Portfolio 1

What do you mean by research? Explain the types of research. Describe the ethical
considerations for research.
Research has been defined in a number of different ways by different people. Though
different people have come out with different definitions, there are some similarities. Every
definition do not appear to be a single and extensive that is adopted by all.
Generally speaking, research refers to the search of knowledge. The word research has
evolved from the French word “Researche” which means search again and again.
According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, research is
defined as “creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge,
including knowledge of humans, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge
to devise new applications.”
Similarly, the Advance Learner’s Dictionary of Current English explains research as “a
careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge”
Another definition of research is given by John W. Creswell, who states that "research is a
process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a
topic or issue". It consists of three steps: pose a question, collect data to answer the question,
and present an answer to the question.
Some other definitions given by some notable philosophers are:
Research is a systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific problem that needs a
solution (Sekaran, 1992)
Methods of knowing or methods of fixing belief by American philosopher Charles Peirce,
etc.
As such, after analyzing the different definitions given by different people and organization,
it could be concluded that, research is systematic process of gaining new knowledge or
modifying existing knowledge which if implemented would provide a meaningful result.

Types of Research
Research can be classified into several categories according to the nature and purpose of the
study and other attributes. The following classifications however are the widely used:

1. Descriptive vs Analytical Research

2. Fundamental Research vs Applied Research

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3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative
4. Conceptual Research vs Empirical Research

1. Descriptive vs Analytical Research

A descriptive research is conducted using different types of surveys and fact-finding
enquiries of different kinds. The unique characteristic of this method is that the researcher has
no control over the variables as such he cannot manipulate the findings. The findings will be
present on its actual validity.
On the other hand, in the analytical research, the researcher uses facts or information already
available, and analyse these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
Some differences between descriptive and analytical research are listed below:
Descriptive Research Analytical Research
• Describes • Explains
• Is less exploratory. • Is more explanatory.
• Profiles characteristics of group. • Analyses why groups have
characteristics.
• Focuses on what • Focuses on why
• Assumes no hypothesis • Works on hypothesis
• Doesn’t require any comparisons. • Requires comparisons

2. Fundamental Research vs Applied Research

Fundamental research (basic research) is curiosity driven. When a researcher wants to expand
his knowledge, fundamental research is performed. Generally this type of research is
conducted for academic purposes. The research follows a systematic process including all the
process of a research paper. The format of the research has high degree of requirement over
the accuracy of its final results. As such, it is intended to answer why, what or how questions
and increase understanding of fundamental principles. Fundamental research does not have
immediate commercial objectives and although it certainly could, it may not necessarily
result in an invention or a solution to a practical problem.
In contradict to fundamental research, applied research is designed to answer specific
questions aimed at solving practical problems. That means, an applied research leads to the
conclusion of a certain findings. In this method, the final outcome has more importance over
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the process used to carry out the research. New knowledge acquired from applied research
has specific commercial objectives in the form of products, procedures or services.
Some differences between fundamental and applied research are listed below:
Fundamental Research Applied Research
• Aims to solve a problem by adding to the • Tries to eliminate the theory by adding to
field of application of a discipline Desire to the basics of a discipline Answers specific
expand knowledge questions aimed at solving practical
• Often several disciplines work together questions.
for solving the problem • Problems are analysed from the point of
• Often researches individual cases without one discipline
the aim to generalise • Generalisations are preferred
• Aims to say how things can be changed • Forecasting approach is implemented
• Acknowledges that other variables are • Assumes that other variables do not
constant by changing change

3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Any research which can be measured in terms of units is called qualitative research. On the
other hand, qualitative research, deals with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating
to or involving quality or kind. For eg: if we are studying the human behaviour (why people
get depressed?), we carry out a qualitative research as the outcome of such cannot be
measured exactly. Qualitative research are equally important in behavioural science where
the motive is to find out the underlying motives of human behaviour.

Table below tries to differentiate quantitative and qualitative research.

Research Aspect Quantitative Qualitative

Purpose Test Hypotheses or specific Discover Ideas used in
research questions explanatory research with
general objectives
Approach Measure and test Observe and interpret
Data Collection Structured response categories Unstructured, free form
provided
Data Analysis Numeric and statistical Non-statistical, generally

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 May include advance analytic non-numeric
techniques Focusing on concepts and
images
Includes content analysis,
observations
Research Researcher is not involved. Researcher is heavily
independence involved

Results/Outcome Results are objective Results are subjective

Uses Descriptive and casual Explanatory research design
research design
No of Participants Many to produce reliable Few, but in depth
results. conversations.
Question Types Closed ended “how many”, Open ended “what”, “how”,
“how much” “why”

4. Conceptual Research vs Empirical Research

Any research that is related to the abstract idea or theory is called conceptual research. A
researcher in conceptual research either reinterpret the existing one or develop a totally new
concept.
In empirical research, the research fully relies on the experience or observation of the
researcher. As this research uses the actual data, the outcome of such result could be verified
using certain experiment or observation.Thus, itis also called experimental type of research.

