S(k – 1) + 4 S(k – 2) = 3k + 2k with k  2 and S(0) = 1,
S(1) = 1.
r2 –4r + 4 = 0
(r – 2)(r – 2) = 0
r = 2, 2
 Homogeneous solution is S(k) = (b1 + b2k) 2k
(i) First find the particular solution for 3k.
Let S(k) = d0 + d1k be the particular solution
Then (d0 + d1k) – 4[d0 + d1(k – 1)] + 4[d0 + d1(k – 2)] = 3k
(d0 – 4d1) + k(d1 –4d1 + 4d1) = 3k
 d0 – 4d1 = 0 and d1 = 3
 d0 = 4(3) = 12
 Particular solution is 12 + 3k.
(ii) Let S(k) = d k2 2k be the particular solution (since 2 is a double root)
Then (d k2 2k) – 4 [d (k – 1)2 2k – 1 ] + 4 [d (k – 2)2 2k – 2 ] = 2k
d 2k [ k2 – 2 (k2 – 2k + 1) + (k2 – 4k + 4)] = 2k
d (2) = 1
1
d=
2
 Particular solution is 1 2 k
2
k 2 (i.e.) k2 2k – 1
S(k) = (b1 + b2k) 2k + (12 + 3k) + k2 2k – 1
S(0) = 1  1 = b1 + 12
 b1 = – 11 ------------- (1)
S(1) = 1  1 = 2(b1 + b2) + 15 + 1
1 = 2(– 11+ b2) + 16 [ using (1)]
2b2 = 22 – 16 + 1
7
b2 =
2
 S(k) = (– 11+ 7
2
k) 2k + (12 + 3k) + k2 2k – 1
(i.e.) S(k) = ( k2 + 7k – 22) 2k – 1 + (12 + 3k)
33. Solve : Sk – 3Sk – 1 – 4Sk – 2 = 4k
r2 – 3r – 4 = 0
(r + 1)(r – 4) = 0
r = – 1, 4
 Homogeneous solution is Sk = b1.4k + b2.(– 1)k
20
Let Sk = d k4k (since 4 is a simple root) be the particular solution,

then d k4k – 3d (k – 1) 4k – 1 – 4d (k – 2) 4k – 2 = 4k
3k 3 k 2
d 4k [ k –    ] = 4k
4 4 4 4
5
d   1
4
4
d
5
 Particular solution is 4
5
k
k4k (i.e.) 4k + 1
5
k k+1
Sk = b1.4k + b2.(– 1)k + 4
5
34. Solve S(k) – 2S(k – 1) + S(k – 2) = 2 with S(0) = 25, S(1) = 16.
r2 –2r + 1 = 0
(r – 1)(r – 1) = 0
r = 1, 1
 Homogeneous solution is S(k) = (b1 + b2k) 1k = b1 + b2k
Let S(k) = d be the particular solution,
then d – 2d + d = 2
0 = 2, which is a contradiction.
Now, let S(k) = dk be the particular solution,
then dk – 2d(k – 1) + d(k – 2) = 2
d[ k – 2k + 2 + k – 2] = 2
0 = 2, which is also a contradiction.
2
So, let S(k) = dk be the particular solution,
then dk2 – 2d(k – 1)2 + d(k – 2)2 = 2
d[ k2 – 2k2 + 4k – 2 + k2 – 4k + 4] = 2
2d = 2
d=1
 Particular solution is k2.
S(k) = b1 + b2k + k2
S(0) = 25  25 = b1
S(1) = 16  16 = b1 + b2 + 1
16 = 25 + b2 + 1
b2 = – 10
 S(k) = 25 – 10k + k2
(i.e.) S(k) = (k – 5)2.
35. Find the generating function of the Fibonacci sequence.
Sol. The Fibonacci sequence is
F(n) = F(n – 1) + F(n – 2) with F(0) = F(1) = 1
F(n) – F(n – 1) – F(n – 2) = 0, n  2
  
 F (n) z n   F (n  1) z n  F (n  2) z n  0
n2 n2 n2
21
   
 F (n) z  F (0)  zF (1)  z  F (n  1) z  z  F (n  2) z  0

n n 1 2 n2
 n 0  n2 n2
 
[G( F , z )  1  z ]  z  F (n  1) z n1  F (0)  z 2 G( F , z )  0
 n1 
[G( F , z)  1  z]  zG( F , z )  1 z G( F , z )  0
2
G ( F , z ) (1  z  z 2 ) 1  z  z
1
(i.e.) G ( F , z ) 
1 z  z2
36. Solve S(n + 1) – 2S(n) = 4n , S(0) = 1, n  0 by using generating function.
Sol. S(n + 1) – 2S(n) – 4n = 0, n  0
1   

z n 0
S (n  1) z  2 S (n) z  4n z n  0
n1
n 0
n
n 0
1
G(S , z )  S (0) 2 G(S , z )  (1  4 z )1  0
z
z
[G ( S , z )  1]  2 zG( S , z )  0
1 4z
z
G ( S , z ) (1  2 z )  1 
1 4z
1  3z

1 4z
1  3z
G(S , z) 
(1  2 z )(1  4 z )
1  3z A B
 
(1  2 z )(1  4 z ) 1  2 z 1  4 z
1  3 z  A(1  4 z )  B(1  2 z )
1 3
put z   1   A(1  2)
2 2
1 1
  A  A 
2 2
1 3 1
put z   1   B(1  )
4 4 2
1 B 1
  B
4 2 2
1  3z 1/ 2 1/ 2
 G(S , z)   
(1  2 z )(1  4 z ) 1  2 z 1  4 z
1 1
 (1  2 z ) 1  (1  4 z ) 1
2 2

1 1 
  (2 z )   (4 z ) n
n
2 n 0 2 n 0
Hence the solution is S(n) = Coefficient of zn in G(S,z)
1 n 1 n
= .2  .4
2 2
(i.e.) S (n)  2n1  2.4n1
22
37. Solve S(k) + 5S(k – 1) = 9 + 2k with S(0) = 6 by using generating function.

Sol. S(k) + 5S(k – 1) – 9 – 2k = 0 , k  1
   
 S (k ) z
k 1
k
 5 z  S (k  1) z
k 1
k 1
 9 z  2 k z k  0
k 1
k
k 1
 
G(S , z )  S (0) 5 z G( S , z )  9 z  z k 1
 2 z  k z k 1  0
k 1 k 1
G(S , z )  6 5 z G(S , z )  9 z (1  z ) 1

 2 z (1  z ) 2  0
9z 2z
G ( S , z ) (1  5 z )  6  
1  z (1  z ) 2
6(1  z ) 2  9 z (1  z )  2 z

(1  z ) 2
 3z 2  z  6
G(S , z) 
(1  5 z )(1  z ) 2
 3z 2  z  6 A B C
  
(1  5 z )(1  z ) 2
1  5 z 1  z (1  z ) 2
 3z 2  z  6  A(1  z ) 2  B(1  5 z )(1  z )  C (1  5 z )
put z  1  2  C (1  5)
1
 C
3
2
1 3 1  1
put z       6  A 1  
5 25 5  5
152 36 A 38
   A
25 25 9
Coeff . of z ,  3  A  5B
2
38
 3  5B
9
38 13
5B  3  B
9 9
38 / 9 13 / 9 1/ 3
 G(S , z)   
1  5 z 1  z (1  z ) 2
38 13 1
 (1  5 z ) 1  (1  z ) 1  (1  z ) 2
9 9 3
38  13  k 1 
 
9 k 0
(1) (5 z )   z   (k  1) z k
k k
9 k 0 3 k 0
Hence the solution is
S(k) = Coefficient of zk in G(S,z)
38 13 1
= (1) k 5k  .1  (k  1)
9 9 3
38 k 16
(i.e.) S (k )  (1) k 5k  
9 3 9
23
38. Using generating function solve yn + 2 – yn + 1 – 6yn = 0, y0 = 2, y1 = 1.

Sol. yn + 2 – yn + 1 – 6yn = 0, n  0
1  1  
2  n2
y z   y n1 z  6 y n z n  0
n2 n 1
z n 0 z n 0 n 0
1 1
2
[ y 2 z 2
 y 3 z 3
 ......]  [ y1 z  y 2 z 2  ......]  6 G ( y, z )  0
z z
1
G ( y , z )  y 0  y 1 z  
1
G ( y, z )  y0   6 G( y, z )  0
z2 z
1
G ( y , z )  2  z  
1
G ( y, z )  2  6 G( y, z )  0
z2 z
G ( y, z )  2  z  z G ( y, z )  2 z  6 z 2G ( y, z )  0
G ( y, z ) (1  z  6 z 2 )  2  z
2 z
G ( y, z ) 
(1  3z )(1  2 z )
2 z A B
 
(1  3z )(1  2 z ) 1  3z 1  2 z
2  z  A(1  2 z )  B(1  3z )
1 1 3
put z    2  B(1  )
2 2 2
5 5B
   B 1
2 2
1 1 2
put z   2   A(1  )
3 3 3
5 5A
   A 1
3 3
2z 1 1
G ( y, z )   
(1  3z )(1  2 z ) 1  3z 1  2 z
 (1  3z ) 1  (1  2 z ) 1
 
  (3z ) n   (1) n (2 z ) n
n 0 n 0
Hence the solution is

yn = Coefficient of zn in G(y,z)
= 3n + (–1)n.2n
39. Write recurrence relation for Fibonacci numbers and solve it by using
generating function method.
Sol. The recurrence relation of Fibonacci number is
F(n) = F(n – 1) + F(n – 2) , n  2 with F(0) = 1, F(1) = 1.
F(n) – F(n – 1) – F(n – 2) = 0 , n  2
  
 F (n) z  F (n  1) z  F (n  2) z
n2
n
n2
n
n2
n
0
 
[G( F , z )  F (0)  zF (1)]  z  F (n  1) z n 1
z 2
 F (n  2) z n2
0
n2 n2
24
[G( F , z )  F (0)  zF (1)]  z[G( F , z )  F (0)]  z 2G( F , z )  0

[G( F , z) 1  z(1)]  z[G( F , z) 1]  z 2G( F , z)  0
G ( F , z )(1  z  z 2 )  1  z  z  0
1 1
G( F , z)  
1 z  z2   1 5     1 5  
1    z  1    z
  2     2  
1 A B
 
  1 5     1 5    1 5   1 5 
1    z  1    z 1   z 1  z
  2     2    2   2 
  1 5     1 5  
1  A 1    z   B 1    z 
  2     2  
2  1 5 
put z  , we get 1  B 1  
1 5  1  5 
 2 5  1 5
1 B   B
1  5  2 5
2  1 5 
put z  , we get 1  A 1  
1 5  1 5 
 2 5  1 5
1 A    A
1  5  2 5
 1 5   1 5 
   
G( F , z)   2 5 
  2 5 
 1 5  1 5 
1  z 1  z
 2   2 
1 1
1 5   1 5   1 5  1 5  
 1    z   1    z
2 5   2   2 5   2  
n n
1 5   1 5  n 1 5  1 5  n
 
2 5 n 0  2 
 z  
2 5 n 0  2 
 z
1   
1 5 
n 1
 
1 5 
n 1

    z   
n
 z 
n
5  n 0  2  n 0  2  
 
n
Hence F(n) = Coefficient of z in G(F,z)
1   1 5  1 5  
n 1 n 1
      

5  2 
  2  
40. Solve the recurrence relation of the Fibonacci sequence of numbers

fn = fn – 1 + fn – 2 , n > 2 with the initial conditions f1 = 1, f2 = 1.
25
Sol. Given fn – fn – 1 – fn – 2 = 0, n > 2

r2 – r – 1 = 0
1 5
r
2
n n
 1 5   1 5 
f n  b1    b2   ----------- (1)
 2   2 
 1 5   1 5 
f1  1  1  b1    b2  
 2   2 
 2 = (b1 + b2) + 5 (b1 – b2) --------- (2)
2 2
 1 5   1 5 
f 2  1  1  b1    b2
 2 
 2   
  
 4  b1 1  5  2 5  b2 1  5  2 5 
 2  b 3  5   b 3  5 
1 2
 2  3(b1  b2 )  5(b1  b2 )        (3)

(3) – (2)  0  2(b1  b2 )
 b1  b2  0 -------------(4)
(2)  2  0  5(b1  b2 )
2 ---------------- (5)
 b1  b2 
5
2 1
(4) + (5)  2b1   b1 
5 5
1
b
From (4), 2  
5
n n
1  1 5  1 1 5 
fn      
5 2  5  2 
1  1  5   1  5  
n n
(i.e.) f n      
5  2   2  
 
41. Solve the recurrence relation fn = fn – 1 + fn – 2 , n > 2 with f1 = 1, f2 = 1 by
using generating function method.

Sol. Let G ( f , z )   f n z n 1 be the generating function.

n 1
Given fn – fn – 1 – fn – 2 = 0, n > 2
  
Then f
n 3
n z n 1
 f n 1 z
n 3
n 1
 f n 2 z n1  0
n 3
26
 
[G( f , z )  f1  f 2 z ]  z  f n1 z n2
z 2
f n2 z n 3  0
n 3 n 3
[G( f , z)  f1  f 2 z]  z[G( f , z)  f1 ]  z 2G( f , z)  0

[G( f , z) 1  z(1)]  z[G( f , z) 1]  z 2G( f , z)  0
G ( f , z )(1  z  z 2 )  1  z  z  0
1 1
G( f , z)  
1 z  z2   1 5     1 5  
1    z  1    z
  2     2  
1 A B
 
  1 5     1 5    1 5   1 5 
1    z  1    z 1   z 1  z
  2     2    2   2 
  1 5     1 5  
1  A 1    z   B 1    z 
  2     2  
2  1 5 
put z  , we get 1  B 1  
1 5  1 5 
 2 5  1 5
1 B   B
1  5  2 5
2  1 5 
put z  , we get 1  A 1  
1 5  1  5 
 2 5  1 5
1 A    A
 1  5  2 5
 1 5  1 5 
   
G( f , z)      
2 5 2 5
 1 5   1 5 
1   z 1   z
 2   2 
1 1
1 5   1 5   1 5  1 5  
 
 
1  
z  1    z 
2 5   2   2 5   2  
n n
1 5   1 5  n 1 5  1 5  n
 
2 5 n 0 

2
 z   
2
 z
 2 5 n 0  
1    1 5  
n 1 n 1
  
1  5
    z   
n
 z 
n

5  n 0  2 2 
  n 0   
n–1
Hence fn = Coefficient of z in G(f,z)
1   1 5   1 5  
n n
     
