EGB323 Week 3 Lecture ENG 2019

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics
Lecture 3
Prof. Ted Steinberg

Science and Engineering Faculty
Queensland University of Technology
1 / 59 EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

Materials Lecture
Today’s Lecture
Equation of state of a perfect gas
Energy
Specific heats of a gas
Statics of fluid systems
Pressure
Pascal’s law for pressure at a point
Variation of pressure vertically in a fluid under
gravity
Pressure and head
Manometry
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Equation of state of a perfect gas Ideal Gas Law
The Ideal Gas Law
pV = mRT
where m is the mass and R is the Characteristic Gas
Constant

Equation of state of a perfect gas Ideal Gas Law
Equation of State of a Perfect Gas

In Fluid Mechanics it is more normal to discuss
things in terms of mass density
Therefore, the Equation of State of a Perfect
Gas is:
p = ρRT
Most gases at pressures and temperatures well
removed from liquefaction follow this
Does not apply to vapours

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Equation of state of a perfect gas The Universal Gas Constant
The Universal Gas Constant

The Characteristic Gas Constant, R, is given by:
Ru
R= M
where, M is the molar mass (molecular weight) and
Ru is the Universal Gas Constant.
Ru = 8.314 kJ kmol −1 K −1

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Specific Heat Energy
Brief look at Energy

Energy is the ability to do work
Energy manifests itself in many forms, most
commonly:
Thermal
Kinetic
Potential
Electrical
Chemical
Mechanical
Nuclear
Magnetic
Measured in Joules

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Total Energy
Total energy is the sum of all the energies of a
system
Denoted by, E
Denoted by, e, if given on a per mass basis

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Internal Energy
The forms of energy related to the molecular
structure of a system and the degree of
molecular activity are referred to as microscopic
energy
The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is
called the Internal Energy of a system
Denoted by, U
Denoted by, u, if given on a per mass basis

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Microscopic Energy
The microscopic energy of a system is related to
motion and the influence of some external
effects, such as:
temperature change
gravity
magnetism
electricity
surface tension

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Thermal Energy
What we think of a system’s heat content is
actually Thermal Energy
Thermal energy is the sensible and latent forms
of internal energy
Heat
A system cannot contain heat
Heat only exists as energy crossing a system
boundary through a temperature difference
All other forms of energy transfer are work

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Enthalpy
In systems that involve fluid flow we frequently
encounter enthalpy, the combination of internal
energy and flow energy:
h = u + pρ
The flow energy, or flow work, is the energy per
unit mass needed to move the fluid and
maintain flow.
Using enthalpy instead of internal energy to
represent the energy of a flowing fluid means
that the energy associated with flow work is
already taken care of.
Specific Heat Specific Heat
Specific Heat
Specific heat is the energy required to raise the
temperature of a unit of mass of a substance by one
degree in a specified way.
Hence, it has units of kJ kg −1 K −1
Note:
Some texts will display the units as kJ kg −1 ◦ C −1

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Specific Heat Specific Heat
Specific Heat
Specific heat at constant volume, cv
The energy required to raise the temperature of the
unit mass of a substance by one degree as the
volume is maintained constant. Used for change
R in
internal energy. In an ideal system, ∆u = cv (T )dT
Specific heat at constant pressure, cp

The energy required to raise the temperature of the
unit mass of a substance by one degree as the
pressure is maintained constant. Used
R for change in
enthalpy. In an ideal system, ∆h = cp (T )dT
Specific Heat Formal Definitions
Specific Heat
Formal Definitions
∂u
cv = ( ∂T )v
The change in internal energy with temperature at
constant volume
∂h
cp = ( ∂T )p
The change in enthalpy with temperature at constant
pressure

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Specific Heat Formal Definitions
Specific Heat for Incompressible

Substances
For incompressible substances the
constant-volume and constant-pressure specific
heats are identical
Therefore, cv = cp = c
For liquids the internal energy can be defined as
∆u = cavg ∆T

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Specific Heat Temperature Dependent
Specific Heat
Temperature Dependent
The specific heat of an ideal gas changes with
temperature. In fact cv and cp are only dependent on
temperature.
i.e. cv = cv (T ) and cp = cp (T )
For instance it takes 0.718 kJ of energy to heat air at