Conceptual Research Empirical Research

Research related to some abstract idea or Research done on experience or observation
theory generally used by philosophers and alone, without due regard for system and
thinkers to develop new concepts or theory, also called experimental research as
reinterpret existing ones the conclusions can be verified by
observation or experiment
Researcher breaks down a theorem or The researcher provides himself with a
concept into its constituent parts to gain working hypothesis to get the probable
better and deeper understanding of the issue results. Facts are found to prove or disprove
Useful method but should be used in the hypothesis after which experimental

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 conjunction with other methods to produce designs are made to bring forth the desired
better and understandable results. information

The Ethical Considerations for Research

1. No any research participants should be harmed in any ways whatsoever.
2. Self-respect of the participants must be maintained.
3. No any participants should be forcefully asked for participating in the study.
4. All the privacy of the research participants has to be ensured.
5. If the participants do not want to disclose their identity, anonymity of them has to be
ensured.
6. Data collected from the participants must be adequately confidential.
7. Data obtained from the participants/study should not be manipulated.
8. Using the information in part or whole for illegal work should be obviated.
9. Any deception or exaggeration about the aims and objectives of the research must be
avoided.
10. Affiliations in any forms, sources of funding, as well as any possible conflicts of interests
have to be declared.
11. Any type of communication in relation to the research should be done with honesty and
transparency.
12. Any type of misleading information, as well as representation of primary data findings in a
biased way must be avoided.
13. The use of offensive, discriminatory, or other unacceptable language needs to be avoided in
the formulation of Questionnaire/Interview/Focus group questions.

References
Bryman, A. & Bell, E. (2007) “Business Research Methods”, 2nd edition. Oxford University
Press.
Creswell, J. W. (2008). Educational Research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating
quantitative and qualitative research (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson.
Oecd (2015). Frascati Manual 2015. The Measurement of Scientific, Technological and
Innovation Activities.

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Roffee, James A; Waling, Andrea (18 August 2016). "Resolving ethical challenges when
researching with minority and vulnerable populations: LGBTIQ victims of violence,
harassment and bullying". Research Ethics. 13 (1): 4–22.

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Portfolio 2

1. Explain the research process.

The series of actions and steps required to carry out the research effectively for getting the
required output is called research process.

The flowchart shows the research process which starts with the selection of the topic/
identification of problem and ends with the Interpretation/ Report/ Conclusion. Depending
upon the requirement of the research, numerous sub-steps that might come in between any of
the steps shown above. Also, one step does not necessarily follow the next step.
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A research process consist of but not limited to the following steps:

1. Formulation of the Research Problem

2. Literature Review
3. Development of Hypothesis
4. Preparation the Research Design
5. Data Collection
6. Data Analysis
7. Testing of Hypothesis
8. Generalization and Interpretation
9. Preparation and Presentation of Results
1. Formulation the Research Problem
A research problem is thing the researcher like to research on. This particular problem should
be of the researcher interest so that the research would be fruitful. However in determining
the problem, care should be taken that it has to be resolved. Problem which cannot be
resolved or come to a conclusion should be avoided as far as practicable. While determining
the problem, two steps are involved:

a) Understanding the problem

b) Rephrasing the problem into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view

For e.g.; if a researcher is eager to know what the possible causes of heart attack are, the
research should start with the questions like what are the possible causes. Only then the
researcher could go to the next stage.

2. Literature Review
The second step in the research process is the review of literature. Literature is the theory
which has been written on a particular topic.
For e.g. taking the same case of research of study of possible causes of heart attack, the
researcher need to study a lot about the heart attack before he could start with the research.
Books, conference papers, journal papers, online articles, government reports, libraries and
the reports of other researchers and their findings could be the sources of information from
where the researcher could get the further information on heart attack.

3. Development of Hypothesis

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Hypothesis is a possible or tentative answer to the question. It might be the preconceived
notion of the researcher. Hypothesis affect the manner in which the test is carried out in later
phase. It provides the researcher with an idea of the process of analysing the data and even
the quality of data which is required for the analysis. It has to be specific as it has to be tested.

Hypothesis could be developed by:

a) Discussion with colleagues and experts about the problem

b) Examination of data and records
c) Review of other studies done on similar problems
d) Conducting interview with the individuals or parties to get the insight aspect of the
problems

True False

Accept Correct Error

Error Correct
Reject

4. Preparation of the Research Design

After literature review and development of hypotheses, the researcher needs to formulate a
road-map for carrying out the research. This is method of conducting the research. The
researcher tries to collect maximum information with minimum spend of time and money for
the purpose of conducting research. The purpose of research might be:

a)Exploration
b) Description
c)Diagnosis
d) Experimentation

While preparing the research design, the following. The research design process generally is
affected by:

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 a)Means of obtaining the research
b) Availability of skills of researcher
c)Time available for research
d) Availability of finance for research
5. Data Collection

The research is only validated when it is carried out taking the sample of large number of
people. One cannot generalize a research by conducting it on a single person. But if the same
has been conducted on a group of people, it becomes more effective.

