Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Garces Regional Integration
Garces Regional Integration
Garces Regional Integration
DOI: https://doi.org/10.18359/ries.2889
Abstract: Latin America is at a crossroads. Its efforts to integrate are undergoing significant chan-
ges. In this light, integration has been regarded as a wicked problem. Contra convention, such
approach suggests that wicked problems, being social problems, may have an indefinite number
of solutions. This article builds on that argument and, in order to make it workable, proposes grid-
group cultural theory as a framework to reduce its complexity while taking its inherent plurality
seriously. In brief, this theory focuses on how individual decision-making is influenced by the
collective (group) or by institutions (grid). The combination of these two dimensions provides four
rationalities, ways of life, or worldviews: hierarchy, individualism, egalitarianism, and fatalism.
Latin American integration initiatives can be found within this limited diversity scheme to address
this wicked problem and hint at appropriate solutions, clumsy ones. They require the inclusion of
all rationalities in constructive dialogue seeking not to leave them worse off.
Keywords: Latin America; regional integration; plural rationalities; grid-group cultural theory;
wicked problems; clumsy solutions.
* El artículo es producto del trabajo realizado en el Centro de Relaciones Internacionales del Instituto de
Altos Estudios Nacionales del Ecuador y en la Escuela de Negocios y Relaciones Internacionales de la Pon-
tificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, Quito.
a Magíster en Relaciones Internacionales por la Universität Bremen, Bremen; Magíster en Política Pública
por el Hertie School of Governance, Berlín; Magíster en Administración Pública por el London School of
Economics and Political Science, Londres. Profesor auxiliar en el Instituto de Altos Estudios Nacionales del
Ecuador y en la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador.
Correo electrónico: pablo.garces@iaen.edu.ec, pfgarcesv@puce.edu.ec.
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Cómo citar: Garcés Velástegui, P. (2019). América Latina en una encrucijada: teoría cultural para abor-
dar el problema perverso de la integración regional con soluciones torpes. Revista Relaciones Interna-
cionales, Estrategia Y Seguridad, 14(2).pp. 33-57. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18359/ries.2889
Palabras clave: América Latina; integración regional; racionalidades plurales; teoría cultural del ries-
go; problemas perversos; soluciones torpes.
Palavras-chave: América Latina; integração regional; racionalidades plurais; teoria cultural do risco;
problemas perversos; soluções inábeis.
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Latin America at a Crossroads: A Cultural Theory to Address the Wicked Problem of Regional
Integration with Clumsy Solutions 35
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would make any attempt to define a Importantly, the ways of life that make
problem and provide resolutions vir- up this typology are mutually exclusive
tually unworkable. Hence, Latin Ame- and jointly exhaustive. This means that
rican integration could have a virtually this framework encompasses all possi-
indefinite number of meanings. The ble rationalities, giving order to the va-
sheer amount of notions of the pro- luable complexity of wicked problems
blem, solutions, and ways to address it and making it much more plausible to
quickly appear daunting enough so as solve them. Consequently, it is accep-
to demotivate such enterprise. ted that Latin American integration is
indeed a wicked problem and it is ar-
Against this backdrop, the aim of gued that grid-group cultural theory is a
this article is to further the argument framework to provide clumsy solutions.
in favor of a workable plurality using
an analytical tool that can harness its In order to elaborate that argument this
potential while making it tractable in article is structured in four sections.
order to address the wicked problem The first introduces grid-group cultural
of Latin American integration. The theory with an emphasis on the notions
instrument advanced for such under- of human nature, control, organization
taking is grid-group cultural theory. and agency derived from each ratio-
This framework focuses on individual nality or worldview. Building on these
freedom of choice and the dimensions ideas, the second section suggests what
that influence it, namely, grid (externa- cooperation, conflict and integration
lly imposed prescriptions) and group mean for each way of life and employs
(group affiliation effect). These are these insights to study Latin American
best understood as a matter of degree. integration. It does so by placing what
Their combination (as in a coordinate are arguably some of the major regional
axis) produces four distinct and irre- integration initiatives on the coordinate
ducible worldviews, ways of life or ra- axis made by combining the theory’s
tionalities: individualistic, hierarchical, dimensions. The third section elabora-
egalitarian, and fatalistic. Each world- tes on the issue of a clumsy solution to
view provides a different understan- the wicked problem of Latin American
ding of the same phenomenon. In this Integration and discusses what it would
case, this means four distinct notions entail, in light of the analysis carried
of regional integration. In particular, out. The last section concludes. Note,
each rationality holds a distinct notion therefore, that the aim of this essay is
of what the literature regards as essen- not to provide one additional definition
tially contested concepts1, which un- of regional integration with any conclu-
dergird those ideas about integration. sive aspirations, nor is it to adhere to an
1 Essentially contested concepts are those for which there is no agreed upon definition and probably there
will not be one. They depend strictly on the ideology, or the overarching set of ideas, from which they are
defined (see Freeden, 1996).