300 K by 1 degree, but it takes 0.855 kJ at 1000 K

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Specific Heat Temperature Dependent
Specific Heat
Temperature Dependent
At low pressure, relative to the critical point, all real
gases approach ideal-gas behaviour, and therefore
their specific heats depend on temperature only.
The specific heats of real gases at low pressures are
called ideal-gas specific heats, or zero-pressure
specific heats, and are often denoted cp0 and cv 0 .
Values for u, internal energy, h, enthalpy, and cp
and cv for many gases have been tabulated.

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Specific Heat Practical Use
Specific Heat
Internal energy and enthalpy change can be
calculated when specific heat is taken constant at an
average value.
∆u = cv ,avg (T2 − T1 )
∆h = cp,avg (T2 − T1 )
For small temperature intervals the specific heats
may be assumed to vary linearly with temperature.

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Specific Heat
From Cengel and Boles

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Specific Heat
The relation ∆u = cv ∆T is valid for any kind of

process, constant-volume or not.
From Cengel and Boles

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Specific Heat Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases
Specific Heat
Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases
h = u + Pv
h = u + RT
dh = du + RdT
cp dT = cv dT + RdT
∴ cp = cv + R
cp > cv

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Specific Heat Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases
Specific Heat Relations of Ideal

Gases
Example
Air at 300 K
cv = 0.718 kJ kg −1 K −1
R = 0.287 kJ kg −1 K −1
∴ cp = 1.005 kJ kg −1 K −1

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Specific Heat Compressibility
Compressibility
We know that volume of a fluid changes with a
change in its temperature or pressure
Fluids typically expand when heated or
depressurised and contract when they are
cooled or pressurised
This change in volume is different for different
fluids
κ is the Bulk Modulus of Elasticity

∂p
κ = −ν ∂ν = ρ ∂p
∂ρT T

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Bulk Modulus of Elasticity

Also known as:
The Coefficient of Compressibility
The Bulk Modulus of Compressibility
It can also be expressed approximately in terms
of finite changes:
κ∼ ∆p ∼ ∆p
= − ∆ν/ν = ∆ρ/ρ
As ∆ν/ν and similarly ∆ρ/ρ are dimensionless,
κ has the same dimension as pressure (Pa)

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Bulk Modulus of Elasticity

Represents the change in pressure
corresponding to a fractional change in volume,
or density, of a fluid (for T = const.)
For a truly incompressible substance, κ = ∞
Large values of κ indicate that a large change in
pressure is needed to cause a small change in
volume
Fluids with large κ can be treated as
incompressible – most liquids
κ can be looked up in tables

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Statics of Fluid Systems Pressure
Pressure
What is Pressure?
The normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area
Only meaningful for a gas or a liquid
In solids we talk about normal stress
Measured in Pascals (Pa)
The dimensions of Pascals are normally
denoted as Newtons per square metre (Nm−2 )
Commonly spoken of in terms of kPa or MPa
(watch your units in calculations!)
Pressure is always positive
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Pressure
Solids
In solids “pressure” is really normal stress
Defined as “The force acting perpendicular to
the surface per unit area”
As an example, if a person is standing on two
feet and lifts one foot up so that they are
standing on only one foot the pressure on that
foot doubles – half the surface area

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Measuring Pressure
Absolute Pressure
The actual pressure at a given position
Measured relative to an absolute vacuum
Gauge Pressure
Most devices do not measure absolute pressure
Typically devices are calibrated to read zero at
atmospheric pressure
They therefore indicate the difference between
absolute pressure and the local atmospheric
pressure
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Absolute and Gauge Pressure

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Absolute and Gauge Pressure

Absolute pressure is almost always used in
calculations
Not uncommon to see units with “a” or “g”
suffixed to denote absolute or gauge pressure
pgauge = pabs − patm

pvac = patm − pabs

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Statics of Fluid Systems Pascal’s Law
Pressure at a Point
Pressure is the compressive force per unit area
This gives the impression of a vector quantity
However, because the pressure at any point in a
fluid is the same in all directions it is actually a
scalar quantity
It has magnitude but no specific direction