There are normally two types of data; Primary and Secondary.

Primary data is the first hand data collected by the researcher himself for conducting
research.

Secondary data refers to data which is collected by someone who is other than the user.
Common sources of secondary data for include censuses, information collected by
government departments, organizational records and also those data which was originally
collected for other research purposes.

Data could be collected by any one or more of the following ways:

a) By Observation
b) Through Personal Interview
c) Through Telephone Interview
d) By Mailing of questionnaires
e) Through Schedules

The selection of one of these methods depends upon the nature of investigation, objective and
scope of inquiry, financial resources, time availability and the degree of accuracy.

6. Data Analysis

Data Analysis is the process of systematically applying statistical and/or logical techniques to
describe and illustrate, condense and recap, and evaluate data. According to Shamoo and
Resnik (2003) various analytic procedures “provide a way of drawing inductive inferences
from data and distinguishing the signal (the phenomenon of interest) from the noise
(statistical fluctuations) present in the data”.

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There are a number of issues that researchers should be aware of with respect to data
analysis. These include:

• Having the necessary skills to analyse

• Concurrently selecting data collection methods and appropriate analysis
• Drawing unbiased inference
• Inappropriate subgroup analysis
• Following acceptable norms for disciplines
• Determining statistical significance
• Lack of clearly defined and objective outcome measurements
• Providing honest and accurate analysis
• Manner of presenting data
• Environmental/contextual issues
• Data recording method
• Partitioning ‘text’ when analysing qualitative data
• Training of staff conducting analyses
• Reliability and Validity
• Extent of analysis
7. Testing of Hypothesis

After analysing the data, the researcher is able to test the hypotheses (if any) that he had
developed earlier. He is able to ascertain if his facts support the earlier set up hypotheses or
contrary. Tests like Chi square test, t-test, F-test are used for either accepting or rejecting the
hypothesis.

8. Generalization and Interpretation

Generalization is the process of building a theory after testing the hypothesis a number of
times. A research is said to be good only when it succeeds to arrive at a certain
generalization. However, if no any hypothesis has been set up by the researcher, the findings
could be explained on the basis of earlier findings which is called interpretation.

9. Preparation and Presentation of Results

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After all the works, the last step in research is the preparation and presentation of the results
which is called the report submission. A report layout may differ as per the need of the report.
Generally, a report consists of:

a)Title
b) Acknowledgement
c)Abstract
d) Table of Contents
e)Introduction
f) Review of the Literature and the Research Model
g) Methodology
h) Results and Discussions
i) Summary and Conclusions
j) References
k) Appendixes

2. What do you mean by research problem? Explain the research process by linking with
research questions, research objectives and research hypothesis.

A research problem is thing the researcher like to research on. This particular problem should
be of the researcher interest so that the research would be fruitful. However in determining
the problem, care should be taken that it has to be resolved. Problem which cannot be
resolved or come to a conclusion should be avoided as far as practicable. While determining
the problem, two steps are involved:

a) Understanding the problem

b) Rephrasing the problem into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view

For e.g.; if a researcher is eager to know what the possible causes of heart attack are, the
research should start with the questions like what are the possible causes. Only then the
researcher could go to the next stage.

While conducting the research, it is important to know the boundary between current
knowledge and ignorance. The challenge in developing an appropriate research question is in
determining which clinical uncertainties could or should be studied and also rationalizing the
need for their investigation.

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A well searched literature, properly conducted surveys or interviews,can help with the
development of research questions. It is utmost necessary to understand what has been
studied about a topic to date in order to further the knowledge that has been previously
gathered on a topic.

In-depth knowledge about a subject may generate a number of questions. It then becomes
necessary to ask whether these questions can be answered through one study or if more than
one study needed. Additional research questions can be developed, but several basic
principles should be taken into consideration. All questions, primary and secondary, should
be developed at the beginning and planning stages of a study. The best strategy is to establish
a single primary research question around which to focus the study plan. In a study, the
primary research question should be clearly stated at the end of the introduction of the grant
proposal, and it usually specifies the population to be studied, the intervention to be
implemented and other circumstantial factors.

The primary objective of the research should be backed up by the hypothesis of the study.
Study objectives define the specific aims of the study and should be clearly stated in the
introduction of the research. The study objective is an active statement about how the study is
going to answer the specific research question. Objectives can guide the researcher about the
outcome measures which are going to be used. They are important because they not only help
guide the development of the protocol and design of study but also play a role in sample size
calculations and determining the power of the study.