5   2   2  
 
27
42. Use the method of generating function to solve the recurrence relation
S(n + 1) – 8S(n) + 16S(n – 1) = 4n, n  1 with S(0) = 1, S(1) = 8.
Sol. S(n + 1) – 8S(n) + 16S(n – 1) – 4n = 0, n  1
   
 S (n  1) z n  8 S (n) z n  16 S (n  1) z n  4 n z n  0
n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1
   
1

z n1
S (n  1) z  8 S (n) z  16 z  S (n  1) z 4 z  4 n 1 z n1  0
n 1
n 1
n
n 1
n 1
n 1
1
G ( S , z )  S (0)  zS (1) 8[ G ( S , z )  S (0)]  16 z G ( S , z )  4 z (1  4 z ) 1  0
z
1
G ( S , z )  1  8 z  8[ G ( S , z )  1]  16 z G ( S , z )  4 z (1  4 z ) 1  0
z
1  1 4z
G ( S , z )   8  16 z    8  8 
z  z 1 4z
1  8 z  16 z 2  4z 1
G(S , z)    
 z  1 4z z
1  8 z  16 z 2  4 z 2  1  4 z
G(S , z)    z (1  4 z )
 z 
4z 2  4z 1
G(S , z) 
(1  4 z ) 3
4z 2  4z  1 A B C
  
(1  4 z ) 3
1  4 z (1  4 z ) 2
(1  4 z ) 3
4 z 2  4 z  1  A(1  4 z ) 2  B(1  4 z )  C
1 4
put z   11  0  0  C
4 16
1
C
4
Coeff . of z , 4  16 A
2
1
 A
4
Coeff . of z,  4  8 A  4 B
1 1 1
1  2   B  B  1  
4 2 2
1/ 4 1/ 2 1/ 4
 G(S , z)   
1  4 z (1  4 z ) 2 (1  4 z ) 3
1 1 1
 (1  4 z ) 1  (1  4 z ) 2  (1  4 z ) 3
4 2 4
1 
1 
1  (n  1)(n  2)
  (4 z )   (n  1)(4 z )  
n n
(4 z ) n
4 n 0 2 n 0 4 n 0 2
Hence the solution is S(n) = Coefficient of zn in G(S,z)
1 1 1 (n  1)(n  2) n
= .4  (n  1)4 
n n
4
4 2 4 2
 n 2  7n  8  n
(i.e.) S (n)    4
 8 
28
M.A.M COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DISCRETE MATHEMATICS UNIT IV 1
UNIT IV – GROUP THEORY
PART – A
1. Define Group.
Sol. A non empty set G together with a binary operation  is called a group if the following
conditions are satisfied.
i) a  b  G  a,b  G ( Closure)
ii) a  (b  c) = (a  b)  c  a,b,c  G ( Associative )
iii) There exists an element e  G such that
a  e = e  a = a  a  G ( Identity )
iv) There exists an element a   G such that
a  a  = a   a = e  a  G ( Inverse ).
2. Define Abelian group.

Sol. In a group (G,) , if a  b = b  a  a,b  G then (G,) is called a abelian group.
3. Define subgroup.
Sol. A subset H of a group G is called a subgroup of G if H itself forms a group under the
operation of G.
4. Define cyclic group.

Sol. A group (G,) is said to be cyclic, if there exists an element a  G such that each and every
element in G can be expressed in the form of an where n is an integer. Here the element ‘a’
is said to be the generator of the cyclic group.
5. If ‘a’ is a generator of a cyclic group G then a-1 is also a generator of G.

Sol. Let G be a cyclic group generated by an element a  G.
G = an , n is some integer
= (a-1)-n
Since –n is also some integer, every element of G can be generated be a-1.
a -1
is also a generator of G.
6. Define Semigroup and monoid. Give an example of a semigroup which is not a monoid.
Sol. Semigroup: A non empty set S together with a binary operation  is called a semigroup if
the following conditions are satisfied.
i) a  b  S  a,b  S ( Closure)
ii) a  (b  c) = (a  b)  c  a,b,c  S ( Associative )
Monoid : A non empty set M together with a binary operation  is called a monoid if the
following conditions are satisfied.
i) a  b  M  a,b  M ( Closure)
ii) a  (b  c) = (a  b)  c  a,b,c  M ( Associative )
iii) There exists an element e  M such that
a  e = e  a = a  a  M ( Identity )
Example : (N, +) is a semigroup but not monoid
For, we know that N is the set of all positive integers
(i.e.) N = {1,2,3,…….}
Sum of any two positive integers is again a positive integer. Hence N is closed under
addition. Also usual addition is always associative.
 N is a semigroup.
The additive identity is zero because a +0 = 0 +a = a  a  N.

But 0  N (i.e.) 0 is not an element of N
 (N , +) is not a monoid.
7. Give an example of a monoid which is not a group.
Sol. (Z , .) is a monoid but not a group.
We know that Z is the set of all integers.
i) a.b = ab  a,b  Z
Z is closed under multiplication.
ii) (a.b).c = a.(b.c)  a,b,c  Z
Z is associative under multiplication
iii) 1  Z, 1.a = a.1 = a
Hence 1 is the multiplicative identity
 (Z , .) is a monoid
2  Z. Its multiplicative inverse is
1
iv)  Z.
2
 (Z , .) is not a group.
8. Prove that every cyclic group is abelian.
Sol. Let (G,) be a cyclic group generated by an element a  G.
For any two elements x , y  G we have x = am and y = an where m , n are integers.
Now, x  y = am  an
= am+n
= an+m
= an  am
= y x
 (G,) is abelian.
9. Show that G = {1,-1,i,-i} is cyclic group.
Sol. Let a = i.
Every element of G can be expressed as integral powers of i.
1 = i4 , -1 = i2 , i = i1 , -i = i3.
Hence i is the generator of G and therefore G is cyclic.
10. Define order of a group and order of an element.

Sol. Order of a group
The number of elements in a group G when G is finite is said to be order of a group and is
denoted by O(G).
Order of an element
Let G be a group and e be the identity element of G. Let a  G. If there is a least positive
integer m such that am = e then m is called the order(or) period of a  G, which is denoted
by O(a).
11. Show that the identity element of a group G is unique.
Sol. Let e1 and e2 be two identity element of G.
Let e1 be the identity element and e2 act as some element of G
Then e2  e1 = e1  e2 = e2 ----------(1)
Now, let e2 be the identity element and e1 act as some element of G.
Then e1  e2 = e2  e1 = e1 ---------(2)
From (2), e1 = e2  e1
= e2 [using (1) ]
Hence identity element of G is unique.
12. Show that the inverse of an element in a group G is unique.

Sol. Let a  and a  be the two inverses of a.
Then a  a  = a   a = e
and a  a  = a   a = e
a = a  e
= a   (a  a  )
= ( a   a)  a 
= e  a 
= a 
Hence inverse of a is unique.
13. If a and b are the elements of a group (G,  ) show that (a  b)-1 = b-1  a-1
(OR) Show that the inverse of the product of two elements of a group is the product of
their inverses in reverse order.
Sol. (a  b)  ( b-1  a-1) = a  (b  b-1)  a-1
= a  e  a-1
= a  a-1
=e
Also ( b  a )  (a  b) = b-1  ( a-1  a)  b
-1 -1
= b-1  e  b
= b-1  b
=e
 (a  b) = b  a
-1 -1 -1
14. If (G,) is an abelian group, prove that (a  b)2 = a2  b2 for all a,b  G.
Sol. Given that G is abelian group.  a  b = b  a  a,b  G.
Then (a  b)2 = (a  b)  (a  b)
= a  (b  a)  b
= a  (a  b)  b
= (a  a)  (b  b)
= a2  b2.
15. Show that if every element in a group is its own inverse, then the group must be
abelian.
Sol. Let a,b  G.
Since each and every element has its own inverse, we have
a = a-1
and b = b-1
Also as a  b  G, a  b = (a  b)-1
= b-1  a-1
= b a
Hence G is abelian.
16. In a group, Show that an element a  G is such that a2 = e, a  e if and only if a = a-1.
Sol. Let a  G, a  e
Assume a2 = e
a.a = e
a (a.a) = a-1.e
-1
(a-1a).a = a-1
e.a = a-1
a = a-1
Conversely, let a = a-1
a.a = a. a-1
a2 = e.
17. Prove that if G is multiplicative group and for all a  G, a2 = e then G is abelian.
Sol. Given a2 = e for all a  G.
a.a = e
a (a.a) = a-1.e
-1
(a-1.a).a = a-1
e.a = a-1
a = a-1.
Similarly, as b  G, b = b-1
Now as a.b  G, a.b = (a.b)-1
= b-1. a-1
= b.a
 G is abelian.
18. Check whether {0,2,4,6,8} under addition mod 10 is a group.
Sol.
+10 0 2 4 6 8
0 0 2 4 6 8
2 2 4 6 8 0
4 4 6 8 0 2
6 6 8 0 2 4
8 8 0 2 4 6
From the above table we can easily see that the given set is closed under addition mod 10.
0 is the identity element and inverse of 0,2,4,6,8 are 0,8,6,4,2 respectively.
Hence {0,2,4,6,8} is a group under addition mod 10.
19. Let ( A,) be a monoid such that for every x in A, x  x = e, where e is the identity
element. Show that ( A,) is an abelian group.
Sol. Given x  x = e
 x -1 = x
For x ,y  A, x  y = x -1  y-1
= (y  x )-1
= y x
Hence A is abelian.
20.Prove that the only idempotent element of a group is its identity element.
Sol. If ‘a’ is an idempotent element then we have
aa = a
Now, e = a-1  a
= a-1  (a  a)
= (a-1  a)  a
= e a
= a.
Hence the only idempotent element of G is its identity element.
21.Show that the intersection of two subgroups is a subgroup.

Sol. Let H and K are subgroups of G.
Then atleast the identity element e  H and e  K.
 e H  K
Thus H  K is a non empty subset of G.
Let a,b  H  K  a,b  H and a,b  K
 a  b-1  H and a  b-1  K
 a  b-1  H  K
 H  K is a subgroup of G.
22. Find all the cosets of the subgroup H = {1, -1} in G = {1, -1, i , -i} with the operation
multiplication.
Sol. Right coset of H in G Left coset of H in G
H1 = {1, -1} 1H = {1, -1}
H(-1) = {-1, 1} (-1)H = {-1, 1}
Hi = {i , -i} iH = {i , -i}
H(-i) = {-i, i} (-i)H = {-i, i}
23. Find the left cosets of { 0, 3} in the addition modulo group (Z6 , +6 ).
Sol. Let Z6 = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } be a group.
H = { 0, 3} be a subgroup of (Z6 , +6 ).
The left cosets of H are
0+H = { 0, 3}
1 +H = { 1 , 4}
2+H = { 2, 5 }
3 +H = { 3, 0 }
4+H = { 4, 1}
5 +H = { 5, 2 }
 0+H = 3 +H , 1+H = 4+H and 2+H = 5 +H are the three distinct left cosets
of H in (Z6 , +6 ).
24. Define normal subgroup and show that every subgroup of an abelian group is normal.
Sol. Normal subgroup
A subgroup (N,  ) of a group (G,  ) is said to be a normal subgroup of G, if
for every g  G and for every n  N, gng-1  N.
Let (G,  ) be an abelian group and (N,  ) be a subgroup of G.
Let g  G and let n  N
gng-1 = (gn)g-1
= (ng)g-1
= n(gg-1)
= ne
= n N
  g  G and n  N, gng-1  N.
Hence (N,  ) is a normal subgroup.
25. Prove that the intersection of two normal subgroups is a normal subgroup.
Sol. Let N1 and N2 be any two normal subgroups of a group G.
 N1 and N2 are subgroups of G.
Then atleast the identity element e  N1 and e  N2.
 e  N1  N2
Thus N1  N2 is a non empty subset of G.
Let a,b  N1  N2  a,b  N1 and a,b  N2
 a  b-1  N1 and a  b-1  N2
 a  b-1  N1  N2
 N1  N2 is a subgroup of G.
Let g  G , h  N1  N2
 g  G, h  N1 and h  N2
 g  G,h  N1 and g  G,h  N2
 ghg-1  N1 and ghg-1  N2
 ghg-1  N1  N2
 N1  N2 is a normal subgroup of G.
26. If G is a group of prime order, Prove that G has no proper subgroup.

Sol. Let G be a group and O(G) = p , a prime number.
Let H be a subgroup of G.
Then by Lagrange’s theorem,
O(H) divides O(G). (i.e.) O(H) divides p.
As p is a prime number and O(H)/p , either O(H) = p (or) O(H) = 1.
If O(H) = p, then H = G and if O(H) = 1, then H = {e}. Thus if H is a subgroup of G,
then either H = G or H = {e}. Hence G has no proper (nontrivial) subgroup.
27. Every group of prime order is cyclic ( and hence abelian).
Sol. Let G be a group with O(G) = p, a prime number.
Let a  e  G and H be the cyclic subgroup of G generated by a.
By Lagrange’s theorem, O(H) / O(G)
(i.e.) O(H) / p
So O(H) = 1 or p.
Since O(H)  1, ( as a  e and a,e  H, O(H)  2) we have O(H) = p. So G = H.
 G is a cyclic group and hence abelian.(as every cyclic group is abelian).
28. Define Semigroup, monoid and group homomorphism.
Sol. Semigroup homomorphism
Let (S,  ) and (T,  ) be any two semigroups.
A mapping h : S  T such that for any a,b  S,
h(a  b) = h(a)  h(b) is called semigroup homomorphism.
Monoid homomorphism
Let (M,  , em ) and (N,  ,en ) be any two monoids.
A mapping h : M  N such that for any a,b  M,
h(a  b) = h(a)  h(b) and h(em) = en is called monoid homomorphism.
Group homomorphism
Let (G,  ) and (H,  ) be two groups.
A mapping f : G  H is called group homomorphism if for any a,b  G,
f(a  b) = f(a)  f(b) and f(eG) = eH, f(a–1) = [f(a)] –1
29. What do you call a homomorphism of a semigroup into itself?
Sol. A homomorphism of a semigroup into itself is called semigroup endomorphism.
30. Prove that monoid homomorphism preserves invertibility.
Sol. Let g : (M,  , em )  (N,  ,en ) be a monoid homomorphism
Now g(a  a-1) = g(em) = en = g(a)  g(a-1)
g(a-1  a) = g(em) = en = g(a-1)  g(a)
 g(a-1) = [g(a)]-1.
31. Define Kernel of a homomorphism.
Sol. Let f : G  G′ be a group homomorphism then the kernel of f (or) Ker(f) is defined as
Ker(f) = { x  G / f( x ) = e′ , e′ is the identity of G′}.
32. Define a ring and give an example.
Sol. An algebraic system (R , +, . ) is said to be a ring if + and . are binary operations on R
satisfying the following properties:
i) (R, +) is an algebraic group.
ii) (R, . ) is a semigroup.
iii) The operation . is distributive over +,
(i.e.) for a,b,c  R, a.(b + c) = a.b + a.c
and (a + b).c = a.c + b.c
Example : The set of all integers Z, the set of all real numbers R are rings under the
usual addition and usual multiplication.
33. When an element in a ring is said to be zero divisor? Give an example of a ring without
zero divisors.
Sol. An element ‘a’ in a ring (R, +, .) is said to be zero divisor if a  0 and b  0 in R
such that a.b = 0
Example : (Z5 , +5 , .5 ) where p is any prime number.
34. Define integral domain and field with an example.