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Pressure at a Point
Consider a wedge-shaped fluid element of unit
length (into the screen) in equilibrium
The mean pressures at the three surfaces P1 , P2
and P3 , and the force acting on a surface is the
product of mean pressure and the surface area

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Pressure at a Point
From Newton’s second law, a force balance in the x-
and z-directions gives:
P
Fx = max : P1 ∆z − P3 L sin θ = 0
P2 ∆x − P3 L cos θ − 12 ρg∆x∆z = 0
P
Fz = maz :
As this is a right-angled triangle we have:
∆x = L cos θ and ∆z = L sin θ

Therefore, P1 − P3 = 0 and P2 − P3 − 12 ρg∆z = 0

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Pressure at a Point
Because we are talking about pressure at a point,
∆z tends to 0 and hence,
P1 = P2 = P3 = P
This result is independent of the angle θ.
Therefore, the pressure at a point in a fluid has
the same magnitude in all directions.
It can be shown, in the absence of shear forces,
that this result is applicable to fluids in motion as
well as fluids at rest.

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Pascal’s Law
Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the
shape or cross section of the container
It changes in the vertical direction but not in the
horizontal directions
It is dependent on the type of fluid – ie one fluid
at a certain depth is not the same as another
fluid at the same depth
Pascal’s Law
The pressure applied to a confined fluid increases
the pressure throughout by the same amount
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Statics of Fluid Systems Variation of Pressure with Depth
Variation of Pressure with Depth

Pressure in a fluid at rest does not change in the
horizontal direction
This is not the case in the vertical direction for a
fluid under the effects of gravity
Pressure increases with depth because of the
weight of the fluid above it
This weight is balanced by an increase in
pressure

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Because the fluid is at rest the only forces are

those associated with the pressure from the
layer above, or the atmosphere, and the weight
of the fluid in the layer
P
Fz = 0 = p1 A−p2 A−W = p1 A−p2 A−ρgA∆z
p1 − p2 = ρg∆z = γs h
γs is the specific weight of the fluid, ρg
The pressure difference between two points
in a constant density fluid is proportional to
the vertical distance and the density
h is the depth, referred to as the pressure head

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The pressure head is sometimes used as a

measure of pressure
Pressure in a constant density fluid increases
linearly with depth
For small distances in gases this pressure
change is negligible (low density)
The pressure in a room of gas can be
considered uniform because of the low mass

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Pressure Relative to a Free Surface

If we take the top of the layer to be a free surface,
P2 = Patm ) in the earlier diagram, then the pressure
at depth h from the free surface of a constant density
fluid is
pabs = patm + ρgh pgauge = ρgh

Liquids are essentially incompressible substances
and thus the variation of density with depth is
negligible

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Pascal’s Law/
Variation of Pressure with Depth

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Fluids with Changing Density

The variation of density of liquids or gases with
temperature can be significant
At great depths, such as in oceans, the change
in density of a liquid can be significant
Gravity can be assumed constant even in those
extreme cases – an elevation of 14,000 m
(where a large passenger plane might cruise)
will only change the value of g by approximately
0.4%

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The relationship for the variation of pressure

with elevation is given by:
dP
dz = −ρg
The negative sign is due to taking the positive z
direction to be upward so the dP is negative
when dz is positive – pressure decreases in an
upward direction
If the change in density and gravity are know the
pressure difference can be calculated:
R2
∆P = − 1 ρg dz

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Statics of Fluid Systems Pressure with Multiple Fluids
Pressure with Multiple Fluids

Follows the same rules
Each layer of fluid above the point of interest
must be added
P1 = Patm + ρ1gh1 + ρ2gh2 + ... + ρn ghn

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Example
An open container in an atmosphere of 100 kPa
contains three immiscible liquids layered on top of
each other. The top liquid is mercury
(ρmer = 13, 600 kg m−3 ) and is 0.2 m thick. The
second layer is oil (ρoil = 850 kg m−3 ) and is 0.1 m
thick. At a point 0.3 m into the third layer, which is
water (ρwater = 1000 kg m−3 ), what is the pressure?