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Grid-group cultural theory (gg) offers a gg cultural theory has been so bap-
functionalist approach to the study of tized due to the two dimensions on
socio-cultural viability2 (Thompson et which it focuses, namely, grid and
al., 1990). It adheres to a rather inter- group. From this perspective individual
pretivist or constructivist philosophy of human freedom is at the locus of at-
science. As such, it builds on the as- tention. Nevertheless, it is approached
sumption that although there is an ob- as embedded within a social context.
jective world, we always approach it Thus, the main interest is to study how
from a prejudiced perspective. Conse- individual choices are influenced by
quently, that world is always perceived society. Therefore, according to it, the-
from a vantage point, and the latter is re is a constant interaction between
socially constructed. These constitute the individual and their context, or
the worldviews that guide our percep- the agent and the structure. The varia-
tion of the world, construct the mea- tion in this sociality (Thompson et al.,
ning we have of it, and contribute to 1990) or human organization (Hood,
our making sense of it (Bell, 1997). 1998) can be adequately captured by
two dimensions: grid and group.
Perhaps its most important concepts
are cultural bias and social relations. Regarding grid, it denotes external
The first refers simply to shared values prescriptions. As such, it refers to the
and systems of beliefs. The second de- extent to which choices made by indi-
notes what can be conceived as the ta- viduals are restricted by prescriptions
2 Grid-group cultural theory is a child of anthropology (see e.g. Douglas in Bell, 1997). However, it has been
used to great effect in social studies more widely (see e.g. Thompson, 2003; Thompson & Ellis, 1998;
Thompson et al., 1990). Moreover, it has proven quite insightful in certain disciplines such as international
relations (see e.g. Verweij, 2011) and public policy (see e.g. Hood, 1998).
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Figure 1. Four Rationalities, Worldviews or Ways of Life in grid-Group Cultural Theory. Source: Douglas in
Bell (1997)
3 There is another way of life that is generated, the hermit. However, this worldview is not included in the
analysis since by definition this rationality opts out of social life in toto (Thompson et al., 1990). Due to the
fact that integration, by definition as well, involves social interaction, elaborating on the hermit is deemed
unnecessary for present purposes.
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Ways of life can also be considered as a positive surprise, when reality ex-
rationalities. This is so because what ceeds expectations, can be conside-
is deemed ‘rational’ is determined by red problematic. For the purposes of
each particular way of life (Bell, 1997). this article, even positive surprises are
This is, of course, consistent with the problematic because, good as they
interpretivist position (Hollis, 1994; may be, they still fail to comply with
Hollis & Smith, 1990). Moreover, these predictions and aspirations, and the
rationalities are interdependent since ultimate thing of value here, i.e. the ul-
the survival of one hinges, to a certain timate ‘good’, is to provide some sen-
extent, on the existence of the others se of certainty. Thus, positive as well
(Thompson et al., 1990). as negative surprises are problematic.