The primary research question should be driven by the hypothesis rather than the data. That
is, the research question and hypothesis should be developed before the start of the study.In
setting up the hypothesis, the question is asked specifically to then find the answer, thus
collecting data along the way. A good hypothesis must be based on a good research question
at the start of a trial and, indeed, drive data collection for the study.

The research or clinical hypothesis is developed from the research question and then the main
elements of the study — sampling strategy, intervention (if applicable), comparison and
outcome variables.

When formally testing statistical significance, the hypothesis should be stated as a “null”
hypothesis. The purpose of hypothesis testing is to make an inference about the population of
interest on the basis of a random sample taken from that population. The null hypothesis for

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the preceding research hypothesis then would be that there is no difference in mean
functional outcome between the computer-assisted insertion and free-hand placement
techniques. After forming the null hypothesis, the researchers would form an alternate
hypothesis stating the nature of the difference, if it should appear. At the end of the study, the
null hypothesis is then tested statistically. If the findings of the study are not statistically
significant (i.e., there is no difference in functional outcome between the groups in a
statistical sense), we cannot reject the null hypothesis, whereas if the findings were
significant, we can reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate hypothesis (i.e., there is
a difference in mean functional outcome between the study groups). In other words,
hypothesis testing confirms the statement that the observed findings did not occur by chance
alone but rather occurred because there was a true difference in outcomes between these
surgical procedures.

Designing a research hypothesis is supported by a good research question and will influence
the type of research design for the study.

The development of the research question is the most important aspect of a research project.
A research project can fail if the objectives and hypothesis are poorly focused and
underdeveloped. Designing and developing an appropriate and relevant research question,
hypothesis and objectives can be a difficult task. The critical appraisal of the research
question used in a study is vital to the application of the findings to clinical practice.
Focusing resources, time and dedication will help to guide a successful research project,
influence interpretation of the results and affect future publication efforts.

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Portfolio 3
1. What do you mean by literature review?

A literature review is a scholarly paper of what has been published on a topic by accredited
scholars and researchers. It is also a part of the introduction to the research report, or thesis.
In writing the literature review, researcher’s purpose is to convey to the reader what
knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and
weaknesses are. As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a guiding
concept (e.g., research objective, the problem or issue, or any argumentative thesis). It
documents the state of the art with respect to the subject or topic the researcher is writing
about.

A literature review has four main objectives:

• Demonstrates a familiarity with a body of knowledge and establishes the credibility of the
work.
• Summarizes prior research and says how the project is linked to it.
• Integrates and summarizes what is known about a subject.
• Demonstrates that researcher has learnt from others and that the research is a starting
point for new ideas.

The purpose of a literature review is to:

• Place each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the research problem
being studied.
• Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
• Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies.
• Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research.
• Locate the research within the context of existing literature.

Common Mistakes to Avoid in Literature Review

Below are the most common mistakes made in reviewing research literature.

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• Sources in literature review do not clearly relate to the research problem;
• Not taking sufficient time to define and identify the most relevant sources to use in the
literature review related to the research problem;
• Relies exclusively on secondary analytical sources rather than including relevant primary
research studies or data;
• Uncritically accepts another researcher's findings and interpretations as valid, rather than
examining critically all aspects of the research design and analysis;
• Does not describe the search procedures that were used in identifying the literature to
review;
• Reports isolated statistical results rather than synthesizing them in chi-squared or meta-
analytic methods; and,
• Only includes research that validates assumptions and does not consider contrary findings
and alternative interpretations found in the literature.

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Rojesh Karmacharya 17 Business Research Methodology
2. Explain the importance of framework in research.

A framework indicates the perspective which is to be used to research. For example, a

researcher’s investigative framework might suggest whether a quantitative or a qualitative
approach is best for addressing the research question. Depending on the aim of the research,
a framework either as a rather general approach to the topic (e.g. sociological, technological,
organisational, educational, innovation framework or some combination from an
interdisciplinary perspective) or as a more focused model in which you already describes the
parameters of the phenomenon and their relationships could be used.

A framework in research could be either

a) Theoretical Framework
b) Conceptual Framework

A theoretical framework is analogous to the frame of the house. Just as the foundation
supports a house, a theoretical framework provides a rationale for predictions about the
relationships among variables of a research study. Theories are generated by using inductive
processes.A deductive approach is used to evaluate and modify existing theory by testing
predictions about relationships between observed phenomena

Theoretical framework is useful for:

a) Developing Hypotheses
b) A frame of reference/base for
• Observations
• Definitions of concepts
• Research Designs
• Interpretations
• Generalizations
c) Serves as a guide to systematically identify logical, precisely defined relationships among
variables

The theoretical framework plays an important role in guiding the entire process of the
research study. Theories are constructed in order to explain, predict and master phenomena
(e.g. relationships, events, or the behaviour). A theory makes generalizations about
observations and consists of an interrelated, coherent set of ideas and models.

