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Garces Al Integration Wicked Problem
Garces Al Integration Wicked Problem
Garces Al Integration Wicked Problem
° 1 - Enero-junio
93
rev.relac.int.estrateg.segur.13(1):93-117,2018
Abstract
*
Article elaborated in work carried out at the Center for International
Relations of the Institute of Higher National Studies of Ecuador and
Artículo de Reflexión
these criteria, and the implications are important for both academics and deci-
sion makers. Should regional integration continue to be approached as a tame
problem, results are likely to continue to disagree with expectations.
Resumen
Resumo
Latin American integration as a wicked problem: the case for a plural approach
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1
This paper has benefitted from the contributions of many colleagues. I am particularly indebted to Valeria
Paredes for helpful discussions. I would also like to acknowledge the Instituto de Altos Estudios Nacionales
of Ecuador as well as the Pontifical Catholic University of Ecuador for their support of this research. Any
errors therein are my own. All the usual disclaimers apply.
2
This type of integration falls within what the literature has termed “new regionalism” (Dabène, 2009)
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In that endeavor, I first set the stage Be that as it may, what is much clea-
with a brief review of Latin America’s rer is that the history of Latin Ameri-
efforts to integrate as a region (or sub- can integration shows many attempts
region) and argue why it is useful to re- to unite with significant variation in
gard its integration as a problem in and scope, motive, and depth. This is par-
of itself, not only has a solution to a ticularly true for the second half of the
XX century, the period in which I shall The second moment can be placed at
focus. In this sense, there are at least the end of last century. It was charac-
three moments of (sub-) regional in- terized by the dominance of a particu-
tegration in Latin America. These are lar brand of economics: neoliberalism.
characterized by quantity (meaning In 1991 Mercosur was established and
an unusual number of integration ini- so was the Central American Integra-
tiatives at any given time), by quality tion System (SICA, for its acronym in
(meaning a distinct approach to inte- Spanish). In 1994 the North American
gration initiatives) or both. Free Trade Agreement (Nafta came
into force, and the Free Trade Area
In the first wave, Central America of the Americas (FTAA) initiative was
seems to have taken the initiative with born (although it never took off). In
an educational and eventually mainly the same year, the Association of Ca-
economic focus. As early as 1948 the ribbean States (ACS) was established.
Central American Council for Higher Additionally, the Andean sub-region
Education was created (Csuca, for received new impetus in 1996 when
its acronym in Spanish). In 1951 the it the Andean Pact became the CAN.
countries of this sub-region formed This scenario paints a picture of a
the Organization of Central American segmented and overlapping regiona-
States (Odeca, for its acronym in Spa- lism, described as a “messy outcome”
nish ), and by 1960 they signed a mul- (Malamud and Gardini, 2012, p. 116).
tilateral treaty the objective of which
was to pursue economic integration The third moment of integration in
via the creation of the Common Mar- Latin America takes place at the start
ket of Central America (MCCA, for its of the XXI century. The Bolivarian Al-
acronym in Spanish). Efforts in this di- ternative for the Americas (ALBA, for
rection were also carried out later on its acronym in Spanish) is founded
throughout the region. In 1960 the in 2004, and so is the Community of
Latin American Free Trade Association South American Nations (CSN). The
(Alalc, for its acronym in Spanish) was latter became the Union of South
established, in 1965 so was the Cari- American Nations (Unasur, for its acro-
bbean Free Trade Association (Carifta, nym in Spanish) in 2007. Four years
for its acronym in Spanish) and by later, in 2011, the Community of
1969 the Andean Pact followed suit. Latin American and Caribbean States
In 1973 Carifta became the Caribbean (Celac, for its acronym in Spanish) was
Community (Caricom), in 1975 the created. Finally, and during this same
Latin American and Caribbean Eco- year another integration project with
nomic System (SELA, for its acronym in mainly an economic focus was born,
Spanish) was established, and in 1980 the Pacific Alliance. For the first and
the Alalc became the Latin American second, at least, the interest has moved
Integration Association (Aladi, for its from economic issues to physical inte-
acronym in Spanish). gration, political identities and secu-
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rity concerns (Malamud and Gardini, legal instrument that with which the
2012). The latter, although includes Common Market of Central America
other aspects (such as education), is is created. This document, signed in
dominated by a free market economic 1960, commits the parties to establish
focus and, as such, appears rather as a the common market no later than five
response to the first ones. years after the instrument has come
into force (MCCA, 1960). However,
The diversity of coexisting Latin Ame- this goal was not met in the time allo-
rican integration projects suggests a cated for it, leading to reconsiderations
situation of sub-regionalism rather about the process, its objectives and
than regionalism per se. This has been the strategies to achieve them.