Sol. Integral domain: A commutative ring with identity and without non zero zero divisors is
called an integral domain.
Example : The ring Z of all integers is an integral domain.
Field: If (R, +, .) is a commutative ring with atleast two elements and if (R-{0}, . ) is a
group, then the ring R is called a field.
Example : i) The ring R of real numbers is field.
ii) The ring (Z7 , +7 , .7 ) is a field.
35. If S denotes the set of positive integers  100, for x,y  S, define x  y = min{x,y}.
Verify whether (S,  ) is a monoid assuming that  is associative.
Sol. 100 is the identity element in (S,  ), since x  100 = min{x,100} = x since x  100 for all
x  S. Hence (S,  ) is a monoid.
36. If H is a subgroup of the group G, among the right cosets of H in G, Prove that there is
only one subgroup viz., H.
Sol. Let Ha be a right coset of H in G where a  G. If Ha is a subgroup of G, then e  Ha.
So e  Ha  He = Ha
 H = Ha.
37. Define sub semi-group with an example.

Sol. If (S,  ) is a semi-group and T  S is closed under the operation  , then (T,  ) is called
a sub semi-group of (S,  ).
For the semi-group (N, +), the set of all even positive integers is a sub semi-group (E, +)
of (N, +).
38. In the group {2,4,6,8} under multiplication modulo 10, what is the identity element?
Sol. ×10 2 4 6 8
2 4 8 2 6
4 8 6 4 2
6 2 4 6 8
8 6 2 8 4
The identity element is 6.
39. In the group {1,5,7,11} under multiplication modulo 12, what is the inverse of 5?
Sol.
×12 1 5 7 11
1 1 5 7 11
5 5 1 11 7
7 7 11 1 5
11 11 7 5 1
The identity element is 1. Hence the inverse of 5 is 5 itself.
40. Give an example of a commutative ring without identity.

Sol. The set of even integers under usual addition and multiplication.
41. Find a subgroup of order two of the group (Z8, +8).

Sol. Z8 = { [0], [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6], [7] }
If H is a subgroup of z8, then O(H) divides 8. Hence O(H) = 1, 2, 4 or 8.
O(H) = 2  H = { [0], [x] } and [2x] = [0]  x = 4.
 H = { [0], [4] }.
42. Show that semigroup homomorphism preserves the property of idempotency.
Sol. Let h: (S,  )  (T,  ) be a semigroup homomorphism.
x is idempotent element in S.  x  x  x
Now, h(x  x) = h(x)  h(x)
i.e. h(x) = h(x)  h(x)
 Idempotency is preserved.
43. Find the identity element of the set of integers with the binary operation defined by
a  b = a+b – ab,  a,b  Z.
Sol. If e is the identity element then
ae = a
(i.e) a+e – ae = a
e(1–a) = 0
 e = 0.
ab
44. Determine whether  defined by a  b = on the set N is a binary operation.
ab
1 2 3
Sol. 1 2 =  N
1.2 2
  is not a binary operation on N.
45. If the binary operation defined as a  b =
ab
 a,b  R where R is the set of nonzero
2
real numbers, find the inverse of a in R.
Sol. If e is the identity element then
ae = a
ae
= a  e = 2.
2
If a  is the inverse of a in R then
a  a = e
aa 
=2
2
4
a =
a
 4 is the inverse of a.
a
46. Let x  y = lcm(x,y), where  is an operation on the set of positive integers which are
greater than zero. Show that  is commutative and associative.
Sol. Clearly x  y = lcm(x,y)
= lcm(y,x)
= y x
Thus  is commutative.
Also (x  y)  z = lcm[(x  y),z]
= lcm [lcm(x,y),z]
= lcm [x, lcm(y,z)]
= lcm [x, (y  z)]
= x  (y  z)
Thus  is associative.
47. Define transposition with an example.

Sol. A permutation p is said to be a transposition if p interchanges two numbers and leaves the
other fixed. (or) A cycle of length 2 is called a transposition.
1 2 3 4 5
For example, p    is a transposition.
1 2 4 3 5
In the above example, ( 3 4 ) is a cycle of length 2.
1 2 3 4 5 6 
48. Define odd and even permutation. Test whether p    is odd or even
 2 1 4 6 3 5
permutation.
Sol. A permutation is said to be even or odd permutation if p can be expressed as the product of
even or odd number of transpositions respectively.
1 2 3 4 5 6 
p 
 2 1 4 6 3 5
= (1 2) (3 4 6 5)
= (1 2) (3 4) (3 6) (3 5)
= a product of four(even) transpositions
 p is an even permutation.
49. What is meant by ring with unity?
Sol. If (R, . ) is a monoid, then the ring (R, +, × ) is called a ring with identity or unity.
 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
50. If f    , g    find f–1gf and gfg–1
 2 3 4 1   3 1 4 2 
1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4
Sol. f 1    , g 1   
4 1 2 3  2 4 1 3 
1 2 3 4
g  f   
1 4 2 3 
1 2 3 4
f 1 g f  f 1  g  f   
4 3 1 2 
1 2 3 4
g f g 1  g  f  g 1   
4 3 1 2 
51. Define one to one.

Sol. A mapping f : A  B is called one to one, if distinct elements of A are mapped into distinct
elements of B.
In other words, f is one to one if f(x1) = f(x2) then x1 = x2
52. Define onto.

Sol. A mapping f : A  B is called onto, if every element of B has atleast one preimage in A.
53. Define bijection (or) one to one onto

Sol. A mapping f : A  B is called one to one onto if it is both one to one and onto. Such a
mapping is also called a one to one correspondence between A and B.
54. Define composition of function.

Sol. Let f : A  B and g : B  C be two functions. Then the composition of f and g is defined
by g  f : A  C such that ( g  f )(x) = g(f(x)) for all x  A .
PART – B
1. Show that the set of all non-zero real numbers is an abelian group under  defined by
ab
a b = .
2
Sol. Let R be the set of all non-zero real numbers.
For any a,b  R, a  b = R
ab
2
 R is closed under  .
Let a,b,c  R
bc abc
a  (b  c) = a  =
2 4
ab abc
and (a  b)  c = c =
2 4
 R is associative under  .
If e is the identity element then a  e = a
ae
 = a  e = 2.
2
 2 is the identity element.
If a’ is the inverse of a then a  a’ = e
aa  4
 = 2  a 
2 a
 Inverse of a is 4
a
ab ba ab
Finally, a  b = and b  a = 
2 2 2
 Commutative property is satisfied.
Hence R is an abelian group under  .
 a b
2. Prove that the set of all non-singular matrices   forms an abelian group with
 b a
respect to matrix multiplication.
 a b
Sol. Let G be the set of all matrices of the form   with a 2  b 2  0.
  b a 
 a b  c d 
Let   ,    G
 b a  d c 
 a b  c d   ac  bd ad  bc 
Then     =    G with (a 2  b 2 )(c 2  d 2 )  0.
  b a   d c    ( ad  bc ) ac  bd 
 G is closed.
Also matrix multiplication is associative.
 1 0
Let    G
 0 1
 a b   1 0  1 0  a b   a b
Now     =     =  
  b a   0 1  0 1   b a   b a
  1 0
   G is the identity element.
 0 1
 c d  a b
Let   be the inverse of  
 d c   b a
 a b  c d  1 0
Now     =  
 b a  d c  0 1 
 ac  bd ad  bc   1 0
  =  
  (ad  bc) ac  bd   0 1
Comparing we get, ac–bd = 1
and bc+ad = 0
a b
By solving, we get c  2 ,d   2
a b 2
a  b2
 a b 
  a b
The inverse of 
 2
 is  a  b2 a  b2 
2
a 
 b a  2
b

a  b2 a2  b2 
 G is a group.
 a b  c d  ac  bd ad  bc 
Now     =  
 b a  d c   (ad  bc) ac  bd 
 c d  a b  ac  bd ad  bc 
and     =  
 d c   b a   (ad  bc) ac  bd 
Commutative property is satisfied.
Hence G is an abelian group.
3. If S is the set of all ordered pairs (a,b) of real numbers with the binary operation 
defined by (a,b)  (c,d) = (a+c, b+d) where a,b,c,d are real, Prove that (S,  ) is a
commutative group.
Sol. For all a,b,c,d  S, (a,b)  (c,d) = (a+c, b+d)  S
 (S,  ) is closed.
{(a,b)  (c,d)}  (e,f) = (a+c, b+d)  (e,f)
= { (a+c)+e, (b+d)+f }
= { a+(c+e), b+(d+f) }
= (a,b)  (c+e, d+f)
= (a,b)  { (c,d)  (e,f) }
 (S,  ) is associative.
Let (e1, e2) be the identity element of (S,  ).
For any (a,b)  S, (a,b)  ( e1, e2) = (a,b)
 (a+e1, b+e2) = (a,b)
 a+e1 = a, b+e2 = b  e1 = 0, e2 = 0
 (0,0) is the identity element of (S,  )
Let the inverse of (a,b) be (c,d), if it exists.
Then (a,b)  (c,d) = (0,0)
 (a+c, b+d) = (0,0)
 a+c = 0, b+d = 0  c = – a, d = –b
 The inverse of (a,b) is (–a, –b)
Hence (S,  ) is a group.
Also (a,b)  (c,d) = (a+c, b+d)
(c,d)  (a,b) = (c+a, d+b) = (a+c, b+d)
Hence (S,  ) is a commutative group.
4. Show that the set N of natural numbers is a semigroup under the operation
x  y = max(x,y). Is it a monoid?
Sol. Let N = {1,2,3,……} be the set of natural numbers.
Clearly (N,  ) is closed because x  y = max(x,y)  N.
Now, (x  y)  z = max{x  y, z}
= max{max(x,y), z}
= max{x, max(y,z)}
= max{x, y  z}
= x  (y  z)
  is associative
Hence (N,  ) is a semigroup.
If e is the identity element then a  e = a
 max(a,e) = a for all a  N.
 e = 0, but 0  N.
Hence (N,  ) is not a monoid.
5. Determine whether H = {0,5,10} and K = {0,4,8,12} are subgroups of a group {Z15, +15}.
Sol. For H For K
+15 0 5 10 +15 0 4 8 12
0 0 5 10 0 0 4 8 12
5 5 10 0 4 4 8 12 1
10 10 0 5 8 8 12 1 5
12 12 1 5 9
Clearly H is closed.
0 is the identity element.
The inverse of 5 and 10 are 10 and 5 respectively.
Hence H is a subgroup.
Here K is not a subgroup since K is not closed.
6. If Z6 is the set of equivalence classes generated by the equivalence relation “congruence

modulo 6”, prove that {Z6, ×6} is a monoid where the operation ×6 on Z6 is defined as [j]
×6 [k] = [(j×k) (mod 6)], for any [j], [k]  Z6. Which elements of the monoid are
invertible?
Sol. ×6 [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]
[0] 0 0 0 0 0 0
[1] 0 1 2 3 4 5
[2] 0 2 4 0 2 4
[3] 0 3 0 3 0 3
[4] 0 4 2 0 4 2
[5] 0 5 4 3 2 1
From the above table, it is clear that ×6 is closed and also ×6 is associative.
From the 2nd row and the 2nd column, we see that [1] is the identity element
of [Z6, ×6].
Hence { Z6, ×6 } is a monoid.
From the table we see that [1] ×6 [1] = [1] and [5] ×6 [5] = [1]
 The element [1] and [5] alone are invertible and their inverses are
[1] and [5] respectively.
7. Let S be a non-empty set and P(S) denote the power set of S. Verify whether
( P(S), ∩) is a group.
Sol. Intersection of any two subsets of S belongs to S. Hence ∩ is closed.
For any three subsets in S, ∩ is associative.
If A is any subset of S, then A∩S = S∩A = A.
 S is the identity element for the operation ∩.
Hence ( P(S), ∩) is a monoid with identity S.
Let A  P(S). We have to find B  P(S) such that A∩B = S. This is possible if and only if
A = S and B = S. Hence S is the only element of P(S) having inverse.
 Inverse does not exists for any element of P(S) except S.
Hence ( P(S), ∩) is not a group.
8. Prove that every group of order 3 is cyclic ( so is abelian).
Proof. Let G = {e,a,b} be given group of order 3.
Claim : G is cyclic.
Since G is a group, we have ab  G by closure law.
 ab = e (or) ab = a (or) ab = b.
If ab = a then b = e.
If ab = b then a = e.
Hence ab = e.
Also a2  G
 a2 = e (or) a2 = a (or) a2 = b.
a2 = e
 a2 = ab
 a = b, which is a contradiction.
Also a2  a.
 The only possibility a2 = b.
Thus G = {e ,a , a2 }
But a3 = a.a2= ab = e.
 G = {a, a2, a3 = e }.
Hence G is a cyclic group whose generator is ‘a’.
Hence G is abelian. ( as every cyclic group is abelian).
9. Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
Proof. Let G be a cyclic group generated by a.
(i.e.) G = {an / n  Z}.
We have to prove that H is a cyclic group.
Since H is a subgroup of G, the element of H are integral powers of a.
If as  H then a–s  H ( since H is a subgroup )
Therefore H contains elements which are positive as well as negative integral powers of a.
Let m be the least positive integer such that am  H.
Then we shall prove that H is a cyclic group generated by am.
Let at be any arbitrary element of H. By division algorithm, there exists integers q and r
such that t = mq + r where 0  r < m. [either r = 0 (or) 0 < r < m ]
at = amq+r
= amq.ar
ar = at a–mq
ar = at-mq
Since am  H  amq  H
 at, amq  H  at a–mq  H
 at-mq  H
 ar  H
If r  0, then r < m and ar  H contradicts the choice of m.