Accordingly, whether surprise and pro-
Interdependence among the four ratio- blem can be considered as synonyms
nalities is particularly relevant because per se or not, for the current purpo-
it can provide an account of change. ses, the implication is the same, to wit,
Even though each way of life is viable, they cause change.
following the process mentioned ear-
lier, they are not isolated but permea- The implication of the notion of change
ted and constantly being challenged by is that there is zero-sum game among
new events in the world, the percep- rationalities. Certainly, this is because
tions constructed of them, the values there is a limited number of people for
and beliefs inducing the latter and the whose preference they are competing.
behaviors they lead to. Therefore, the Thus, the loss of one rationality is the
extent of their existence is subject to gain of another and change in all di-
change (Thompson et al., 1990). How rections is possible (Thompson et al.,
does change take place? Change is 1990).
dependent on surprise. Surprise is the
“mismatch between expectations and Importantly, these four rationalities
reality” (Garcés, 2015, p. 96). Whene- should be considered as ‘ideal ty-
ver there is enough evidence of surpri- pes’ (Altman & Baruch, 1998; Coyle,
se, or whenever a given way of life fails 1994;). These are to be understood as
to match reality with original expecta- ‘pure forms’ that cannot be found as
tions enough times, people are likely such in reality, nor do they reflect the
to change their preferred way of life to ‘true content’ of history (Käsler, 1988).
one that bridges the gap between ex- In this sense, they are rather heuristic
pectation and reality more consistently devises created in order to facilitate
(Thompson et al., 1990). the grasp of complexity by giving the
multiplicity of individual phenomena
Interestingly, the concept of surprise is some order and evaluate whether, and
defined in the same terms as the con- the extent to which, they conform to
cept of problem. To be sure, a cha- one or the other. Hence, these can be
llenge could be raised as to whether regarded as four extreme positions in
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fore, that these groups are likely to be someone. Since fatalists are simply sub-
small (Douglas, 1982). Because of the ject to it and not their makers, they do
above, from an egalitarian worldview, not belong to the group wielding the
organizations are considered as “colle- power of institution-making4; i.e. they
gial’ (Hood, 1998). are rule-takers, not rule-makers. Accor-
ding to this way of life, human nature
is seen as “fickle and untrustworthy”
Fatalistic rationality (Thompson, 2003). Hence, contrived
randomness is the control mechanism
The fourth and final rationality is made used for those pertaining to this way
up of high grid and low group. As such, of life (Hood, 1998). Given the fact
the fatalist social arrangement is de- that fatalists see their freedom of choi-
termined by a weak group member- ce restricted externally, limited against
ship and a wide and deep presence their will, never with their consent, the
of external prescriptions. While the world is regarded as uncertain and so
individual freedom of choice does are people. Therefore, the world is un-
not depend on the group, it does de- predictable, and individuals see them-
pend on the classification established selves as ineffectual; regardless of their
by the social system (Douglas, 1982). efforts their goals are unlikely to be ac-
However, that classification is made by complished. So, it is best not to even
Figure 2. Human Nature According to Grid-Group Cultural Theory’s Four Rationalities. Source: The author
Latin America at a Crossroads: A Cultural Theory to Address the Wicked Problem of Regional
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try. Thus, for fatalists, organizations are concepts, particularly those essentially
’gaming machines’ (Hood, 1998). contested ones, have different mea-
nings and interpretations depending
on their worldview. For current purpo-
Four worldviews of integration ses, this is especially salient in the case
of the identification of a problem and
As stated above, the case for wicked its (re)solutions. Therefore, in order to
problems builds on an interpreti- suggest how regional integration is in-
vist epistemology. As can perhaps be terpreted by (what it means for) each
gathered from the above, gg cultural way of life, this section discusses two
theory embraces it as well. This means concepts inherently relevant to inter-
that, from this perspective, important national relations, to wit, conflict and
Figure 3. Integration, Conflict and Cooperation from Four Rationalities or Worldviews. Source: The author
cooperation (Nye & Welch, 2014). A The analysis is based on the current
summary of this discussion, illustrated state of affairs of these initiatives. That
in the respective quadrants, is presen- is, it is informed by their current regu-
ted in Figure 3. lations, structure, decisions and some
of the other latest relevant events as-
Additionally, building on the con- sociated with them. Therefore, the
ceptual elaboration, this section in- insights gained from this exercise are
troduces Latin American regional certainly subject to change as these
integration projects and places them initiatives themselves change. Impor-
within the gg cultural theory scheme. tantly, this analysis does not study all
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Latin American regional integration illustrate where some of the most re-
efforts exhaustively, neither does it levant notions of regional integration
scrutinize them profoundly as it does are likely to be located (on the four
not need to do so. For the purposes worldview quadrants), on the basis of
of the argument, suffice it to explore their dominant rationality5. Moreo-
what are arguably the main integra- ver, since all mechanisms are likely to
tion mechanisms in the region and have all worldviews, placements are
their central characteristics in order to carried out based on a relative crite-
Figure 4. Latin American Integration Seen Through gg Cultural Theory. Source: The author
5 Perhaps one notable project that is missing from this analysis is celac. This omission is purposeful since the
jury is still out on whether it is an integration initiative (e.g. Preciado & Florido, 2013) or something else
(e.g. Valdez, 2013).