described as a segmented and over-
lapping regionalism and has been ar- About the case of the Caribbean: the
gued that “[it] is not a manifestation of Caricom. This mechanism was esta-
successful integration but, on the con- blished with the goal of constituting a
trary, signals the exhaustion of its po- common market by 2008 (Sanahuja,
tential” (Malamud and Gardini, 2012, 2007). This objective has not been
p. 117). This can be further exempli- met, and its future looks rather uncer-
fied when looking into some of the tain. Hence, it has also failed to fulfill
most successful projects. Given that its original aspirations (Malamud and
success can be quite difficult to assess, Gardini, 2012)
perhaps it is best to conceive of it as
survival3, as it much less debatable to Apropos the case of South America:
regard an extinct integration initiative the Mercosur. The constitutive docu-
as a failed one. This is particularly im- ment of the Mercosur, the Asunción
portant in the case of Latin America. If Treaty, states that a common market
the surviving projects show problems, should be constituted by December
it becomes clear that their success, 31, 1994 (Mercosur, 1991). This goal
measured with a higher bar (i.e. be- was not met. In fact, according to
yond mere survival) is rather doubt- Malamud (2011) this integration
ful. In order to illustrate this scenario, mechanism rather than a common
I shall review one existing mechanism market, it is an imperfect customs un-
in each sub-region, so as to cover the ion (Sanahuja, 2007). Moreover, given
whole region: recent events, he asserts that in the
near future it is more likely to go back
Regarding the case of Central America: to a free trade zone than to move to-
the MCCA. The Managua Treaty is the wards a common market.
3
As Axline (1981, p.176) pointed out more than three decades ago “[…] one of the most remarkable
features of Latin American regional integration has been its capacity to survive and remain active and
dynamic in the face of numerous obstacles, shortcomings, and failures.”
Concerning the case of the Andean This gains greater meaning when the
sub-region: the CAN. This case is one concept problem is defined, as it is
of the oldest surviving integration here, as the discordance between nor-
mechanisms in the region. However, mativity and reality (Rittel and Webber,
its original design had to undergo pro- 1973). The evidence presented
found changes in the 1990s. Similarly, above points in that direction gi-
and perhaps most importantly, it has ven the evident mismatch between
witnessed the exit of one-third of its “what ought to be” (what integra-
members4. In 1976 Chile decided tion initiatives have been expected
to leave and in 2006 Venezuela de- to be) and “what is” (what integra-
nounced the Cartagena Treaty. More- tion initiatives in fact are), i.e., the
over, the customs union project failed discrepancy between expectations
after Peru and Colombia signed FTAs and actuality. But problems can be of
with the US. different sorts, and to contribute to
addressing that of Latin American in-
Thus, it seems that Rosenthal’s (1991) tegration, it is warranted to ask what
assessment a quarter of a century ago kind of problem it is? This question is
appears to be valid today as it was the issue to which I now turn.
then. According to him, regardless of
the objective, whether political, deve- A caveat is necessary. In what follows,
lopmental o simply trade promotion, despite the notorious differences
the initial aspirations of these mecha- among the various mechanisms, the
nisms seemed overly ambitious, since discussion refers to Latin American in-
many of them have failed to meet their tegration broadly conceived. It focuses
objectives in the timetables established on a characteristic shared by many,
in their treaties. That is, they have not perhaps most, of them: the elusive-
only not addressed the problems they ness of the consolidation of the pro-
sought to solve, but they have proven cesses (i.e., their problematic nature).
to be problematic themselves. This does not deny the uniqueness of
each project (in fact it is a highlight in
Hence, the discussion thus far has the argument below) but as a point of
shown that although Latin American departure for present purposes, the di-
integration has been conceived as a fficulty that Latin American Integration
solution to certain problems (e.g., se- has had to meet their original goals
curity, economic growth, inequality, and aspirations (within the timetable
education, international insertion), it as originally stated) as a common de-
has proven to be a problem in itself. nominator is warranted.
4
Further, recently, the President of Ecuador has questioned the economic benefits that this integration
project offers to this country and has stated the possibility of leaving it.