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If the framework is logically sound and substantiated by previous research studies, there is a
strong possibility that the predictions or hypotheses evolving from that framework will be
supported In some cases, a theoretical rationale in inappropriately used. E.g. a theory is
designed to explain a particular behaviour in infants may not be appropriate for the study of
those behaviours in adults

Purpose of Theoretical Framework:

a) It helps the researcher see clearly the variables of the study.

b) It can provide him with a general framework for data analysis.
c) It is essential in preparing a research proposal using descriptive and experimental
methods.

A conceptual framework is used in research to outline possible courses of action or to present

a preferred approach to an idea or thought.

Process of Developing Framework

a) Select concepts a concept is an image or symbolic representation of an abstract idea. e.g.

health, pain, intelligence …
b) Identify the interrelationships among concepts.
c) Formulating definitions.
d) Formulating the theoretical rationale

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Portfolio 4
What do you mean by research design? Explain the types of research design.
The topics covered by the term research design are wide ranging. There are many definitions
of research design, but no single definition imparts the full range of important aspects.
• Research design constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of
data.
• Research design aids the researcher in the allocation of limited resources by posting
crucial choices in methodology.
• Research design is the plan and structure of investigation so conceived as to obtain
answers to research questions. The plan is the overall scheme or program of the research.
It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from writing hypotheses and their
operational implications to the final analysis of data
• Research design expresses both the structure of the research problem—the frame work,
organization, or configuration of the relationship among variables of a study—and the
plan of investigation used to obtain imperial evidence on those relationships.
These definition may differ in detail, but together they give the essentials of research
design:
• An activity and time based plan.
• A plan always based on the research question
• A guide for selecting sources and type of information
• A framework for specifying the relationships among the study’s variable
• A procedural outline for every research activity
Research Design Characteristics
There are four key characteristics of research design:
• Neutrality: The results projected in research design should be free from bias and neutral.
Understand opinions about the final evaluated scores and conclusion from multiple
individuals and consider those who agree with the derived results.
• Reliability: If a research is conducted on a regular basis, the researcher involved expects
similar results to be calculated every time. Research design should indicate how the
research questions can be formed to ensure the standard of obtained results and this can
happen only when the research design is reliable.
• Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available for research design but valid
measuring tools are those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the
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 objective of research and nothing else. The questionnaire developed from this research
design will be then valid.
• Generalization: The outcome of research design should be applicable to a population and
not just a restricted sample. Generalization is one of the key characteristics of research
design.
Types of Research Design
A researcher must have a clear understanding of the various types of research design to select
which type of research design to implement for a study. Research design can be broadly
classified into quantitative and qualitative research design.
• Qualitative Research Design: Qualitative research is implemented in cases where a
relationship between collected data and observation is established on the basis of
mathematical calculations. Theories related to a naturally existing phenomenon can be
proved or disproved using mathematical calculations. Researchers rely on qualitative
research design where they are expected to conclude “why” a particular theory exists
along with “what” respondents have to say about it.
• Quantitative Research Design: Quantitative research is implemented in cases where it is
important for a researcher to have statistical conclusions to collect actionable insights.
Numbers provide a better perspective to make important business decisions. Quantitative
research design is important for the growth of any organization because any conclusion
drawn on the basis of numbers and analysis will only prove to be effective for the
business. Further, research design can be divided into five types –
1. Descriptive Research Design: In a descriptive research design, a researcher is solely
interested in describing the situation or case under his/her research study. It is a theory-
based research design which is created by gather, analyze and presents collected data. By
implementing an in-depth research design such as this, a researcher can provide insights
into the why and how of research.
2. Experimental Research Design: Experimental research design is used to establish a
relationship between the cause and effect of a situation. It is a causal research design
where the effect caused by the independent variable on the dependent variable is
observed. For example, the effect of an independent variable such as price on a dependent
variable such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty is monitored. It is a highly
practical research design method as it contributes towards solving a problem at hand. The
independent variables are manipulated to monitor the change it has on the dependent

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 variable. It is often used in social sciences to observe human behaviour by analysing two
groups – effect of one group on the other.
3. Correlational Research Design: Correlational research is a non-experimental research
design technique which helps researchers to establish a relationship between two closely
connected variables. Two different groups are required to conduct this research design
method. There is no assumption while evaluating a relationship between two different
variables and statistical analysis techniques are used to calculate the relationship between
them. Correlation between two variables is concluded using a correlation coefficient,
whose value ranges between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is towards +1, it
indicates a positive relationship between the variables and -1 indicates a negative
relationship between the two variables.
4. Diagnostic Research Design: In the diagnostic research design, a researcher is inclined
towards evaluating the root cause of a specific topic. Elements that contribute towards a
troublesome situation are evaluated in this research design method. There are three parts
of diagnostic research design:
• Inception of the issue
• Diagnosis of the issue
• Solution for the issue
5. Explanatory Research Design: In exploratory research design, the researcher’s ideas and
thoughts are key as it is primarily dependent on their personal inclination about a
particular topic. Explanation about unexplored aspects of a subject is provided along with
details about what, how and why related to the research questions.