r = 0
Hence t = mq
at = amq = (am)q
Thus at  H is an integral powers of am.
Hence H is a cyclic group generated by am.
10. Let G be a finite group generated by an element a  G. If G is of order n then an = e

and G = { a, a2, a3,…..,an = e} where n is the least positive integer for which an = e.
Proof. Given O(G) = n
Claim : an = e
Suppose that am = e , m < n.
Since G is cyclic, any element of G can be written as ak for some k  Z.
By division algorithm,
k = mq + r, where 0  r < m.
ak = amq+r
= amq ar
= (am)q ar
= eq ar
= e. ar
= ar
Hence every element ak  G can be expressed as ar for some r, 0  r < m.
 G = { a, a2, a3,…..,am-1, e}
(i.e.) O(G) = m < n , which is a contradiction. [since O(G) = n ]
Hence an = e.
Also a, a2, a3,…..,an are all distinct where an = e.
For this, suppose ai = aj for i < j  n
ai a-j = aj a-j
ai-j = e where i–j  n, which is the contradiction.
Hence ai  aj for i–j  n.
 G = { a, a2, a3,…..,an-1, e}.
11. Show that for any commutative monoid (M,  ), the set of idempotent
elements of M forms a submonoid.
Proof. Let (M,  ) be a commutative monoid and S be the set of idempotent elements.
Claim : S is a submonoid of M.
Clearly S  M.
Since the identity element e  M, e  e = e which is an idempotent element.
Hence e  S and S  
Let a,b  S (i.e.) a and b are idempotent elements.
(i.e.) a  a = a and b  b = b.
Now, (a  b)  (a  b) = a  (b  a)  b
= a  (a  b)  b
= (a  a)  (b  b)
= a b
 a  b is an idempotent element which belongs to S.
(i.e.) S is closed under 
Also S is associative ( since S  M) and e  S.
Hence (S,  ) is a submonoid of (M,  ).
12. A non empty subset H of the group G is a subgroup of G iff

i) a,b  H  a  b  H
ii) a  H  a-1  H
Proof. Assume H is a subgroup of G.
Since H is a subgroup of G, it must be closed under multiplication.
 a,b H  a  b  H
Since H is a subgroup of G, each element of H must posses inverse.
 a H  a -1
 H.
Conversely, assume that i) a,b  H  a  b  H
ii) a  H  a-1  H
To prove H is a subgroup of G.
From the given condition, H is closed and H has inverse.
Since associative property holds in G, it holds in H.
Since a  H, a-1  H [ from (ii) ]
Further a  H, a-1  H  a  a-1  H [ from (i) ]
 e H
 Identity exists in H.
Hence H is a subgroup of G.
13. Let G be a multiplicative group and H is a non empty subset of G. Show

that H is a subgroup of G iff a  b-1  H for every a,b  H.
Proof. Suppose H is a subgroup of G and let a,b  H.
Claim : a  b-1  H
Since H is a subgroup, b  H  b-1  H
 a  H, b-1  H  a  b-1  H ( by closure property of H).
Conversely, assume that H is a non empty subset of a group G and
a  H, b  H  a  b-1  H.
Claim : H is a subgroup of G.
i) Replacing b by a in the given condition a  b-1  H, we
get a  a-1  H
 e H
Thus identity exists in H.
ii) Replacing a by e in the given condition a  b-1  H,
we get e  b-1  H
 b-1  H
Thus inverse exists in H.
iii) Let a,b  H  a, b-1  H [ by (ii) ]
 a  ( b-1)-1  H
 a b H
Thus closure law is true in H.
iv) Since associative property holds in G, it holds in H.
 H is a subgroup of G.
14. Let H and K be subgroups of G. Then H  K is a subgroup of G iff either
H  K or K  H.
Proof. Let H and K be subgroups of G.
Let H  K be a subgroup of G. Assume that H  K and K  H.
Let a  K – H [(i.e.) a  K and a  H ]
and b  H – K [(i.e.) b  H and b  K ]
Thus a ,b  H  K and is a subgroup.
 ab  H  K.
If ab  H , b  H  (ab)b-1  H
 a  H , which is a contradiction.
If ab  K , a  K  a-1(ab)  K
 b  K , which is a contradiction.
 If H  K is a subgroup then either H  K or K  H.
Conversely, if H  K then H  K = K is a subgroup of G.
Similarly, if K  H then H  K = H is a subgroup of G.
15. Let G be a group and a  G. Show that the subset { axa–1 : a  G} of G is a

subgroup of G.
Sol. Let axa–1 and aya–1  H.
Consider, (axa–1 )  (aya–1 ) –1 = axa–1  (ay–1a–1)
= ax(a–1  a)y–1a–1
= ax e y–1a–1
= a(xy–1 ) a–1
 H [ as xy–1  G, G being a group ]
Hence the subset { axa–1 : a  G} is a subgroup of G.
16. If H is a subgroup of G such that x2  H for every x  G, prove that H is a

normal subgroup of G.
Sol. For any a  G and h  H, we have a  h  G, by closure property
 (a  h)2  H ( by given condition ) ----------- (1)
Also since a–1  G, (a–1)2 = a– 2  H ( by given condition)
Since H is a subgroup and h–1, a– 2  H, we have h–1  a–2  H ( by closure law)
From (1) and (2), we have
(a  h)2  h–1  a–2  H
(2)
(a  h)  (a  h)  h–1  a–2  H
a  h  a  (h  h–1)  a–2  H
a  h  a  e  a–2  H
a  h  a  a–2  H
a  h  a–1  H
(i.e.) a–1  h  a  H ( replacing a by a–1)
 H is a normal subgroup.
17. Prove that there is a one to one correspondence between any two right (left)
cosets of H in G where a,b  G.
Proof. Let Ha and Hb be two right cosets of H in G.
If H = { h1, h2, …….},
then Ha = { h1a, h2a, …….}
Hb = { h1b, h2b, …….}
We define a map f : Ha  Hb by f(ha) = hb for all h  H.
Now, f(h1a) = f(h2a)
 h1b = h2b
 h1 = h2
 h1a = h2a
 f is one to one. Clearly f is onto.
Hence f is a bijection map.
18. Any two right (left) cosets of H in G are either disjoint or identical.
Proof. Let Ha and Hb be two right cosets of a subgroup H of a group G.
For a,b  G we have to prove that either Ha  Hb =  (or) Ha = Hb.
Suppose that Ha  Hb  
Then there exists an element x  Ha  Hb.
 x  Ha and x  Hb
 x = h1a and x = h2b for h1, h2  H
 h1a = h2b
 h1-1(h1a) = h1-1(h2b)
 a = (h1-1h2) b
 a = h3b where h3 = h1-1h2  H
Now, Ha = H(h3b)
= (Hh3)(Hb)
= (H)(Hb) [ since h3  H iff Hh3 = H ]
= Hb
(i.e.) Ha = Hb.
19. State and prove Lagrange’s theorem.
If G is a finite group and H is a subgroup of G, then O(H) divides O(G).
Proof. Since G is a finite group, O(G) = n.
Let H be the subgroup of G, therefore H is also finite. (i.e.) O(H) = m (m  n)
We must prove that m is the divisor of n.
n
(i.e.)  k where k is an integer.
m
Let H = {h1, h2, …..hm} are the m members of H.
For a  G, Ha is the right coset of H in G.
 Ha = { h1a, h2a, …..hma}.
Since there is a one to one correspondence between Ha and H, we have
O(Ha) = O(H) = m.
Since we know that any two right cosets of H in G are either disjoint (or) identical,
the number of distinct right cosets of H in G will be finite, say k.
The union of these k distinct right cosets of H in G is equal to G.
Hence if Ha1, Ha2, ……Hak are the distinct right cosets of H in G, then
G = Ha1  Ha2  Ha3  ……  Hak
O(G) = O(Ha1) + O(Ha2) + …….. +O(Hak)
n = m + m + ……..+ m (k times)
n = km
n
k
m
O(G )
k
O( H )
Hence O(H) is the divisor of O(G).
20. The order of every element of a finite group G is a divisor of the order of the group.
Proof. Since G is finite, O(G) = n and O(a) = m.
Let H = {ap , p  Z} be a cyclic subgroup generated by a.
Since O(a) = m, then H will have m elements.  O(H) = O(a) = m
By Lagrange’s theorem, O(H) divides O(G)
(i.e.) O(a) divides O(G).
21. If G is a finite group and a  G then aO(G) = e.
Proof. Let O(G) = n and O(a) = m then am = e.
Since the order of an element divides the order of the group, we get n = km.
Now, aO(G) = an = akm
= (am)k
= ek
= e.
22. Find all the non-trivial subgroups of (Z6, +6)

Sol. Z6 = { [0], [1], [2], [3], [4], [5] }
If H is a subgroup of z6, then O(H) divides 6.
Hence O(H) = 1, 2, 3 or 6.
O(H) = 1  H = { [0] }
O(H) = 6  H = Z6
O(H) = 2  H = { [0], [x] } and [2x] = 0  x = 3.
 H = { [0], [3] }.
O(H) = 3  H = { [0], [x], [2x] }and [3x] = 0  x = 2.
 H = { [0], [2], [4] }.
23. Show that the set of inverses of a left coset is a right coset.
Sol. We have to show that (aH)–1 = Ha–1.
Let aH be a left coset of H in G, where a  G.
If h  H, then ah  aH. So (ah) –1  (aH) –1.
Since H is a subgroup of G and h  H then h–1  H.
Hence h–1a–1  Ha–1
(ah) –1  Ha–1.
(i.e.) the inverse of every element of aH belongs to the right coset Ha–1.
 (aH) –1  Ha–1 ---------(1)
Now let ha–1  Ha–1
Then ha–1 = (h–1) –1a–1 = (ah–1) –1  (aH) –1, since h–1  H.
(i.e.) every element of Ha–1 belongs to the set of inverses of the element of aH.
 Ha–1  (aH) –1 ---------(2)
From (1) and (2), it follows that (aH)–1 = Ha–1.
24. Show that left coset relation is an equivalence relation.

Sol. The left coset relation R defined by, for a,b  G, aH R bH iff ab–1  H.
i) Let a  G, then aa–1 = e  H
 aH R aH
 The relation is reflexive.
ii) Let aH R bH then ab–1  H
 (ab–1)–1  H
 ba–1  H
 bH R aH
 The relation is symmetric.
iii) Let aH R bH and bH R cH then ab–1  H and bc–1  H
 (ab–1) (bc–1)  H
 a(bb–1) c–1  H
 ac–1  H
 aH R cH
 The relation is transitive.
Hence the left coset relation is an equivalence relation.
25. If f : G  G is a group homomorphism then

i) Let e be the identity of (G,) then f(e) = e where e be the identity of
( G , ) (or) Group homomorphism preserves identity.
ii) For any a  G, f(a-1) = [f(a)]-1 (or) Group homomorphism preserves inverse.
iii) f(G) is a subgroup of G  (or) Group homomorphism preserves subgroup.
Proof. For any a,b  G, we have
f(a  b) = f(a)  f(b).
i) Since e is the identity of G, we have

a e = a
f(a  e) = f(a)
f(a)  f(e) = f(a)
f(a)  f(e) = f(a)  e [since a  G, f(a)  G 
 f(e) = e f(a)  e = f(a)]
ii) For any a  G, a-1  G.

a  a-1 = e
f(a  a-1) = f(e)
f(a)  f(a-1) = f(e) = e
and a-1  a = e
f(a-1  a) = f(e)
f(a-1)  f(a) = f(e) = e
 f(a)  f(a ) = f(a-1)  f(a) = e .
-1
Hence f(a-1) = [f(a)]-1 for all a  G.

iii) Let f(G) = {f(x) / x  G}
then f(G) is a non empty subset of G  .
Let a  , b   f(G)
We have f(a) = a  , f(b) = b  for a,b  G.
 a   ( b  ) = f(a)  [f(b)]
-1 -1
= f(a)  f(b-1)
= f(a  b-1)  f(G).
 For any a  , b   f(G)  a   ( b )-1  f(G).
Hence f(G) is a subgroup of G  .
26. Kernel of a homomorphism f from a group (G,) to a group ( G , ) is a normal

subgroup of (G,) .
Proof. Ker(f) = {x  G / f(x) = e , e is the identity of G  }
Clearly f(e) = e [since e  G]
 e  Ker(f)
Hence Ker(f) is non empty subset of (G,) .
Let a,b  Ker(f)
 f(a) = e  and f(b) = e
Now, f(a  b-1) = f(a)  f(b-1)
= f(a)  [f(b)]-1
= e  ( e  )-1
= e  e
= e
 a  b-1  Ker(f)
Hence Ker(f) is a subgroup of (G,) .
Let g  G and k  Ker(f)
Now, f(g  k  g-1) = f(g)  f(k)  f(g-1)
= f(g)  e  [f(g)]-1
= f(g)  [f(g)]-1
= e
 g k g -1
 Ker(f).
Hence Ker(f) is a normal subgroup of (G,) .
27. State and prove Fundamental theorem on homomorphism of groups.

G
If f is a homomorphism of G onto G′ with kernel K, then is isomorphic to G′.
K
G
(i.e.)  G′.
K
Proof.
(G,  ) f (G′,  )
a b
x
K e′
y
z f(a)
c f(b)
g h
Ka
Kb
Kc G 
 , 
K 
Given f : G  G′ is a homomorphism with kernel K, so that K is a normal subgroup of G.