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5
Following Rittel and Webber (1973, p. 160), these problems are called “[…] ’wicked’ not because these
properties are themselves ethically deplorable. We use the term ‘wicked’ in a meaning akin to that of
‘malignant’ (in contrast to ‘benign’) or ‘vicious’ (like a circle) or ‘tricky’ (like a leprechaun) or ‘aggressive’
(like a lion, in contrast to the docility of a lamb).” This ought to be complemented with Brown’s (2010,
p. 62) contribution when she states: “‘Wicked’ here refers to issues that prove to be highly resistant to
resolution through any of the currently existing modes of problem-solving.”
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6
In fact, for one of Cepal’s past general secretary, “The problem of Latin America is that the proper strategy
to melt the different nationalisms into a single Latin American nationalism has not been found.” (Dabène,
2009, p. 41)
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stop due to reasons inherent in the in nature, for instance seeking only to
logic of the problem but due to rea- create only free trade zones, it may be
sons external to it. argued that they are singular or one-
dimensional. Granting, for the sake of
3) Solutions to wicked problems are argument, the pertinence of such ap-
not true-or-false, but good or bad proaches, it still does not mean that
consensus is likely to be found regar-
Once again, building on the last point ding problem definition and solution.
above, given that there are criteria to Stakeholders with a background in the
determine when a tame problem has same field, with analogous expertise
been solved, there are criteria to ob- and the same information, may reach
jectively determine when a proposed different conclusions. This is because
solution is correct or false. This is, of even within the same discipline there
course, one of the virtues of the exact can always be contending schools,
sciences, to which tame problems are theories, methods that can be used.
associated.
The goals of Latin American integra-
The case of wicked problems is di- tion have evolved along with socio-
fferent. Various analysts, parties, stake- economic changes in the member
holders can all be equally prepared countries, changes in the nature of the
and entitled to assess the definition of world economic situation, and chan-
a problem and therefore also its pro- ges in thinking about economic deve-
posed solution. Although all can judge lopment. This evolution, considered in
those proposals, none has the authority the context of different approaches to
to establish formal norms to determine the study of integration, has created a
correctness. Thus, the evaluation can situation in which some of the princi-
only be carried out in terms of good or pal effects of integration (increases in
bad instead of true or false. trade, investment) may be interpreted
as successes or as failures depending
Going back to the first point above, on the perspectives of the analysis
regional integration can be usefully (Axline, 1981).
considered as a multidimensional
problem. As such, different experts Furthermore, regional integration in
(or stakeholders more broadly) from general and Latin American integra-
various disciplines may understand the tion, in particular, is a political deci-
problem differently and thus provide sion, not a technocratic one. This
different legitimate solutions. How- means that the interests, preferences,
ever, no one set of criteria applies to all and expectations of all stakeholders,
of them to assess truth or falsity. More- which in turn answer to such aspects
over, this applies even if this multidi- as their beliefs, culture, and ideology,
mensionality is not conceded. Certain need to be factored in when defining
integration projects that are economic the problem/finding the solution. This
does not apply only to the diversity of of which can turn out to be unexpected
member States of a given integration and undesired. Therefore, there can be
project, and the issue of intergovern- no ultimate test to assess the solution.
mentalism (Sanahuja, 2007), but also
to the many different interest group This situation can be attested at the
within States and their worldviews. first rung of the economic integration
Therefore, any solution that comes to ladder: the free trade agreement. FTAs
the fore is best understood in terms of have been considered as a means to
“good” or “bad,” or perhaps even in an end, the latter being regional inte-
terms of “better” or “worse”. gration (Balassa, 1961a, 1961b). Thus,
they can be regarded as a solution to
4) There is neither an immediate the problem of integration. The lo-
nor ultimate test of a solution to a gic of FTAs, in brief, consists on enlar
wicked problem ging markets to have access to greater
demand, which incentivizes competi-
With tame problems, attempts towards tion among producers and eventually
their solution can be accurately eva- improves productivity and competi-
luated within relatively short periods tiveness in supply via the possibility
of time. Ideally, how good or bad an of reaching economies of scale. This
attempt to solve a problem can be de- eventually has benefits for consu-
termined on the spot. That is because mers (lower prices and higher qua-
1) the solutions proposed have limited lity) and producers (higher revenues/
or constraint effects, which facilitate salaries and better quantity and qua-
complete evaluation; and, 2) the tests lity of employment). Nevertheless, as
to assess a proposed solution are en- the case of Nafta shows, this is a pro-
tirely under the control of the people mise difficult to keep. Particularly in
with the expertise and information. the case of employment, real wages
and agriculture, this treaty has had
Not so with wicked problems. When unwanted impacts for Mexico (Po-
it comes to these problems, solutions laski, 2006; Stiglitz, 2004). Moreover,
have effects over a virtually limitless not only can free trade agreements
time and space. Any solution for a have undesirable economic reper-
wicked problem can generate waves of cussions but their effects can reach
consequences over an unbounded pe- a wide array of issues. In the case of
riod, which may outweigh the benefits Nafta, such consequences have been
or advantages of the solution. Further, identified in areas such as the envi-
these consequences may affect a mul- ronment (Davis and Kahn, 2010) and
tiplicity of dimensions or spaces, many even human rights7 (Martínez, 1994).