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Portfolio 5

What do you mean by Questionnaire? Explain the process of constructing good

questionnaire.

A questionnaire is defined as a research instrument that consists a set of questions or other

types of prompts that aims to collect information from a respondent. These typically are a
mix of close-ended questions and open-ended questions; long form questions offer the ability
for the respondent to elaborate on their thoughts. Questionnaires were developed in 1838 by
the Statistical Society of London.
A questionnaire is a set of questions typically used for research purposes which can be both
qualitative as well as quantitative in nature. A questionnaire may or may not be delivered in
the form of a survey, but a survey always consists of questionnaire.
Types of Questionnaires
1. Structured Questionnaires:
Structured questionnaires collect quantitative data. The questionnaire is planned and designed
to collect very specific information. It also initiates a formal enquiry, supplements data and
checks previously accumulated data and helps validate any prior hypothesis.
2. Unstructured Questionnaires:
Unstructured questionnaires collect qualitative data. The questionnaire in this case has a basic
structure and some branching questions but nothing that limits the responses of a respondent.
The questions are more open-ended.

Steps Involved in Questionnaire Design

1. Identify what you want to cover in a questionnaire:
Even before you think how your questionnaire will look, think what your questionnaire is
going to include. Clarity of topic is of utmost importance as this is the primary step in
designing the questionnaire. Once you are clear on what the questionnaire is going to be
about the rest of the steps simply follow.
2. Don’t mince your words:
It’s essential that the words or phrases that you use while writing the questionnaire are easy to
understand because there are chances that not all respondents will understand the meaning
behind it. If the questions are unclear the respondents they may simply choose any options,
leading to inaccurate data at your end.
Rojesh Karmacharya 23 Business Research Methodology
3. Ask only one question at a time:
At times a researcher may be tempted to add two similar questions as one. However, this is
also something that should be avoided as each question might have a different outcome. It
may seem like common sense, but it’s an easy trap to fall into when compiling questions. If
any of your questions contain the word “and”, take another look at it. This question likely has
two parts, which can tamper your data quality.
4. Be flexible with your options:
While designing, the survey creator needs to be flexible in terms of “option choice” for the
respondents. Sometimes the respondents may not necessarily want to choose from the answer
options provided by the survey creator, in such a situation it helps to have “other” option.
5. Open-ended or closed-ended question, it’s a tough choice:
The survey creator might end up in a situation where he/she would need to make distinct
choices between open or close-ended questions. Again the question type should be carefully
sorted as it defines the tone and importance of asking the question in the first place.
If the questionnaire requires the respondents not to restrict their thoughts, open-ended
question is the best choice. But, if the surveyor wants a specific response then close-ended
questions should be their primary choice. The key to asking closed-ended questions is to
generate data that is easy to analyze and spot trends; not to mention, closed-ended questions
are easier for the survey taker.
6. It is important to know your audience:
As a thumb rule, a researcher should know their target audience. For example, if the target
audience is Spanish, sending the questionnaire in any other language will not yield desired
responses. Something that may seem clear to you may be confusing to your respondents. Use
simple language and terminology that your respondents will understand, and avoid technical
jargon and industry-specific language that might confuse or frustrate your respondents.
7. Choosing the right tool is important:
One last yet an important note before we conclude, save personal questions for last! Sensitive
questions may cause respondents to drop off before completing. If these questions are at the
end, the respondent has had time to become more comfortable with the interview and is more
likely to answer personal or demographic questions.