 G′, let us define a map g : G  such that g(a) = Ka , a  G.
G G
To prove
K K
Now we define a map h :  G′ such that h(Ka) = f(a).
G
K
To prove h is an isomorphism, first we shall show that the mapping h is well defined.
(i.e.) for any a,b  G, Ka = Kb  h(Ka) = h(Kb).
We have Ka = Kb
 a  b-1  K Ka=Kb
 f(a  b ) = e′
-1 K a b–1 = K b b–1
K a b–1 = K
 f(a)  f(b-1) = e′ a b–1  K
 f(a)  [f(b)]  f(b) = e′  f(b)
-1
 f(a)  e′ = e′  f(b)
 f(a) = f(b)
 h(Ka) = h(Kb)
 h is well defined.
Claim : h is a homomorphism
Let Ka, Kb 
G
K
Now, h(Ka  Kb) = h[K(a  b)]
= f(a  b)
= f(a)  f(b)
= h(Ka)  h(Kb)
 h is a homomorphism.
Claim : h is one to one
Let h(Ka) = h(Kb)
 f(a) = f(b)
 f(a)  f(b-1) = f(b)  f(b-1)
 f(a  b-1) = f(b  b-1) = f(e) = e′
 f(a  b-1) = e′
 a  b-1  K
 Ka = Kb.
 h is one to one.
Claim : h is onto
Let y be an element of G′. Since f is onto, there exists an element a  G such that f(a) = y.
By definition, h(Ka) = f(a)
 h(Ka) = y.
Thus h is onto.
G
Hence h is an isomorphism of onto G′.
K
(i.e.)
G
 G′.
K
28. Let (S,  ), (T,  ) and (V,  ) be semigroups and f : S  T and g :T  V be semigroup
homomorphism. Then g  f : S  V is a semigroup homomorphism from (S,  ) to (V,  ).
Proof. Let a,b  S.
Since f : S  T is a semigroup homomorphism,then
f(a  b) = f(a)  f(b)
where f(a), f(b)  (T,  ).
Since g : T  V is a semigroup homomorphism, then for any f(a), f(b)  T,
g[f(a)  f(b)] = g(f(a))  g(f(b))
Now consider the composition g  f : S  V
(g  f) (a  b) = g[f(a  b)]
= g[f(a)  f(b)]
= g(f(a))  g(f(b))
= (g  f )(a)  (g  f )(b).
 g  f : S  V is a semigroup homomorphism.
29. Show that the mapping g from the algebraic system (S, +) to the system (T, ×) defined
by g(a) = 3a, where S is the set of all rational numbers under addition + and T is the set
of non-zero real numbers under multiplication operation ×, is a homomorphism but
not an isomorphism.
Sol. Let g(a) = 3a for any a  S
Let a,b  S
g(a + b) = 3a+b = 3a. 3b = g(a).g(b)
 g is an homomorphism.
Let g(a) = g(b)
Then 3a = 3b
 a = b.
 g is one-to-one.
Range of g has no negative numbers (For negative numbers there is no pre-image)
 g is not onto.
Hence g is not an isomorphism.
30. Let G be a group and a  G. Show that the map f : G  G defined by f(x) = axa–1 for all
x  G is an isomorphism.
Sol. If x,y  G then f(x) f(y) = (axa–1)( aya–1)
= a x (a–1a) ya–1
= a x ey a–1
= a(xy)a–1
= f(xy)
 f is a homomorphism.
If f(x) = f(y)
then axa–1 = aya–1
xa–1 = ya–1
x = y.
 f is one-to-one.
We have f(x) = axa–1

(i.e.) y = axa–1
a–1ya = x
x = a–1ya  G for all y  G.
 f is onto.
Hence f is an isomorphism.
31. If S = N×N, the set of ordered pairs of positive integers with the operation  defined
a
by (a,b)  (c,d) = (ad + bc, bd) and if f : (S,  )  (Q, +) is defined by f (a, b)  , show
b
that f is a semi-group homomorphism.
Sol. Given (a,b)  (c,d) = (ad + bc, bd)  S
(i.e) S is closed.
{(a,b)  (c,d)}  (e,f ) = (ad + bc, bd)  (e,f )
= {(ad + bc)f + bde, bdf}
= (adf + bcf + bde, bdf )
(a,b)  {(c,d)  (e,f )} = (a,b)  (cf + de, df )
= {adf + b(cf + de), bdf}
= (adf + bcf + bde, bdf )
S is associative. Hence S is a semi-group.
Now, f ((a, b)  (c, d ))  f (ad  bc, bd )
ad  bc

bd
a c
 
b d
 f ( a , b )  f (c, d )
 f is a semi-group homomorphism.
32. Define even and odd permutation. Show that the permutations
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 
f   and g    are respectively even and odd.
2 5 7 8 6 1 4 3  4 3 1 2
Sol. Even permutation - product of an even number of transpositions.
Odd permutation - product of an odd number of transpositions.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
f  
2 5 7 8 6 1 4 3
= (1 2 5 6) (3 7 4 8)
= (1 2) (1 5) (1 6) (3 7) (3 4) (3 8)
= product of an even number of transpositions.
Hence f is even permutation.
1 2 3 4 
g 
 4 3 1 2
= (1 4 2 3)
= (1 4) (1 2) (1 3)
= product of an odd number of transpositions.
Hence g is odd permutation.
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
33. If f    and h  5 2 4 3 1 are permutations on the set
 2 4 5 1 3  
A = {1,2,3,4,5} find a permutation g on A such that f  g  h  f .
1
Sol. g  f  h  f .
1 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 
f   , h f  
4 1 5 2 3  2 3 1 5 4
1
g  f h f
1 2 3 4 5
 
1 5 4 3 2
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
34. If f    and g    are permutations, prove that
3 2 1 4 2 3 4 1 
( g  f ) 1  f 1  g 1 .
1 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Sol. f    , g 1   
3 2 1 4 4 1 2 3 
 1 2 3 4
f 1  g 1   
 4 3 2 1
 1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4
g  f    then ( g  f ) 1   
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
 (g  f ) 1
 f 1  g 1
35. Show that the set of all permutations of three distinct elements with right
composition of permutation is a permutation group.
Sol. Consider the set S = {1,2,3}
Then there are 3! = 6 possible permutations.
Let S3 = { p1, p2, p3, p4, p5, p6 } where
1 2 3   1 2 3  1 2 3 1 2 3 
p1    , p 2    , p 3    , p 4    ,
1 2 3   2 1 3  3 2 1 1 3 2 
 1 2 3 1 2 3
p 5    , p 6   
 2 3 1 3 1 2
Then according to right composition of permutation  ,
 1 2 3   1 2 3  1 2 3 
p3  p5           p4
 3 2 1   2 3 1   1 3 2 
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
p4  p6        p3
1 3 2   3 1 2   3 2 1 
1 2 3  1 2 3  1 2 3
p2  p5        p3
2 1 3   2 3 1   3 2 1 
 1 2 3  1 2 3   1 2 3
p3  p6           p2
 3 2 1   3 1 2  2 1 3 
 1 2 3   1 2 3  1 2 3
p6  p5           p1
 3 1 2   2 3 1  1 2 3 
Similarly we get the composition table,
 p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6
p1 p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6
p2 p2 p1 p5 p6 p3 p4
p3 p3 p6 p1 p5 p4 p2
p4 p4 p5 p6 p1 p2 p3
p5 p5 p4 p2 p3 p6 p1
p6 p6 p3 p4 p2 p1 p5
From the above table, it is clear that  is closed and associative.

p1 is the identity permutation.
The inverse of p1, p2, p3, p4, p5, p6 are p1, p2, p3, p4, p6, p5 respectively.
Hence (S3,  ) is a permutation group. This is also known as Symmetric group of degree 3.
36. State and prove Cayley’s representation theorem on permutation groups.

Sol. Statement: Every finite group of order n is isomorphic to a subgroup of the permutation
group of degree n.
Proof: Let G be the given group and A(G) be the group of all permutations of the set G.
For any a  G, define a map fa: G  G such that fa(x) = ax.
fa is well defined and one-to-one :
Let x = y
 ax = ay
 fa(x) = fa(y)
Thus fa is well defined and one-to-one.
fa is onto:
We have fa(x) = ax (i.e.) y = ax
y
 x  a 1 y  G for any y  G.
a
Thus fa is onto.
Hence fa is a permutation. (i.e.) fa  A(G).
Let K be the set of all such permutations. We can show that K is a subgroup of A(G).
Since e  G, fe  K. Thus K is non-empty.
Let fa , fb  K
Then (fa◦fb)(x) = fa (fb(x))
= fa(bx)
= abx
= fab(x)
 fa◦fb = fab  K.
Now, ( f a  f a )(x)  f a ( f a ( x))
1 1
= fa(a–1x)
= a a–1x
= ex
= fe(x)
Thus the inverse of fa is f a  K. 1
Hence K is a subgroup of A(G).

Next we will show that G is isomorphic to K.
Define a map h: G  K such that h(a) = fa.
h is well defined and one-to-one :

For any a,b  G, let a = b
 ax = bx
 fa(x) = fb(x)
 fa = fb
 h(a) = h(b)
Thus h is well defined and one-to-one.
Clearly h is onto. (Since the permutation is bijective).
h is homomorphism:
Let h(ab) = fab
= fa◦fb
= h(a)◦h(b)
Thus h is homomorphism.
Hence h is an isomorphism.
 G is isomorphic to K.
n!
37. Let A = {a1,a2,…..,an} be a finite set with n elements, n  2. There are even
2
n!
permutations and odd permutations.
2
Sol. Let An be the set of all even permutations of A, and let Bn be the set of all odd permutations.
We shall define a function f : An  Bn which we show is one to one and onto, and this will
show that An and Bn have the same number of elements.
Since n  2, we can choose a particular transposition qo of A, say that qo = (an-1 an).
We now define the function f : An  Bn by f(p) = qop, p  An.
Observe that if p  An , then p is an even permutation, so qop is an odd permutation and
thus f(p)  Bn .
Suppose that p1 and p2 are in An and f(p1) = f(p2).
Then qo p1 = qo p2
qo(qo p1) = qo(qo p2)
(qo qo) p1 = (qo qo) p2
IA p1 = IA p2
p1 = p2
 f is one to one.
Now let q  Bn then qoq  An and f(qoq) = qo(qoq)
= (qo qo)q
= IAq
=q
 f is onto.
Since f : An  Bn is one to one and onto, we conclude that An and Bn have
the same number of elements. Note that An  Bn =  . Also |An  Bn| = n!
[An  Bn = Sn , the symmetric group of degree n and | Sn | = n! ]
Now, |An  Bn| = |An| + |Bn| – |An  Bn|
n! = |An| + |An| – 0
= 2 |An|
 n!
|An| = |Bn| = .
2
38. Show that (Z7, +7, ×7) is a ring.

Sol. Z7 = {[0], [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6] }
The composition table for addition modulo 7 and multiplication modulo 7 are given in
the table below.
+7 [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6]
[0] 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
[1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 0
[2] 2 3 4 5 6 0 1
[3] 3 4 5 6 0 1 2
[4] 4 5 6 0 1 2 3
[5] 5 6 0 1 2 3 4
[6] 6 0 1 2 3 4 5
×7 [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6]
[0] 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
[1] 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
[2] 0 2 4 6 1 3 5
[3] 0 3 6 2 5 1 4
[4] 0 4 1 5 2 6 3
[5] 0 5 3 1 6 4 2
[6] 0 6 5 4 3 2 1
From the above table, we see that Z7 is closed under +7 and ×7

Clearly Z7 is associative under +7 and ×7
Here 0 and 1 are the additive and multiplicative identities of Z7.
The additive inverse of 0,1,2,3,4,5,6 are 0,6,5,4,3,2,1 respectively and the multiplicative
inverse of non-zero elements 1,2,3,4,5,6 are 1,4,5,2,3,6 respectively.
Further, if a,b,c  Z7, then we have
a ×7 (b +7 c) = (a ×7 b) +7 (a ×7 c)
and (a +7 b) ×7 c = (a ×7 c) +7 (b ×7 c)
(i.e.) ×7 is distributive over +7 in Z7.
Hence (Z7, +7, ×7) is a ring.
M.A.M COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DISCRETE MATHEMATICS UNIT - V 1
UNIT – V LATTICES & BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
PART – A
1. Give the properties of binary relation.

a) Reflexive : A relation R defined on a set A is said to be reflexive if (a,a)  R
 a  A.
b) Symmetric: A relation R defined on a set A is said to be symmetric if
(a,b)  R then (b,a)  R.
c) Antisymmetric : A relation R defined on a set A is said to be antisymmetric
if (a,b)  R and (b,a)  R then a = b.(Or) R is antisymmetric if whenever
a  b then either (a,b)  R (or) (b,a)  R.
d) Transitive : A relation R defined on a set A is said to be transitive if (a,b)  R
and (b,c)  R then (a,c)  R.
2. Define equivalence relation
A relation R on a set A called an equivalence relation if it is reflexive,
symmetric and transitive.
3. Define partial order relation
A relation R on a set A called an partial order relation if it is reflexive,
antisymmetric and transitive.
4. Define Poset (or) partially ordered set
A set P together with the partial order relation is called a Poset. If the
partial order relation is “  ” then the Poset is denoted by (P,  ).
5. Let A = {1,2,3,4,12}. If a and b  A, a  b iff a divides b. Draw the
Hasse diagram of Poset (A,  ).
Sol. 12
3
2
1
6. Draw the Hasse diagram of D20 = {1,2,4,5,10,20}.
Sol. 20
4 10
2 5
7. Obtain the partial ordering represented by the Hasse diagram.

Sol. The given Hasse diagram can be labelled as follows:

e f
d
c
a b
Then the partial ordering R represented in the Hasse diagram is

R ={(a,a),(b,b),(c,c),(d,d),(e,e),(f,f),(a,c),(a,d),(a,e),(a,f),(b,c),(b,d),(b,e),
(b,f),(c,d),(c,e),(c,f),(d,e),(d,f)}.
8. If A = {2,3}  X = {2,3,6,12,24,36}and the relation  is such that x  y
if x divides y. Find the least element and greatest element for A.
Sol. 24 36
12
2 3
There is no least element and greatest element is 6 for A.
9. Define Least Upper Bound
Sol. An element a  P is called a Least Upper Bound of B if a is an upperbound
of B and a  a whenever a  is an upperbound of B (i.e) ‘a’ precedes all
the other upperbounds of B.
10. Define Greatest Lower Bound
Sol. An element a  P is called a Greatest Lower Bound of B if a is a
lowerbound of B and a  a whenever a  is a lowerbound of B
(i.e) ‘a’ succedes all the other lowerbounds of B.
11. Define Lattice with an example.
Sol. A lattice is a partially ordered set (L,  ) in which every pair of elements
a,b  L has a greatest lower bound and a least upper bound.
Example: f
c d
12. Define chain.

Sol. Let (P,  ) be a Poset. The partial ordering “  ” is said to be totally ordered
set (or) simply ordered set (or) a chain if either x  y (or) y  x  x,y  P.
13. Define bounded lattice.