7
For a wider discussion on the relationship between international trade and human rights see Abbott,
Breining-Kaufmann and Cottier (2006).
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influence of Bela Balassa’s (1961a, blem has been adequately defined, the
1961b) phases to regional integration, process of finding a solution entails the
namely, 1) free trade zone, 2) customs scrutiny of the causal explanation for
union, 3) common market, 4) econo- that discrepancy. Tame problems are
mic union, 5) political union. However, relatively straightforward in this regard.
each mechanism has experienced idio- In the exact sciences, addressing the
syncratic difficulties at different levels, cause of the problem is the solution.
which makes their problems unique.
For example, the CAN has lost a few In the case of wicked problems, it
members and faces the challenge of the should be recalled; the problem
bilateral trade agreements its members is defined in terms of the solution.
signed with external parties. The Alalc, in Thus, the very definition or formu-
turn, had to undergo important changes lation of the problem depends on
in order to survive, such as renounce what are considered to be its causes.
its commitment to FTAs and provide Moreover, the causal chain can be,
a more flexible scheme (challenging in principle, infinite. Therefore, ad-
thereby Balassa), establish explicit su- dressing the solution poses a new
pport for relatively less developed states wicked problem. In this sense, the
and go beyond trade to incorporate de- original or first problem becomes a
velopment goals. And other integration symptom of the new or second pro-
projects have their particular problems. blem. To solve the second problem,
What this suggests is that integration à once again, its causes have to be
la Balassa is not a one size fits all solu- addressed, and this will become
tion and believe it is akin to treating another wicked, “higher level,” pro-
Latin American integration as a tame blem still, of which the second one
problem. That is, it has been diagnosed was a symptom. Thus, the farther
as a case belonging to the family of “in- the causal analysis goes, the higher the
tegration” and given the treatment that level it reaches. To complicate matters
apparently has worked in those cases. further, there is no predetermined co-
From this point of view, post-liberal inte- rrect level at which wicked problems
gration efforts such as Celac or Unasur, should be addressed. There is no such
with their multidimensional approach, thing as a natural level nor can it be
can provide useful information in this determined on logical grounds. This
discussion in the upcoming years. presents a conflict for the problem-
solver. On the one hand, they should
8) Every wicked problem can be not address symptoms but problems.
considered to be a symptom of On the other, they should seek to
another problem reach the highest level possible but
the higher the level in which the pro-
Problems have been conceived of here blem is formulated, the more general
as the discrepancies between what-is it becomes and the more difficult it is
and what-ought-to-be. Once the pro- to take action.
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As was argued above, Latin American truth is found (i.e., the only correct
integration can be studied from diffe- answer), the tame problem is solved.
rent perspectives and depending on The only accepted methodology that
the framework adopted; different the problem-solver ought to follow in
conclusions can be reached. For illus- such ambitious undertaking is well es-
tration, I shall only make a theoreti- tablished: positivism. I cannot dwell on
cal comparison using neofunctionalist the implications of this approach here
theory (see Haas, 1970), arguably one I have done so elsewhere (see Garcés,
of the most relevant for regional inte- 2016) and the literature offers insight-
gration. From this point of view, one of ful accounts (Caldwell, 1994). For
the causes for the lack of consolidation this section suffice it to illustrate this
of Latin American integration could be methodology by its guiding compass,
the absence of a transfer of sovereignty the hypothesis. To solve a problem, a
to the supranational level, since pro- hypothesis is tested. In basic terms, a hy-
jects have established intergovernmen- pothesis predicts a state of affairs, usua-
tal schemes solely. The cause of this, in lly a relationship between a couple of
turn, can be found in the insufficient variables under certain conditions. If
cooperation (in kind and amount) on the relationship holds, i.e., the state of
matters of mutual interest that can affairs is confirmed, the hypothesis is
generate spill-over effects on others accepted, if not, it is rejected.