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Portfolio 6
Explain the measurement and scaling. Explain the types of reliability and validity in
research.
Assigning numbers or other symbols to any product or event or issue or characteristics as per
the certain pre-specified rule is known as measurement. In other words, Measurement is the
method of turning the series of qualitative facts into a quantitative series.
Number is a symbol that can be provided in different ways like 1, 2, 3… or I, II, Ill ...
Numbers should be explained to get the information. Symbols are the means of finding out
the characters of any events. It is easy to measure physical product like length, breadth,
height, weight etc. but measurement of qualitative fact is very difficult. Thus, it is essential to
provide number or symbol to measure characteristics of qualitative facts which is known as
measurement. In business research, numbers are usually assigned for two reasons. First,
number permits statistical analysis of data. Second, number facilitates the communication of
measured rules and results.
• As per the definition of measurement, measurement is the composition of following
processes.
• Selection of observable empirical events.
• Developing a set of rules: A scheme for assigning number or symbols to represent the
characteristics of the events those are to be measured.
• Applying the rules to each observation of that event
Scaling
Scaling is the procedure of measuring and assigning the objects to the numbers according to
the specified rules. In other words, the process of locating the measured objects on the
continuum, a continuous sequence of numbers to which the objects are assigned is called as
scaling.
It is considered as the extension of measurement. For example, consider a scale from 1 to 10
for locating consumer characteristics (preference for the product). Each respondent is
assigned a number from 1 to 10 denoting the degree of favorableness for the product, with ‘1’
indicating extremely unfavorable and ’10’ indicating extremely favorable. Here, the
measurement is the process of assigning the actual number from 1 to 10 to each respondent
while the scaling is a process of placing respondents on a continuum with respect to their
preference for the product.
Types of Scaling
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a) Nominal Scale
A Nominal Scale is a scale in which the numbers serve only as tags or labels to identify or
classify the objects. In other words, the nominal scale of measurement deals only with non-
numeric variables. For example, the numbers assigned on a jersey of each hockey player have
no value, which tells about the ability of each player, i.e. who is better than whom, rather it is
used to identify the players.
b) Ordinal Scale
The Ordinal Scale is a rank order scale in which the numbers are assigned to the objects to
determine the relative extent to which certain characteristic is possessed. It helps in
identifying that whether the object has more or less of a characteristic as compared to another
object, but does not tell about how much or less the characteristic is. The most common
examples of the ordinal scale are quality rankings, occupational status, ranking of teams in
tournaments, rank-order of winners, etc
c) Interval Scale
An Interval Scale is a numeric scale in which the numbers are assigned to the objects in such
a way that numerically equal distances on the scale represent the equal distances between the
characteristics of the objects being measured. The interval scale possesses all the
characteristics of an ordinal scale, but it also allows the researcher to compare the difference
between the objects. The most common example is a Celsius temperature scale in which the
difference between the values is same.
d) Ratio Scale
The Ratio Scale is the highest level scale that allows the researcher to classify or identify the
objects, rank-order the objects and compare the intervals or differences. The ratio scale
possesses all the characteristics of nominal, ordinal and interval scale and in addition to it, it
also possesses a true zero point or origin characteristic. With a zero point, it is possible to
calculate the ratios of the scale values. The most common examples of ratio scales are
weight, age, height, and money.
Validity of Measurement
Validity refers to the ability of measuring tools, instrument, questionnaire etc to measure
what it indents to measure. If it does not measure what it is designated to measure, there will
be the problem. It is a term to describe a measure that accurately reflects the concept it is
intended to measure. Validity of an instrument depends on the ability of instrument to
measure what was expected. It should be checked before conducting research.

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Portfolio 7
What do you mean by sampling method? Explain the procedure of sampling.
The theory of sampling is as follows:
1. Researchers want to gather information about a whole group of people (the population).
2. Researchers can only observe a part of the population (the sample).
3. The findings from the sample are generalized, or extended, back to the population.
Therefore, the key question in sampling is how representative is the sample of the target
population? This question is the foundation of population validity, the degree to which the
results of a study can be generalized from the sample to the target population.
The analogy of a fruit market can be used when thinking about the population, the sample,
and the sampling technique. The first step in sampling is to identify the unit of analysis.
Identify the Population. Let's say that you are conducting research related to a fruit market.
What will be studied in the fruit market? Is it a type of fruit or the fruit sellers themselves?
Let's say you identify citrus fruit as the unit of analysis, and your population is all citrus fruit
within the Bauchi Road fruit market. There are too many pieces of citrus fruit for you to
study in that market, so you must select only a sample of the citrus fruit.
A common error in sampling is that the sample and population are not identical. For example,
the sample may be too narrow. If the population is all citrus fruit within the Kathmandu fruit
market, then the sample cannot only consist of lemons because your sample would be
missing oranges, grapefruit, and limes. Therefore, you must find a way of selecting a
representative sample of citrus fruit from your population. To apply to an educational study,
perhaps one may say that the population is all university students, but only university
students in public schools are sampled.
Another common error is to make the population too broad. Some may say that the
population is all mangoes in the Kathmandu fruit market, but they are really only interested in
green mangoes. If only green mangoes are of interest, then the population should be green
mangoes in the Kathmandu fruit market. In educational research, sometimes researchers are
only interested in a population with a certain characteristic, such as student who has not
chosen a career (in the case of career counselling). Thus, the population and sample must be
the same.
The Sampling Procedure