Sol. A lattice (L, , ) which has both a least element and a greatest element is
called a bounded lattice. The least element is denoted by 0 and the greatest
element is denoted by 1.
14. Prove that every finite lattice is bounded.
Sol. Consider a finite lattice L = a1 , a2 ,......an . Then the greatest element is
a1  a2  .......  an and the least element is a1  a2  ........  an . Hence
every finite lattice is bounded.
15. Given the poset (L,  ) where L = {2,3,6,12,24,36} and the relation
 is divisibility. Find the L.U.B of subset of A = {2,3,6}.
Sol. Upper bounds of A = {6,12,24,36}
LUB of A = 6.
16. Find the GLB and LUB of the set {3,9,12} if they exist, in the Poset
(z+, / ) where a/b stands for a divides b.
Sol.
9 12
3
GLB = 3 and there is no LUB.
17. In a bounded lattice (L, , ,0,1) an element b  L is called a complement
of an element a  L if a  b=0 and a  b=1.
18. Define complemented lattice.
Sol. A lattice (L, , ,0,1) is said to be a complemented lattice if every element
of L has atleast one complement.
19. Define modular lattice.
Sol. A lattice (L, , ) is said to be modular if  a,b,c  L,
a  c  a  (b  c)  (a  b)  c .
20. Define distributive lattice.
Sol. A lattice (L, , ) is said to be distributive lattice if for any a,b,c  L
a  (b  c)  (a  b)  (a  c)
a  (b  c)  (a  b)  (a  c)
21. Show that the given lattice is not distributive.

1
b1 b2 b3
0
Sol. b1  (b2  b3 )  b1 1  b1.
(b1  b2 )  (b1  b3 )  0  0  0
which shows that the given lattice is not distributive.
22. Give an example of a lattice which is modular but not distributive.

Sol. 1
a b c
0
The above lattice is called diamond lattice denoted by M5.
M5 is modular.
But a  (b  c)  a 1  a
(a  b)  (a  c)  0  0  0
 a  (b  c)  (a  b)  (a  c)
Hence M5 is not distributive.
23. The following is the Hasse diagram of a partially ordered set. Verify
whether it is a lattice.
e
c
a b
d
Sol. From the diagram a  b does not exist.
For, c and e are upperbounds of a and b, but neither precedes the other.
So a  b does not exist. Hence the given Poset is not a lattice.
24. Prove that the lattice given by the following diagram is not modular.
1
a1
a3
a2
0
Sol. a2  a1  a2  a1  a2 , a2  a1  a1.
a 2  (a 3  a1 )  a 2  0  a 2
(a 2  a 3 )  a1  1  a1  a1
 a 2  (a 3  a1 )  (a 2  a 3 )  a1 .
Hence the given lattice is not modular.
25. In a lattice (L,  ) with usual notations. Show that for any a,b,c  L,
b  c a b  a c .
Sol. For any a,b,c  L, b  c iff b  c  b
Now, (a  b)  (a  c)  a  (b  a)  c
 a  ( a  b)  c
 (a  a)  (b  c)
 a b
 a  b  a  c.
26. Obtain the Hasse disgram of (P(A3),  ) where A = {1,2,3}.

Sol. {1,2,3}
{1,2} {1,3} {2,3}
{1} {2} {3}
ф
27. Define Boolean algebra and find all the atoms in D(30).
Sol. A Boolean algebra is a complemented, distributive lattice.
D(30) = {1,2,3,5,6,10,15,30}
In D(30), the atoms are 2,3,5.
28. Is the lattice of divisors of 32 a Boolean algebra?
Sol.
32
16
8
4
2
1
The lattice D(32) is a chain and hence it is not complemented.

Therefore, D(32) is not a Boolean algebra.
29. Prove a.(a+b) = a+(a.b) in a Boolean algebra.
Sol. a.(a+b) = (a+0).(a+b) = a+(0.b) = a+0 = a.
a+(a.b) = a.1+(a.b) = a.(1+b) = a.1 = a.
Hence a.(a+b) = a+(a.b)
30. Show that in any Boolean algebra
(a.b)  (b.a)  (a  b).(a  b)
Sol. (a.b)  (b.a)  [a  (b.a)].[b  (b.a)]
 (a  b).(a  a).(b  b).(b  a)
 (a  b).1.1.(b  a)
 (a  b).(a  b)
31. In any Boolean algebra, show that
(a  b).(a  c)  a.b  ac  bc
Sol. (a  b).(a  c)  (a  b).a  (a  b).c
 a.a   b.a   a.c  b.c
 0  b.a   ac  bc
 a b  a.c  b.c
32. Prove the Boolean identity (a  b)  (a  b )  a.

Sol. (a  b)  (a  b )  [(a  b)  a]  [(a  b)  b ]
 a  [(a  b  )  (b  b  )]
 a  [(a  b  )  1]
 a  (a  b  )
=a
33. Find the value of the Boolean expression
x1 x2 ( x1 x4  x2  x3 x1 ) if x1  a, x2  1, x3  b, x4  1.
Sol. x1 x2 ( x1 x4  x2  x3 x1 )  a(a  ba )
= a.
34. In a lattice Show that a  b and c  d implies a  c  b  d .
Sol. If we can show that a  b is a lower bound of b and d, it would follow
that a  c  b  d .
Now, a  c  a  b  a  c  b
ac  c  d  ac  d
 a  c is a lower bound of b and d.
(i.e.) a  c  b  d .
35. Simplify the following Boolean expressions
(i) ( x  y) ( xy ) (ii ) ( z   x)( xy  z)( z   y)
Sol. (i) ( x  y) ( xy )  xy ( x  y )
 x y   x y 
 x y 
(ii ) ( z   x)( xy  z )( z   y )  ( z   x)( xyz   xy  0  yz )
 ( z   x)( xy  yz )
 xyz   xy  xyz  xy.( z  z  )  xy
 xy.1  xy
 xy
36. If a poset has a least element, then prove it is unique.

Sol. Let the poset be ( L,  )
If a1, a2 are two least elements in L then a1  a2, a2  a1.
By antisymmetry, a1 = a2.
So least element if exists, is always unique.
37. In the following lattice find (b1  b3 )  b2 :
1
b1 b2 b3
0
Sol. b1  b3  1.
Hence (b1  b3 )  b2  1  b2  b2
38. State any two properties of lattices.

Sol. a  a  a, a  a  a for all a  L
a  b  b  a, a  b  b  a for all a, b  L
39. Give an example of two element Boolean algebra

Sol. ( B,  ,  , ′ , 0, 1) where B = { 0,1}
40. If x, y are elements in a Boolean algebra then prove that x  y  x  y .
Sol. x  y  x  y  y
 ( x  y )  y 
 x  y   y 
 y   x  (or ) x   y 
41. Form the table of operations for the Boolean algebra ( B,  , , ′ , 0, 1),
given B = {0, 1}.
Sol. 0′ = 1, 1′ = 0.
 0 1  0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 1
42. If B is a Boolean algebra, then for a  B, a + 1 = 1, a.0 = 0

Sol. a + 1 = (a + 1).1 a.0 = a.0 + 0
= (a + 1).(a + a’) = a.0 + (a.a’)
= a + (1.a’) = a. (0 + a’)
= a + (a’.1) = a. (a’ + 0)
= a + a’ = a. a’
=1 = 0
43. Show that (X,  ) is a chain, where X = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12 } and  is the
usual less than or equal to relation.
Sol.
12
6
4
3
2
1
Hence (X,  ) is a chain.
44. Whether the pentagon lattice is modular (or) distributive.
Sol. Pentagon lattice is denoted by N5, which is given as
1
c
b
a
0
a  c  a  c  a, a  c  c.
a  (b  c)  a  0  a
( a  b)  c  1  c  c
 a  (b  c)  (a  b)  c.
Thus the pentagon lattice is not modular.
Also a  (b  c)  a  0  a
( a  b)  ( a  c )  1  c  c
 a  (b  c)  (a  b)  (a  c).
Hence the pentagon lattice is not distributive.
45. Draw the Hasse diagram of the set of all positive divisors of 36.
Sol. D36 = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36 }
36
12
18
4 6
9
2 3
1
46. Show that absorption laws are valid in a Boolean algebra.
Sol. To show that i) a.(a + b) = a ii) a + (a.b) = a
a.(a + b) = (a + 0).(a + b)
= a + (0.b)
=a+0
=a
(i.e.) a.(a + b) = a
Its dual is a + (a.b) = a
47. Draw the Hasse diagram of (X,  ) where X is the set of positive
divisors of 45 and the relation  is such that
 = {(x,y); x  A, y  A and(x divides y)}.
Sol. D45 = { 1, 3, 5, 9, 15, 45}
45
9 15
3 5
1
PART – B
1. Consider X = {2,3,6,12,24,36} and let  be the relation ‘divides’ on X.

Prove that X is a Poset and draw the Hasse diagram of (X,  ).
Sol. X = {2,3,6,12,24,36}
R ={(2,2),(3,3),(6,6),(12,12),(24,24),(36,36),(2,6),(2,12),(2,24),(2,36),
(3,6),(3,12),(3,24),(3,36),(6,12),(6,24),(6,36),(12,24),(12,36)}.
Reflexive
For all a  X, a divides a [i.e. (2,2), (3,3), (6,6)…..(36,36)  R]
  is reflexive.
Antisymmetric
When a  b then either (a,b)  R or (b,a)  R.
i.e. when 2  6 then (2,6)  R but (6,2)  R.
  is antisymmetric.
Transitive
For all a,b,c  X, if a divides b and b divides c then a divides c.
  is transitive.
Hence  is partial ordering. Thus (X,  ) is a poset.
Hasse diagram
24 36
12
2 3
2. Let S30 be the set of positive divisors of 30. If  is the relation of

divisibility, Prove that (S30,  ) is Poset. Draw the Hasse diagram of
the Poset.
Sol. S30 = {1,2,3,5,6,10,15,30}
R = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(5,5),(6,6),(10,10),(15,15),(30,30),(1,2),(1,3),(1,5),
(1,6),(1,10),(1,15),(1,30),(2,6),(2,10),(2,30),(3,6),(3,15),(3,30),
(5,10),(5,15),(5,30),(6,30),(10,30),(15,30)}.
 is reflexive, since (1,1),(2,2),…..(30,30)  R
 is antisymmetric, since when 2  10 then (2,10)  R but (10,2)  R.
 is transitive, since aRb and bRc then aRc  a,b,c  R.
So  is partial order.
Hence (S30,  ) is a poset.
Hasse diagram 30
6 10 15
2 3 5
1
3. Let N be set of all natural numbers and define m  n if n – m is a non-

negative integer. Show that (N,  ) is a poset.
Sol. For all a  N, as a – a = 0 is a non-negative integer, we have a  a
(i.e.) (a,a)  R
 The relation is reflexive.
For all a,b  N, when a ≠ b, a – b is a non-negative integer
b a
 (a,b)  R
But b – a is not a non-negative integer (i.e.)(b,a)  R
[ When 5 ≠ 2, 5 – 2 = 3 is a non-negative integer, but 2 – 5 = –3 is not a
non-negative integer ]
 The relation is antisymmetric.
For all a, b, c  N, if a  b and b  c then
b – a is a non-negative integer and c – b is a non-negative integer
 (b – a ) + (c – b ) is also a non-negative integer
 c – a is a non-negative integer
a  c
 The relation is transitive
Thus the relation  is a partial order relation.
Hence (N,  ) is a poset.
4. Let X = {2,3,4,6,12,36,48} and let R be the relation xRy if x divides y.
Draw the Hasse diagram of R.
Sol.
36 48
12
4
6
2 3
5. Let A = {1,2,3,4} and consider the relation

R = {(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(2,2),(3,2),(3,3),(4,2),(4,3),(4,4)}.
Show that R is partial ordering and draw its Hasse diagram.
Sol. R is reflexive, since (1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,4)  R.
R is antisymmetric, since when 2  4 then (4,2)  R but (2,4)  R.
R is transitive, since aRb and bRc then aRc  a,b,c  R.
So, R is partial ordering.
Hasse diagram
4
2 3
6. Show that if (S,  ) is a poset and T is a set, then the relation  on

FUN(T,S) given by f  g if f(t)  g(t)  t  T is a partial order relation.
Sol. Given f  g if f(t)  g(t)  t  T.
Let P = FUN(T,S)
Since f(t) = f(t)  t  T

Thus  on P is reflexive.
If f,g  P be such that f  g and g  f then f(t)  g(t) and g(t)  f(t)  t  T.
 f(t) = g(t)
Thus  on P is antisymmetric.
Let f,g,h  P and let f  g and g  h, then
f(t)  g(t) and g(t)  h(t)  t  T
 f(t)  h(t)  t  T.
Thus  on P is transitive. So,  is a partial order relation.
Hence (P,  ) is a poset.
7. Draw the Hasse diagram of (D24, / ) and (D30, / ) where / is the divisor
relation.
Sol. 24 30
8 12 6 10 15
4 6
2 2 3 5
3
1 1
8. Let N be the set of all natural numbers with the relation R as follows: xRy
if and only if x divides y. Show that R is a partial order relation on N.
Sol. Let N be the set of all natural numbers.
Reflexive
For all a  N, a divides a (i.e.) aRa
 R is reflexive.
Antisymmetric
For all a,b  N, whenever a  b then either (a,b)  R or (b,a)  R.
( i.e.) when 2  8 then (2,8)  R but (8,2)  R.[ 2 divides 8 but 8 does not
divide 2]
 R is antisymmetric.
Transitive
For all a,b,c  N, if a divides b and b divides c then a divides c.
 R is transitive.
Hence R is partial order relation on N.
9. Let R be a relation on a set A. Then define R–1 = {(a,b)  A×A / (b,a)  R}.
Prove that if (A,R) is poset then (A, R–1) is also a poset.
Sol. R is reflexive  (a,a)  R
 (a,a) –1  R–1
 (a,a)  R–1
 R–1 is reflexive.
R is antisymmetric  (a,b)  R and (b,a)  R then a = b

 (a,b) –1  R–1 and (b,a) –1  R–1 then a = b
 (b,a)  R–1 and (a,b)  R–1 then a = b
 R–1 is antisymmetric.
R is transitive  (a,b)  R and (b,c)  R then (a,c)  R
 (a,b) –1  R–1 and (b,c) –1  R–1 then (a,c) –1  R–1
 (b,a)  R–1 and (c,b)  R–1 then (c,a)  R–1
 R–1 is transitive
Thus the relation is a partial order relation
Hence (A, R–1) is a poset.
10. Show that every finite partial ordered set has a maximal and minimal
element.
Sol. Let (P,  ) be a finite poset.
Let ‘a’ be any element of P. If ‘a’ is not maximal, we can find an element
a1  P such that a < a1. If a1 is not maximal, we can find an element a2  P
such that a1 < a2. This argument cannot be continued indefinitely, since P
is a finite set. Thus we obtain the finite chain,
a < a1 < a2 < ……….< ak –1 < ak
which cannot be extended. Hence we cannot have ak < b for any b  P,
so ak is a maximal element of (P,  ).
Similarly, let ‘a’ be any element of P. If ‘a’ is not minimal, we can find an
element a1  P such that a > a1. If a1 is not minimal, we can find an element
a2  P such that a1 > a2. Since P is a finite set, we obtain the finite chain,
a > a1 > a2 > ……….> am –1 > am
which cannot be extended. Hence we cannot have am > b for any b  P,
so am is a minimal element of (P,  ).
11. Every chain is a lattice.
Sol. Let (X,  ) be any chain and a,b  X. We have either a  b (or) b  a.
Case(i)
Assume that a  b
Clearly b is an upper bound of a and b.
If u is any other upper bound of a and b, then we have a  u and b  u.
Thus b  u, for every upper bound u of a and b.
Hence b is the least upper bound of a and b.
(i.e) a  b  b.
Also from a  b, a is the lower bound of a and b.
If l be any other lower bound of a and b, we have l  a and l  b.
Thus l  a, for every lower bound l of a and b.
Hence a is the greatest lower bound of a and b.
(i.e) a  b  a .
Case(ii)
Assume that b  a.
Then we can prove that a  b  b, a  b  a.
Thus a  b and a  b exists for all a,b  X.
Hence (X,  ) is a ordered lattice.
12. If (L,  ) is ordered lattice then ( L,  ,  ) is an algebraic lattice.