leading to the creation of institutions
to address them. The causes of natio- Hypotheses stated to solve a wicked
nalism have further been discussed by problem have more than one way to
different disciplines and depending on be rejected or accepted. Depending on
the preference of the problem-solver, the theory, ideology or worldview used
the causal chain will reach ever higher to approach the problem; the problem-
levels along that path. solver will pay attention to different
aspects of the problem. This becomes
9) The existence of a discrepancy evident in the case of the professional
representing a wicked problem can practice: economists, sociologists, law-
be explained in numerous ways. The yers, anthropologists are likely to tackle
choice of explanation determines the same wicked problem in quite di-
the nature of the problem’s fferent ways. One may argue that at
resolution least these disciplines have a minimum
of scientific standards, established by
What I have thus far referred to as sol- their academic communities. Even this
ving problems in the exact sciences, can be questioned, given the plura-
i.e., solving tame problems, is akin to lity of views existing within disciplines
the generation of knowledge under the (Russell, 2010). But, for better or worse,
positivist framework. The natural scien- wicked problems are not to be solved by
ces are dominated by the pursuit of technocrats (only). They are societal pro-
certainty to find the ‘truth.’ When the blems, which require political solutions.
Accordingly, several non-scientific ex- and shared among its members” (CAN,
planations may be used to accept 1969, own translation). “[…] to acce-
or reject a hypothesis. As Rittel and lerate [the member states’] processes
Webber (1973) state: of economic development with social
justice” (Mercosur, 1991). Different
That is to say, the choice of explana- projects have different motivations, but
tion is arbitrary in the logical sense. one that is present in most of them, one
In actuality, attitudinal criteria guide way or another, goes beyond measu-
the choice. People choose those ex- rable goals, namely, solidarity, frater-
planations which are most plausible nity, commonality (of history, culture,
to them. Somewhat but not much etc.). It is an empirical question to
exaggerated, you might say that evaluate the importance of the latter.
everybody picks that explanation of However, the constant presence of this
a discrepancy which fits his inten- element, and its emphasis on recent
tions best and which conforms to developments such as the ALBA and
the action-prospects that are avail- Unasur, certainly make it an extraordi-
able to him. The analyst’s ‘world- narily (political and) relevant one.
view’ is the strongest determining
factor in explaining a discrepancy 10) The problem solver has no right
and, therefore, in resolving a wi- to be wrong
cked problem. (p. 166)
Closely related to the above, solving
Motives guiding integration processes tame problems is a matter of hypo-
can be found in the documents by thesis testing. In the exact sciences, it
which these initiatives are generated. is understood that hypothesis (alterna-
In this sense, it can be seen that the tive solutions to a problem) are there
justification for integration in Latin to be refuted. The more tests or refu-
America has been made in terms of tations that the hypothesis can with-
“[...] to improve the living conditions stand, the better it’s standing8. That is
of [member states’] peoples” (MCCA, how knowledge grows in positivistic
1960). “[…] to fulfill the hopes and as- terms (Caldwell, 1994) and, this case,
pirations of their peoples for full em- it is how problem-solving techniques
ployment and improved standards of grow. Therefore, the problem-solver
work and living” (Caricom, 1973). “[…] is not blamed for the rejected hypo-
to achieve [certain ends] through the theses, provided that they have follo-
generation of integration and coopera- wed the scientific rules. The trial-and-
tion system seeking development that error approach mentioned above finds
is economic, equilibrated, harmonic its corollary in this aspect.
8
For a review of positivism’s approach to evaluate knowledge claims, as well as a plausible alternative for
International Relations inquiry, see Garcés (2016).