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Preliminary Considerations in Selecting a Sample
Before selecting a sampling procedure, first consider the following:
• Select the unit of analysis. When selecting the sample, it is imperative that the sampling
technique selects cases based on this unit of analysis. In other words, if the unit of
analysis is students, then the sampling technique must focus solely on how the students
were selected. It would be an error to describe the selection of schools as the sampling
technique when the unit of analysis is students.
• Determine how many units need to be sampled. This step is a tricky balancing act. On the
one hand, larger samples tend to be more representative of the target population and
provide stronger statistical power. On the other hand, larger samples can decrease the
quality of the research study, particularly for experimental and quasi-experimental
designs. In experimental designs, if many people participate in the treatment, then the
quality of treatment that each individual receives might suffer, resulting in inaccurate
conclusions. It is a truism that overpopulation in classrooms reduces the impact of
instruction; if there are too many students in the class, then the teaching will not be as
effective. Likewise, we should equally avoid the problem of overpopulation in
experiments: too many participants in a treatment group will reduce the impact of the
treatment. Therefore, smaller treatment groups are generally preferable. In general,
descriptive designs require at least 100 participants, correlational designs require at least
30 participants, and experimental, quasi-experimental, and causal-comparative designs
require at least 15 participants per group. The size of the sample in experiments depend
on how effective the treatment is. If you have a very effective treatment, then only a few
participants are necessary. However, if the treatment is weak, then a larger sample size is
necessary to find a significant effect.
Procedures
There are many sampling procedures that have been developed to ensure that a sample
adequately represents the target population. A few of the most common are described below.
Simple Random Sampling
In simple random sampling, every individual in the target population has an equal chance of
being part of the sample. This requires two steps:
1. Obtain a complete list of the population.
2. Randomly select individuals from that list for the sample.

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Recall that the sampling procedure must reflect the unit of analysis. In a study where the unit
of analysis is the student, the researcher must obtain a complete list of every student in the
target population to achieve simple random sampling. This is rarely possible, so very few, if
any, educational studies use simple random sampling.
Another factor to consider is the word random. Random is a technical term in social science
research that means that selection was made without aim, reason, or patterns. If any study
uses the word random, it means that specific scientific procedures were used to ensure that
the sample was selected purely by chance. Scientists have developed a few procedures that
must be followed for a study to achieve random, such as the hat-and-draw method or a
random number table. To be random, participants cannot be chosen because of their
intelligence, gender, social class, convenience, or any other factor besides scientifically-
agreed upon random procedures. Using the word random when the unit of analysis was not
selected by the hat-and-draw method or a random number table is either irresponsible or flat-
out untruthful.
Stratified Random Sampling
In stratified random sampling, the researcher first divides the population into groups based on
a relevant characteristic and then selects participants within those groups. In educational
research, stratified random sampling is typically used when the researcher wants to ensure
that specific subgroups of people are adequately represented within the sample. For example,
a research study examining the effect of computerized instruction on math achievement needs
to adequately sample both male and female pupils. Stratified random sampling will be used to
ensure adequate representation of both males and females. Stratified random sampling
requires four steps:
• Determine the strata that the population will be divided into. The strata are the
characteristics that the population is divided into, perhaps gender, age, urban/rural, etc.
• Determine the number of participants necessary for each stratum. Perhaps the researcher
wants equal representation within the strata: half male, half female; 20 children age 5, 20
children age 6, and 20 age 7; etc. Other times (e.g., large survey research), the researcher
might want to use proportionate random sampling. This requires that the researcher first
knows the proportion of the group in the entire population and then match that proportion
within the sample. For example, a researcher might find the most recent Nigerian census
to determine that females represent 53% of the population in Nigeria, so the sample will
then include 53% females.

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• Split the units of analysis into the respective strata. In other words, if the target population
is students and the researcher wants to stratify based on gender, then the researcher will
need two lists of the target population: one list of the male students and another list of the
female students.
• Randomly sample participants from within the group. Using either the hat-and-draw
method or a random number table, randomly select the requisite number of males and do
the same for the females.
Purposive Sampling
In purposive sampling, the researcher uses their expert judgment to select participants that are
representative of the population. To do this, the researcher should consider factors that might
influence the population: perhaps socio-economic status, intelligence, access to education,
etc. Then the researcher purposefully selects a sample that adequately represents the target
population on these variables.
Multi-Stage Sampling
More frequently, educational researchers use multi-stage sampling. In multi-stage sampling,
the sample is selected in multiple steps, or stages. For example, in the first stage,
geographical regions, such as local government areas, are selected. In the second stage,
perhaps schools may be selected. In the third stage, the unit of analysis - perhaps teachers or
students, are sampled. If the unit of analysis is not selected in the first step, then the sampling
procedure is multi-stage sampling. In multi-stage sampling, other sampling techniques may
be used at the different stages. For example, the first stage may use random sampling, the
second stage may use purposive sampling, and the third stage may use stratified sampling.
The steps in multi-stage sampling are as follows:
• Organize the sampling process into stages where the unit of analysis is systematically
grouped.
• Select a sampling technique for each stage.
• Systematically apply the sampling technique to each stage until the unit of analysis has
been selected.

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