Proof. (i) a  a = lub{a,a}
= lub{a}
=a
Its dual is a  a = a
Thus idempotent laws are true in a ordered lattice.
(ii) Let a,b  L
a  b = lub{a,b}
= lub{b,a}
= b a
Its dual is a  b = b  a
Thus commutative laws are true in a ordered lattice.
(iii) Let a,b,c  L
We have
( a  b)  c  a  b
( a  b)  c  c
Also we have a  b  a, a  b  b
 we get (a  b)  c  a  b  a
 ( a  b)  c  a
and (a  b)  c  a  b  b
 (a  b)  c  b.
As (a  b)  c  b and (a  b)  c  c , we get
(a  b)  c is a lower bound for b and c.
 (a  b)  c  b  c.
As (a  b)  c  a and (a  b)  c  b  c
we have (a  b)  c  a  (b  c) ---------------(1)
Now, a  (b  c)  a and a  (b  c)  b  c  b
 a  (b  c)  a  b
and also a  (b  c)  b  c  c
 a  (b  c)  (a  b)  c
-------------(2)
From (1) and (2) we see that
a  (b  c)  (a  b)  c
Its dual is
a  (b  c)  (a  b)  c.
Thus associative laws are true in a ordered lattice.
(iv) Let a,b  L. Then
a  a, a  a  b
 a  a  a  ( a  b)
 a  a  ( a  b)
On the otherhand, a  (a  b)  a .
By antisymmetric property, a  (a  b)  a.
Its dual is a  (a  b)  a.
Thus absorption laws are true in a ordered lattice.
Hence ( L,  ,  ) is an algebraic lattice.
13. State and prove distributive inequality in a lattice.

In any lattice the distributive inequality
i)a  (b  c)  (a  b)  (a  c)
ii )a  (b  c)  (a  b)  (a  c)
hold for any a,b,c.
Proof. i )a  b  a
a b  b  b  c
 a  b is a lower bound of a and b  c.
 a  b  a  (b  c) -----------(1)
Again a  c  a
a c c b c
 a  c is a lower bound of a and b  c
 a  c  a  (b  c) ------------(2)
(1) and (2) shows that a  (b  c) is an upper bound of a  b and a  c.
(i.e) a  (b  c)  (a  b)  (a  c)
Its dual is a  (b  c)  (a  b)  (a  c).
14. Let (L,  ) be a lattice in which  and  denote the operation of meet
and join respectively. For any a,b  L,
a  b  a  b = a  a  b = b.
Proof. First we shall prove a  b iff a  b = a
Let us assume that a  b
Since we know that a  a
a a b
But by our definition of a  b, a  b  a
a  b = a
Conversely, if a  b = a, then clearly a  b.
Hence a  b iff a  b = a.
Next to prove a  b = a iff a  b = b
Let us assume that a  b = a
By absorption law, b = b  (b  a)
= b  (a  b)
= b a
= ab
(i.e) a  b = b
Conversely, if a  b = b
By absorption law, a = a  (a  b)
= a b
(i.e) a  b = a
Hence a  b = a iff a  b = b.
15. Any chain is modular.
Proof. Let (L,  ) be a chain.
Let a,b,c  L and a  c.
As L is a chain, we have either b  c (or) c  b.
i) If b  c, then c is an upper bound of a and b.
ab  c
 (a  b)  c  a  b.
As b  c, we have b  c  b
 a  (b  c)  a  b
Thus we get a  (b  c)  (a  b)  c.
ii) If c  b, then b  c  c, b  c  b
we have a  c
acb
ab
 a  b  b, a  b  a
Now, (a  b)  c  b  c  c
and a  (b  c)  a  c  c
 a  (b  c)  (a  b)  c.
 If a  c  a  (b  c)  (a  b)  c is valid in any chain.
Hence it is a modular lattice.
16. Every chain is distributive lattice.

Sol. Let (L,  ) be a chain and a,b,c  L ,we have the following two possibilities.
i) a  b and a  c (or) ii) b  a and c  a.
Case (i) a  b and a  c
a  b c
 a  (b  c) = a ---------(1)
Since a  b and a  c
 a  b = a and a  c = a
 (a  b)  (a  c) = a  a = a ------(2)
From (1) and (2) we get
a  (b  c) = (a  b)  (a  c)
Case (ii) b  a and c  a
b c  a
 (b  c)  a = b  c
(or) a  (b  c) = b  c -------(3)
Also b  a and c  a
 b  a = b and c  a = c
 a  b = b and a  c = c
 (a  b)  (a  c) = b  c --------(4)
From (3) and (4) we get
a  (b  c) = (a  b)  (a  c)
Thus in both the cases, a  (b  c) = (a  b)  (a  c)
 L is a distributive lattice.
17. State and prove Demorgan’s law in a lattice.
If (L,  ,  ) be a complemented distributive lattice, then for any a,b  L
i)(a  b)  a   b
ii )(a  b)  a   b
Proof. If (L,  ,  ) is a complemented distributive lattice, we have the

complement of any element is unique in the distributive lattice.
Let a,b  L. Let a  , b be the complements of a and b respectively.
We have a  a  = 0, a  a  =1, b  b =0, b  b =1.
Now, (a  b)  ( a   b ) = [a  ( a   b )]  [b  ( a   b )]
= [(a  a  )  b ]  [(b  b )  a  ]
= [0  b ]  [0  a  ]
= 00
= 0 --------------(1)
and (a  b)  ( a   b ) = [(a  b)  a  ]  [(a  b)  b ]
= [b  (a  a  )]  [a  (b  b )]
= [b  1]  [a  1]
= 11
= 1 -------------(2)
From (1) and (2) we conclude that a  b and a   b are complement to
one another. Hence complement of a  b is a   b (i.e) (a  b)  a  b .
Its dual is (a  b)  a  b .
18. In a distributive lattice, if an element has a complement then this
complement is unique. (or) If L is a distributive lattice with 0 and 1, show
that each element has at most one complement.
Sol. Suppose that an element ‘a’ has two complements b and c.
Then a  b = 1, a  b = 0 and a  c = 1, a  c = 0
we have b = b  1 = b  (a  c)
= (b  a)  (b  c)
= 0  (b  c)
= (a  c)  (b  c)
= (a  b)  c
= 1c
= c.
 The complement of ‘a’ is unique.
19. Show that in a distributive lattice, cancellation law is true. Is it true that
if a distributive lattice is complemented, then we can find atleast one
element which has more than two complements? Justify your answer.
Sol. In a distributive lattice, a  b = a  c and a  b = a  c  b = c.
b  b  (b  a)  b  (a  b)
 b  (a  c)
 (b  a )  (b  c)
 ( a  b )  (c  b )
 (a  c)  (b  c)
 ( a  b)  c
 (a  c)  c
 c  (c  a )
c
No, since in a distributive and complemented lattice, complement of an
element is unique.
20. Every distributive lattice is modular.

Proof. Let (L,  ) be a distributive lattice and a,b,c  L.
We have a  (b  c) = (a  b)  (a  c)
If a  c then a  c = c.
So, a  (b  c) = (a  b)  c.
 L is modular.
21. In a distributive lattice, prove that the following are equivalent.
i )a  b  x  a  b
ii ) x  (a  x)  (b  x)  (a  b)
Sol. Let a  b  x  a  b
Now, (a  x)  (b  x)  (a  b)  [(a  x)  (b  x)]  (a  b)
 [(a  b)  x]  (a  b)
 x  ( a  b)
x
(i)  (ii)
Now, let x  (a  x)  (b  x)  (a  b)
 [(a  x)  (b  x)]  (a  b)
 [(a  b)  x]  (a  b)
 x  ( a  b)
From this we get a  b  x.
As x  (a  x)  (b  x)  (a  b)
 [(a  b)  x]  (a  b)
 [(a  b)  (a  b)]  [ x  (a  b)]
 (a  b)  [ x  (a  b)]
 ( a  b)  x
From this we get x  a  b . So we get a  b  x and x  a  b
(ii)  (i).
Hence the given two statements are equivalent.
22. Let L be a complemented distributive lattice. For a,b  L, the following
are equivalent.
i) a  b ii) a b  0 iii) a  b  1 iv) b  a.
Sol. a  b  a  b  b
 ( a  b)  b   b  b 
 (a  b)  (b  b)  0
 (a  b)  0  0
 a  b  0
(i)  (ii)
a  b   0  (a  b )   0  1
 a   (b )   1
 a  b  1
(ii)  (iii)
a   b  1  ( a   b)  b   b 
 (a   b )  (b  b )  b 
 (a   b )  0  b 
 a   b  b
 b  a 
(iii)  (iv)
b  a   a   b  b
 (a   b )  (b )
 ab  b
ab
(iv)  (i)
Hence the given four statements are equivalent.
23. In a distributive lattice, show that

(a  b)  (b  c)  (c  a)  (a  b)  (b  c)  (c  a).
Sol. (a  b)  (b  c)  (c  a)  (a  b)  [(b  c)  c]  [(b  c)  a]}
 (a  b)  {c  [a  (b  c)]}
 [(a  b)  c]  [(a  b)  {a  (b  c)}]
 [(a  b)  c]  [{(a  b)  a}  (b  c)]
 [(a  c)  (b  c)]  [a  (b  c)]
 (a  c)  (b  c)  (a  b)  (a  c)
 (a  b)  (b  c)  (c  a )
24. Show that D(30) is a Boolean algebra. Hence find all the atoms in D(30).
Sol. 30
6 10 15
2 3 5
D(30) is complemented, since every element has one complement.

(i.e) 1 and 30 are complements to each other.
2 and 15 are complements to each other.
D(30) is distributive, since it is isomorphic to {P({1,2,3}),  }.
 D(30) is a Boolean algebra.
From the Hasse diagram of D(30), it is easy to see that 2,3,5 are the only
atoms of D(30).
25. In the Boolean algebra of all divisors of 70, find all subalgebras.
Sol. D70 = {1,2,5,7,10,14,35,70}
70
10 14 35
2 5 7
The subalgebras are

{1,70}, {1,2,35,70}, {1,5,14,70}, {1,7,10,70}, {1,2,5,7,10,14,35,70}.
26. Show that in a Boolean algebra
(a.b)  a  b and (a  b)  a.b
Sol. Let a , b be the complements of a and b respectively.
Then a  a  1, a.a  0, b  b  1, b.b  0
To prove (a  b)  a.b it is enough to show that
(a  b)  (a.b)  1 and (a  b).(a.b)  0
(a  b)  (a.b)  (b  a)  (a.b)
 b  [a  (a .b )]
 b  [(a  a ).(a  b )]
 b  [1.(a  b )]
 b  a  b
 a  (b  b )
 a 1
1
(a  b).(a.b)  [(a  b).a].b
 [(a.a )  (b.a )].b 
 [0  (a .b)].b 
 a .(b.b )
 a .0
0
 (a  b)  a.b
Its dual is (a.b)  a  b
27. In any Boolean algebra, show that

a = 0  ab  ab  b.
Sol. a = 0  a  =1
ab  ab  0.b  1.b  0  b  b
Conversely, ab  ab  b.