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gement, the benefits of any endeavor Perhaps the most evident regional inte-
go the most cunning players. There- gration efforts are those affiliated to the
fore, rewards are based on individual classic trade-based integration initiati-
skill and merit, not specific roles pre- ve. These projects, best portrayed by
determined by someone else. In the Bela Balassa’s theory (1961a, 1961b),
absence of a central authority, conflict seek to widen and deepen the reach of
is a constant possibility since each sta- the free market at the international le-
te can do as it pleases, exercising its vel. Thus, those integration initiatives in
virtually limitless autonomy. The enjo- Latin America subscribing to this model
yment of this freedom in a well-regula- are to be located within this worldview.
ted market can induce individualists to Two caveats are pertinent presently.
engage in associations showing hierar- First, current integration mechanisms
chical features (Lockhart, 1998). Even are unlikely to focus exclusively on trade
in those arrangements, however, there but incorporate other dimensions. The-
is a primacy of the individual, where refore, what matters is the dispropor-
loyalties lie in relation to the indivi- tionate focus that trade receives within
dual, not to the system. them relative to other aspects. Second,
it is worth mentioning that various ini-
In this context, survival becomes the tiatives were originally conceived solely,
main issue and cooperation can be or primarily, in economic terms (e.g. the
tolerable to the extent that it provi- Andean Community and mercosur) but
des an additional tool to guarantee they have distanced themselves from
one’s existence and further one’s that one-dimensional approach and
goals. Thus, any cooperation at all is have incorporated social, cultural, envi-
self-interested. As such, integration ronmental and other dimensions. Thus,
initiatives are spheres where power is in this brief exploration, their current
sought and exerted both horizontally shape is taken into consideration. In
and vertically. Vertically, they provide this sense, perhaps the best illustrations
a legitimized field for negotiation and of Latin American integration initiatives
bargaining that can generate relation- are the Pacific Partnership and the Latin
ships of domination with like-minded American Integration Association (aladi)
states and even potential competitors. (aladi, 2018; cepal, 2012). Leaving so-
Horizontally, since they can contribute mewhat the region and looking nor-
to the consolidation of one’s power, thwards, the integration effort that best
they can neutralize that of potential epitomizes this worldview is the nafta
and actual competitors. In this way, (Arenas-García, 2012) (as of October
although opposed to external authori- 2018, rebranded as usmca).
ty, individualists can favor integration
when there is an opportunity to be the Egalitarian
authority themselves. However, un-
der these conditions, authority is con- From an egalitarian perspective, re-
junctural and so are allegiances. gional integration is an opportunity
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6 This, in fact, has been regarded as positive, “(…) grid-group theorists argue that large-scale, long-lived
societies are ’multi-cultural’ in the sense of containing substantial but varying portions of each of the four
cultures” (Lockhart, 1998, p. 116).
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lly, in the wake of these restructuring, blished one. This article has sought to
there is also the announcement of a build on that contribution by providing
new initiative: prosur, supported by a framework to make wicked problems
seven countries (Chile, Colombia, Ar- more tractable. In this sense, it has ar-
gentina, Brazil, Ecuador, Paraguay and gued in favor of gg cultural theory. This
Peru). These events suggest a shift on framework focuses on individual free-
the notion of integration, of what it is dom of choice and the dimensions that
and what it ought to be. influence it; to wit, grid (external im-
posed prescriptions) and group (group
Thus, ideas about regional integration affiliation effect), which take place as
matter. Depending on the interpreta- a matter of degree. Their combination
tions given to the notion of integration, produces four distinct and irreducible
different goals are set, and different worldviews, ways of life, or rationali-
policies enacted. The situation illus- ties: individualistic, hierarchical, egali-
trated by alba, unasur and the Pacific tarian, and fatalistic. These are ‘pure’
Alliance is potentially exacerbated by positions or ‘ideal types’ and each one
the inclusion of other mechanisms provides a different understanding of
such as mercosur, aladi, can, sica, etc. contestable concepts, including the
This diversity in notions regarding Latin idea of regional integration.