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Solution
Assuming that g = 9.8 m s−2 the formula given on
the slide previous to the question can be used:
P = Patm + ρ1gh1 + ρ2gh2 + ... + ρn ghn
P = 100, 000 + 13, 600 × 9.8 × 0.2 + 850 ×

9.8 × 0.1 + 1000 × 9.8 × 0.3 =
130, 429 Pa = 130.4 kPa
This corresponds to a gauge pressure of
30.4 kPa
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Manometry The Manometer
Manometers
The relationship between pressure and an
elevation change can be exploited to measure
pressure differences
Devices based on this principle are called
Manometers
Manometers typically consist of a plastic or
glass U-tube containing one or more fluids such
as mercury, water, alcohol or oil.

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Manometry U-tube Manometer
A basic U-tube Manometer

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Measuring Pressure with a

Manometer
Assuming that the density of the contained fluid
is much less than that of the manometric fluid –
ie it is a gas
Then the pressure is simple to calculate
The pressure at the bottom of the height
difference can be calculated from what we’ve
learned about pressure and head
Pabs = Patm + ρman gh

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Measuring Pressure with a

Manometer
From Pascal’s Law we know that the pressure at
the same height in the same fluid must be
equal; therefore, the pressure in the much lower
density fluid is equal to the pressure at the
bottom of the height
The cross-sectional area of the tube has no
effect on the differential height
However, capillary effects from surface tension
can occur and thus the tube diameter should be
large enough to minimise this
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Example
Assuming that the density of the gas in the bulb is

significantly less than the density of the manometric
fluid calculate the pressure of the gas
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Solution
First calculate the density of the manometric
fluid
ρ = 0.85 × 1000 = 850 kg m−3
Then using the equation for measuring pressure
at depth
Pabs = Patm + ρgh = 96000 + 850 × 9.8 × 0.55 =
100581 Pa = 100.6 kPa
Therefore, the gauge pressure of the gas is
Pgauge = 4.6 kPa

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A basic U-tube Manometer

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ρman > ρfluid still must be true

The manometric fluid and the other fluid must
still be immiscible
PA = ρman gh2 − ρf gh1

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Manometry Pressure Difference in a Pipe
Pressure Difference in a Pipe

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Same principles as in the other manometers
The pressure is the same at the C and D points
Since the fluid in the bottom is at rest the
pressure at each point can be calculated and
hence the pressure difference determined

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For the left-hand limb
PC = PA + ρga
For the right-hand limb
PD = PB + ρg(b − h) + ρman gh
Equating PD and PC
PA + ρga = PB + ρg(b − h) + ρman gh

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Manometry Limitations
Limitations
Not feasible for measuring high pressures
because of excessive tube length
Surface tension and capillary action can be a
problem
Slow to respond to pressure changes so they
cannot be used for dynamic measurements

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END
The End!
Don’t forget
Read Chapter 3 of the EGB323 textbook
you should have already read Chapters 1 and 2
Continue to organise your fluid mechanics
materials
Attend the tutorials
Thanks for your attention

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EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

Prof. Ted Steinberg

1 / 59 EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

The Ideal Gas Law

3 / 59 EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

Equation of State of a Perfect Gas

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

The Universal Gas Constant

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

Brief look at Energy

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

Specific heat at constant pressure, cp

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

Specific Heat for Incompressible

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

For instance it takes 0.718 kJ of energy to heat air at

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

From Cengel and Boles

The relation ∆u = cv ∆T is valid for any kind of

From Cengel and Boles

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

Specific Heat Relations of Ideal

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

Bulk Modulus of Elasticity

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

Bulk Modulus of Elasticity

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

Absolute and Gauge Pressure

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

Absolute and Gauge Pressure

pgauge = pabs − patm

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

As this is a right-angled triangle we have:

∆x = L cos θ and ∆z = L sin θ

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

Variation of Pressure with Depth

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

Because the fluid is at rest the only forces are

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

The pressure head is sometimes used as a

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

Pressure Relative to a Free Surface

pabs = patm + ρgh pgauge = ρgh

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

Fluids with Changing Density

EGB323 - Fluid Mechanics

The relationship for the variation of pressure