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Wicked problems do not show this un- for mistakes and should not expect to
derstanding. Due to the fact that they have full support for their decision. The
are societal problems, solutions seek to same solution can have very different
change some part of the world. In fact, interpretations depending on the pers-
wicked problems are generated by pective. For example, how economic
the society in which they are set and, integration has been carried out has
thus, their resolution requires changes been interpreted quite differently, in
in that society (Brown, 2010). As such, opposing ways in fact, from different
they can be consequential in people’s sectors. While FTAs have been ada-
lives, and no tolerance is given to the mantly promoted by right-wing politi-
problem-solver. They are liable for cians and policymakers in the region,
the solutions they implement and their they have been repudiated by those
repercussions, which, as argued above, affiliated with the left. The opposite,
are nearly infinite and impossible to left of center initiatives opposed by
fully assess. Moreover, this is further right-wing activists, has also been ha-
complicated by the plurality of world- ppened. In the history of Latin Ame-
views that stakeholders may have. It rica, at different times, different camps
would not be realistic to assume that have come out on top. In the second
consensus can be reached among all half of the XX century the region en-
stakeholders regarding the definition gaged in an effort to integrate under
of a wicked problem and its solution. a protectionist framework: import
What can be deemed acceptable for substitution industrialization. Defen-
some may not be for others. Hence, it ders of the free market condemned this
is likely that the problem-solver will al- initiative while its detractors supported
ways be at fault for their decision from it. More recently, whereas the Pacific
some perspective. “We are thus led to Alliance can be considered as a victory
conclude that the problems that [socie- for the free market, the FTAA, the last
tal] planners must deal with are wicked great effort to liberalize the whole con-
and incorrigible ones, for they defy tinent, is its greatest lost. In both cases,
efforts to delineate their boundaries the divergence between advocates and
and to identify their causes, and thus detractors was remarkable. Regardless of
to expose their problematic nature” the outcome, the burden of the blame
(Rittel and Webber, 1973, p. 167). inevitably fell over the problem-solver.
show the constant interest in integration The argument presented here is not
but also that this project is a problem in favor of exclusion but favor or in-
in and of itself. What kind of problem? clusion. Singular or unidimensional
Adopting the definition of a problem as approaches have provided great in-
the discrepancy between what-is and sights about the social world in ge-
what-ought-to-be, and following Rittel neral and Latin American integration
and Webber’s (1973) seminal contri- in particular. However, in light of the
bution to the social planning literature, rich diversity of worldviews produced
this paper has argued that Latin Ameri- by different perspectives on the same
can integration is a wicked problem. matter, paying attention to only one of
them to define and solve a problem
Wicked problems are social or societal can be problematic as each might hold
problems and, as such, a matter of pu- only one piece of the puzzle. Conse-
blic policy. As opposed to tame or exact quently, in light of argument above,
science problems, wicked ones are in- this is rather an invitation to welco-
ter alia elusive to define, unique, inhe- me, with healthy criticism, different
rently paradoxical, and consequential, approaches, disciplines, ideologies,
subject to many interpretations and, and perspectives, to the definition and
as such, have no right solution. Latin (re)solution of the problem of Latin
American integration appears to meet
American integration. That is, this is a
these criteria, and the implications are
call for plurality.
important. Whether for academics
or practitioners, for all stakeholders,
This has implication for both acade-
in fact, treating it as a tame problem,
mia and practice. In academia, the
the most conventional and pervasive
literature shows that integration of the
approach, is likely to (continue to) de-
region is mostly studied from a unidis-
liver poor results.
ciplinary orientation. This is perhaps to
As well as different forms of go-
be expected since policy and decision
vernance and changes in ways of makers are influenced by academic re-
living, resolution of wicked pro- search. Thus, this would entail a call to
blems requires a new approach to engage in more inter- multi- and trans-
the conduct of research and to the disciplinary research. In practice, given
decision-making based on that re- that this is a societal problem, it is all
search. Rather than following the the more important to listen atten-
fixed trajectories of pre-existing re- tively to all stakeholders. If all continue
search pathways, addressing wicked to talk past each other, the problem
problems involves the inquirer and of and the solution to Latin American
decision-maker in exploring the integration is likely to remain the pro-
full range of investigative avenues. verbial elephant and those concerned
(Brown et al. 2010, p. 4) with it, the proverbial blind men.
Latin American integration as a wicked problem: the case for a plural approach
REVISTA - Bogotá (Colombia) Vol. 13 N.° 1 - Enero-junio
115
Latin American integration as a wicked problem: the case for a plural approach
REVISTA - Bogotá (Colombia) Vol. 13 N.° 1 - Enero-junio
117