 ab  0 and ab  b
ab  b  a  =1  a = 0
and ab  0  a = 0.
 ab  ab  b.  a = 0.
Hence a = 0  ab  ab  b.
28. In a Boolean algebra, prove that
a  b  ab  ab  0.
Sol. Let a = b
Then ab  ab  aa  aa  0  0  0
Conversely, let ab  ab  0 --------(1)
Then
(a  ab)  a b  a
a  (a .b)  a
(a  a ).(a  b)  a
1.(a  b)  a
a  b  a      ( 2)
Similarly from (1), ab  ab  b  b
ab  b  b
(a  b).(b  b)  b
(a  b).1  b
a  b  b      (3)
From (2) and (3) we get a = b.
29. For any a,b,c,d in lattice (A,  ) if a  b and c  d, then prove that
a  c  b  d and a  c  b  d .
Sol. a  b  a  c  b  c -------(1)
c  d  b  c  b  d --------(2)
From (1) and (2), a  c  b  d.
a  b  a  c  b  c --------(3)
c  d  b  c  b  d --------(4)
From (3) and (4), a  c  b  d.
30. Prove that the following are equivalent in a Boolean algebra.
i)a  b  b ii )a.b  a iii )a  b  1 iv )a.b  0
Sol. Assume a+b = b
a.b = a.(a+b) = a (by absorption law)
(i)  (ii)
Assume a.b = a
a+b = (a.b)+b = b+(b.a) = b
(ii)  (i)  (i)  (ii)
Assume a+b = b
a  b  a  (a  b)  (a  a)  b  1  b  1
(i)  (iii)
Assume
a  b  1
a  b  (a  b).1  (a  b).(a   b)  (a.a )  b  0  b  b
(iii)  (i)  (i)  (iii)
Assume
a  b  1
(a   b)  1  0
(a ).b   0
a.b   0
(iii)  (iv)
Assume
a.b   0
(a.b )  0  1
a   (b )  1
a  b  1
(iv)  (iii)  (iii)  (iv)
Hence all the four statements are equivalent.
31. Prove the involution law if L is a complemented, distributive lattice.
Sol. Let a  be the complement of a. Then by definition
a  a  0, a  a  1
Now
(a  a )  0  1
a   (a )  1
Since complement is unique, (a )  a.
32. Show that the following Boolean expressions are equivalent to one
another.
(i ) ( x  y )  ( x   z )  ( y  z )
(ii ) ( x  z )  ( x   y )  ( y  z )
(iii ) ( x  y )  ( x   z )
(iv ) ( x  z )  ( x   y )
Sol.
x y z x  y x  z y  z x  z x   y yz (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Hence (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) are all equivalent.
33. Define a modular lattice and prove that every distributive lattice is
modular, but not conversely.
Sol. A lattice (L, , ) is said to be modular if  a,b,c  L,
a  c  a  (b  c)  (a  b)  c .
Let (L,  ) be a distributive lattice and a,b,c  L.
We have a  (b  c) = (a  b)  (a  c)
If a  c then a  c = c.
So, a  (b  c) = (a  b)  c.
 L is modular.
1
a b c
0
The above lattice is called diamond lattice denoted by M5.
The elements a,b,c are symmetric, so it is enough to prove for any
one of a, b, c.
We have the cases a < 1 and 0 < a.
Case (i) If a < 1
Let x1 = a and x3 = 1
Now, x1  ( x2  x3) = a  ( x2  1)
= a  x2
(x1  x2)  x3 = (a  x2)  1
= a  x2
Hence x1  ( x2  x3) = (x1  x2)  x3
Case (ii) If 0 < a
Let x1 = 0 and x3 = a
Now, x1  ( x2  x3) = 0  ( x2  a)
= x2  a
(x1  x2)  x3 = (0  x2)  a
= x2  a
Hence x1  ( x2  x3) = (x1  x2)  x3
 The diamond lattice is modular.
But a  (b  c)  a 1  a
(a  b)  (a  c)  0  0  0
 a  (b  c)  (a  b)  (a  c)
Hence M5 is not distributive.
34. Define a lattice. Verify whether the lattice given by the Hasse diagram
in the figure below is distributive.
1
c
a
b
0
Sol. A lattice is a partially ordered set (L,  ) in which every pair of elements
a,b  L has a greatest lower bound and a least upper bound.
Now, a  (b  c) = a  b = 0
and (a  b)  (a  c) = 0  0 = 0
 a  (b  c) = (a  b)  (a  c) -----------(1)
c  (a  b) = c  1 = c
and (c  a)  (c  b) = 0  c = c
 c  (a  b) = (c  a)  (c  b) ------------(2)
(1) and (2) do not mean that the lattice is distributive.
Now, b  (c  a) = b  1 = b
But (b  c)  (b  a) = c  0 = c
This means that b  (c  a) ≠ (b  c)  (b  a).
Hence the given lattice is not distributive.
35. If D45 denotes the set of all divisors of 45 under divisibility ordering,
find which elements have complements and which do not have
complements.
Sol. D45 = { 1,3,5,9,15,45 }.
If x and y are divisors of 45, x  y = GCD(x,y), x  y = LCM(x,y)
In D45, the least element is 1 and the greatest element is 45.
1  45 = 1, 1  45 = 45
5  9 = 1, 5  9 = 45
3  15 = 3 ≠ 1, 3  15 = 45
 The complement of 1 is 45 and the complement of 45 is 1.
The complement of 5 is 9 and the complement of 9 is 5.
3 and 15 have no complements.
36. Simplify the Boolean expression ( ( x1  x2 )  ( x1  x3 ) ).x1.x2

Sol. ( ( x1  x2 )  ( x1  x3 ) ).x1 .x2  ( x1  x2  x3 ).x1 .x2 [ x1  x1  x1 ]
 x1 .x1 .x 2  x 2 .x1 .x 2  x3 .x1 .x 2
 x1 .x 2  0.x1  x3 .x1 .x 2
 x1 ( x 2  x3 .x 2 )
 x1 .x 2 (1  x3 )
 x1 .x 2 (1)
 x1 .x 2
37. Simplify the Boolean expressions
( x  y  xy ) ( x  z) and x [ y  z ( xy  xz ) ] using Boolean algebra.
Sol. ( x  y  xy ) ( x  z)  ( x  y) ( x  z) [ y  xy  y]
 x.x  x.z  y.x  y.z
 x  x.z  x. y  y.z [ x.x  x]
 x  x. y  y.z [ x  x.z  x]
 x  y.z [ x  x. y  x]
x [ y  z ( xy  xz ) ]  x [ y  z( x. y) .( x.z) ]
 x [ y  z ( x   y ) . ( x   z  ) ]
 x [ y  z ( x .x   x .z   y .x   y .z  )]
 x [ y  z ( x   x .z   y .x   y .z  )]
 x. y  x.z.x   x.z.x .z   x.z.x . y   x.z. y .z 
 x. y  ( x.x  ).z  ( x.x  )( z.z  )  ( x.x  ).z. y   ( z.z  ).x. y 
 x. y  0  0  0  0 [ x.x   0 and z.z   0 ]
 x. y
38. In a lattice (L,  ), prove that
(i) x  ( y  z )  ( x  y )  ( x  z )
(ii ) x  ( y  z )  ( x  y )  ( x  z )
Sol. Let x,y,z  L
As x  x  y , x  x  z
then x  ( x  y)  ( x  z) --------------(1)
As y  z  y  x  y
yz  z  x z
 y  z  ( x  y)  ( x  z) --------------(2)
From (1) and (2), we get x  ( y  z)  ( x  y)  ( x  z)
Its dual is x  ( y  z)  ( x  y)  ( x  z)
39. Prove that the lattice ( Z+, / ) is distributive.

Sol. We have to show that for all a,b,c  Z+,
a  (b  c) = (a  b)  (a  c)
Since the relation is divisor relation, if a / b and b / c then a / c.
LHS = a  (b  c) = a  c = a ----------(1) [ b  c = c and a  c = a]
a  b = a, a  c = a
RHS = (a  b)  (a  c) = a  a = a ---------(2)
From (1) and (2) we have
a  (b  c) = (a  b)  (a  c)
Hence the lattice ( Z+, / ) is distributive.
40. Let ( L,  ,  ) and ( M,  ,  ) be two lattices. Then show that
(L×M, П, Ц) is an algebraic lattice where for (a,b), (x,y)  L×M,
(a,b) П (x,y) = (a  x, b  y) and
(a,b) Ц (x,y) = (a  x, b  y)
Sol. We show that the binary operation П and Ц as defined above satisfies
commutative, associative and absorption laws in L×M.
Let (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3)  L×M
i) (x1, y1) Ц (x2, y2) = (x1  x2 , y1  y2)
= (x2  x1 , y2  y1)
= (x2, y2) Ц (x1, y1)
Its dual is (x1, y1) П (x2, y2) = (x2, y2) П (x1, y1)
 П and Ц are commutative.
ii) (x1, y1) Ц [(x2, y2) Ц (x3, y3) ] = (x1, y1) Ц (x2  x3 , y2  y3)
= [(x1  (x2  x3)) , (y1  ( y2  y3))]
= [((x1  x2)  x3) , ((y1  y2)  y3)]
= (x1  x2 , y1  y2) Ц (x3, y3)
= [(x1, y1) Ц [(x2, y2)] Ц (x3, y3)
Its dual is
(x1, y1) П [(x2, y2) П (x3, y3)] = [(x1, y1) П (x2, y2)] П (x3, y3)
 П and Ц are associative.
iii) (x1, y1) Ц [(x1, y1) П (x2, y2)] = (x1, y1) Ц (x1  x2, y1  y2)
= [(x1  (x1  x2)),(y1  ( y1  y2))]
= (x1, y1)
Its dual is (x1, y1) П [(x1, y1) Ц (x2, y2)] = (x1, y1)
 П and Ц satisfies absorption law.
Hence (L×M, П, Ц) is an algebraic lattice.
41. Show that the lattice L is distributive if and only if for all a,b,c in L,
(a  b)  c  a  (b  c)
Sol. Let L is a distributive lattice.
For all a,b,c  L
(a  b)  c = (a  c)  (b  c)
 a  (b  c) [ as a  c  a]
Conversely, assume that L is a lattice with (a  b)  c  a  (b  c) for all
a,b,c  L.
To show that L is distributive, it is enough to prove that
(a  b)  (a  c)  a  (b  c) for all a,b,c  L
Now, (a  b)  (a  c)  a  [b  (a  c)] (by assumption)
= a  [(a  c)  b]
 a  [a  (c  b)] (by assumption)
= (a  a)  (b  c)
= a  (b  c)
Hence (a  b)  (a  c)  a  (b  c).
42. Show that in a Boolean algebra, for every element x has unique
complement x such that x + x = 1 and x . x = 0
Sol. For any x  B, there exists a complement x  B such x + x = 1 and x . x = 0
Suppose x1 and x2 are complements of x such that
x + x1 = 1, x.x1 = 0
and x + x2 = 1, x.x2 = 0
Now x1 = x1.1 = x1.(x + x2)
= x.x1 + x1. x2
= 0 + x1. x2
= x.x2 + x1. x2
= (x + x1).x2
= 1.x2
= x2
Hence the complement of x is unique.
43. For any Boolean prove

a) x  y = x  z and x  y = x  z  y = z
b) x  y = 0  x = 0 and y = 0
c) x  y  x  y = 0
d) x  y = 1  x = 1 and y = 1
Sol. (a) y = y0
= y( x  x )
= (y  x )  (y  x )
= (z  x)  (z  x )
= z(x  x )
= z0
=z
 y = z.
(b) Assume x  y = 0  lub{x,y} = 0
This is possible only if x = 0 and y = 0.
Conversely, if x = 0 and y = 0 then x  y = 0  0 = 0.
(c) x  y  x  y = y
(x  y ) y = y  y
(x  y )( y  y ) = 0
(x  y ) 0 = 0
 x  y=0
(d) x  y = 1  x  y  0
 x y 0
 x  0 and y  0 [ using (b) ]
 x  1 and y 1
44. Simplify the following Boolean function

f ( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 )  x1 x3  x1 x3 x4  x2 x3 x4  x2 x3 x4
Sol. f ( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 )  x1 x3  x1 x3 x4  x2 x3 x4  x2 x3 x4
 ( x1  x1 x4 ) x3  x2 x3 x4  x2 x3 x4
 [( x1  x1 )( x1  x4 )] x3  x2 x3 x4  x2 x3 x4
 1.( x1  x4 ) x3  x2 x3 x4  x2 x3 x4
 x1 x3  x4 x3  x2 x3 x4  x2 x3 x4
 x1 x3  x2 x3 x4  (1  x2 ) x3 x4
 x1 x3  x2 x3 x4  1. x3 x4
 x1 x3  ( x2 x3  x3 ) x4
 x1 x3  [( x2  x3 )( x3  x3 )] x4
 x1 x3  ( x2  x3 ).1 x4
 x1 x3  x2 x4  x3 x4

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M.A.

M COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DISCRETE MATHEMATICS UNIT-1 1

MA2265- DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

1. Write down the two propositions P and Q for which Q  P is

3. Construct truth table for (P  Q)  (P  Q).

4. Prove that (P  Q)  7(P  Q) is a contradiction.

6. Prove that 7(P  Q)  7P  7Q is a tautology.

Since (1)  (2) are all true, 7(P  Q)  7P  7Q is a

9. Find the converse and contrapositive of the implication “If it is

10. Prove that 7Q  ( P  Q)  7P

11. Define functionally complete set of connectives and give an

12. Show that , is not functionally complete.

16. Define Principal conjunctive normal form.

17. Define the two rules of inference for statement calculus.

20. Show that 7(P  Q) follows from 7P  7Q by using indirect

22. Show that 7(P  Q)  (7P  (7P  Q))  7P  Q.

23. Express the premises in symbols for the following argument:

24. Find PCNF of P  Q if the PDNF of P  Q

25. Prove that P  Q  7Q  7P.

26. Define Tautology.

27. Define Contradiction.

28. Test whether the following formula P  (Q  P) is a tautology?

29. Show that 7(P  Q)  7P  7Q

30. Establish P  Q  (P  Q)  (7P  7Q)

Hence P  Q  (P  Q)  (7P  7Q).

31. Make a truth table for the statement ( p  q)  (~ p)

32. Express the biconditional P  Q in any form using only disjunction

33. If P, Q, R are statement variables, Prove that

34. Prove that whenever A  B  C, we also have A  (B  C) and vice

35. Write the negation of the statement below:

36. Obtain the DNF for the formula (P  (Q  R))  R

37. Obtain PDNF for ~ P  Q.

38. Write the dual of (P  Q)  (T  R).

39. Does Q  (P  Q).

41. Write an equivalent formula for P  (Q  R) which contains neither

42. What is duality law of logical expression? Give the dual of

48. Say Yes or No

49. Prove that the statements “ P  Q  R  S ” and “ P  Q  R  S ”

50. Write the following statements in symbols using logical connectives

51. Write the converse and contra-positive of the conditional statement:

52. Define Predicate Calculus

53. Define simple statement function with an example

54. Define compound statement function with an example

55. Define Universal Quantifier with an example

56. Define Existential Quantifier with an example

58. Write the following statement in the symbolic form

60. Express 2 is an irrational number using quantifiers.

Hence we can express 2 is an irrational number as 7(  x) ( x  2 ).

61. Symbolize: For every x, there exists a y such that x2  y 2  100.

63. Symbolize: Some people are not admired by everyone.

64. Symbolize: Every book with a blue cover is a mathematics book.

68. Symbolize: Some people who trust others are rewarded.

69. Symbolize: If any one is good then John is good.

70. Symbolize: He is ambitious or no one is ambitious.

71. Symbolize: Every student in this class has studied calculus.

73. If S = {–2, –1, 0,1,2} determine the truth value of  x  S, x  3 x  2.

74. Determine the truth value of each of the following statements.

Sol. i) False ii) True iii) True iv) False.

76. Give an example to show that (x)( A( x)  B( x)) need not be a

77. Translate the following predicate calculus formula into English

78. Express the following two statements symbolically using quantifiers.

79. Define statement function of one variable. When it will become a