American integration increases when
studying it historically since they have Hence, the argument presented here
undergone significant changes from has fleshed out those interpretations
their inception to the current state of and illustrated them by locating re-
affairs. This makes it a problem in and gional integration initiatives that ar-
of itself, but not any problem, a wicked guably adhere to them. Thus, from a
problem (Garcés, 2018). hierarchical perspective, integration
is an instrument to bring some order
That Latin American integration can be to the chaos that is the anarchical
usefully treated as a wicked problem is international system by dint of spe-
not a new argument. In fact, that case cialization of functional roles. In this
was made in this very forum in 2018 sense, mercosur, can and sica can be
(Garcés 2018). In brief, wicked pro- considered adequate examples. An
blems are mostly social problems and individualist rationality sees integra-
are characterized by being ill-defined tion as unnecessary unless it put to the
without one precise and definitive so- service of a well-functioning market.
lution. As such, they entail the difficul- Regional projects based on free tra-
ty of potentially presenting as many de such as aladi, the Pacific Alliance
definitions and solutions as observers. and nafta fall within this category. The
Hence, this essay has not aimed to egalitarian worldview, in turn, regards
provide one additional definition of integration as an opportunity to foster
regional integration with any conclusi- collective action based on solidarity.
ve aspirations nor to adhere to an esta- Perhaps the initiatives that illustrate this
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positions best are unasur and alba. Fi- Therefore, any analysis, such as the
nally, for the fatalist way of life integra- one presented here, is necessarily tem-
tion is nothing more than one more porary, valid only as long as the current
scheme for others to exert control over arrangement endures. The rather dras-
them. There is no illustration for this tic changes that have taken place in
worldview because of its nature, but late 2018 and early 2019 so suggest.
adherents to this way of life are likely
to be found in all of the others. Furthermore, and as a consequence
of the above, potential solutions are
This discussion hints to three impor- also diverse and conjunctural, that is,
tant characteristics: coexistence, com- they are clumsy. Clumsy solutions are
petition and change. Since these are alternatives that address a wicked pro-
ideal types, no integration mechanism blem, taking into consideration all re-
is solely hierarchist, individualist, ega- levant worldviews, harnessing them in
litarian, or fatalist. Regardless of the constructive dialogue and not leaving
dominant rationality in the integration any way of life worse off. The impli-
system at any given moment, there is cations are fourfold. First, clumsy solu-
likely to be member states that subs- tions are concerned with the results as
cribe to different ones. Moreover, ra- well as with the process that delivers
tionalities or worldviews are always them. Second, there may be various
competing with each other in a zero- clumsy solutions to a wicked problem
sum game. The loss of adherents of one at a time and sometimes there may be
way of life means the gain of another. none. Third, clumsy solutions should
Telling examples of this is the transition not be associated with ‘relativism’ or
of Ecuador from an alba supporter to a ‘anything goes’ as they must meet, at
potentially Pacific Alliance member or least, the aforementioned criteria. Fi-
the distancing of countries from una- nally, to reiterate, because of the abo-
sur and their support of prosur. Finally, ve, clumsy solutions only (re)solve the
and in light of the above, both the do- issue for the time being. Under diffe-
minant rationality of a system and the rent circumstances, different arrange-
shaping of worldviews within it are sub- ments of ways of life, a different clumsy
ject to change. When there is sufficient solution may be warranted.
discrepancy between expectations
and reality, a different arrangement is This analysis has considered Latin
likely to emerge. Presumably, the afo- American integration itself as a wic-
rementioned changes in the region ked problem and, thus, it has studied
answer to this mismatch, as countries it directly from a grid-group gg cultu-
have perceived that some mechanisms ral theoretical perspective. It has used
provide more certainty (less surprise) a heuristic crossroads of sorts to tackle
better than others (in fact, criticism co- the Latin American figurative crossro-
ming from many states against unasur ads. The aim has been to shed fur-
is that it has failed to meet its goals). ther light on the issue and provide an
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