Cosmeto-Textile From Formulation To Characterization: An Overview

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Cosmeto-textile from formulation to characterization: An overview
Article in E-Polymers · April 2010

DOI: 10.1515/epoly.2010.10.1.409
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e-Polymers 2010, no. 040
ISSN 1618-7229
Cosmeto-textile from formulation to characterization: an

overview
L. Ripoll,1 2 C. Bordes,2 S. Etheve,3 A. Elaissari,1 H. Fessi1*
1*
LAGEP UMR 5007, University Claude Bernard Lyon1, Bat ESCPE, 43 Bvd du 11
Novembre 1918, 69 622 Villeurbanne Cedex, France ; e-mail : fessi@lagep.univ-
lyon1.fr
2
LSA UMR5180, University Claude Bernard Lyon1, Bat ESCPE, 43 Bvd du 11
Novembre 1918, 69 622 Villeurbanne Cedex, France
3
Alpol Cosmétique, 140 rue pasteur, 01500 Château-Gaillard, France
(Received: 21 January, 2010; published: 01 April, 2010)
Summary: Functionalized textiles and especially cosmetotextiles are increasingly

used in the cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries. A cosmetotextile allows the
administration of active molecules simply and controllably. It can also be used to
change the surface properties of a fabric in order to make it self-cleaning,
hydrophobic or lipophobic. Different techniques have been developed over recent
years to functionalize fabrics: microencapsulation, plasma, sol-gel. The adhesion of
the molecules, drugs and particles that functionalize textiles can be achieved
physically or chemically. This article reviews the current state of the art concerning
functionalization techniques and the methods used to characterize a functionalized
fabric. Based on existing results and the authors’ reflections, it provides discussion
and suggestions related to choosing processes. This review also reveals the
surprising lack of publications on the functionalization of textile supports.
Functionalized textile
Cosmetotextile, a functional textile
-Definition
A cosmetotextile is a textile containing a cosmetic preparation mainly for dermatology
applications such as moisturizing, slimming or anti stretch mark. This specific textiles
functionalization is based on the physical immobilization or impregnation of textile
fibers by nano-objects containing active molecules. The preparation of such active
nano-objects is generally based on the encapsulation of active molecules by a
spherical polymer matrix (particles or capsules) fixed on the fiber. The release of the
active molecule is due to the physical degradation of the polymer matrix or shell or, in
some cases, via molecule diffusion processes.
According to the definition of the Textile Industry and Clothing Standards Agency
(BNITH), a cosmetotextile is "a textile item containing a substance or mixture that
releases active molecules when in contact with the human body (i.e. on the
epidermis, hair and external sexual organs, with the exclusive or primary intention of
cleaning, perfuming, changing aspect, protecting, and helping to maintain or correct
body odors).
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Nowadays, in spite of the existence of this definition, no specific legislation
concerning cosmetotextiles exists. However, BNITH as well as other partners
(industrialists, university laboratories and institutes) are currently working to draft
such regulations. At present, the cosmetotextiles on the market are subject to the
European directives [1] on cosmetics that prove to be more restrictive than textile
legislation.
-Brief History
Impregnated and/or chemically grafted textiles allowing the release of active
molecules have been developed since 1990. They include impregnated wipes for
hygiene and/or maintenance, bactericidal and insecticidal curtains, bed linen
released essential oils, perfumes, etc. [2, 3].
Applications combining clothing and cosmetics have been added to this list.
Cosmetotextiles, produced by the company DIM, appeared for the first time on the
French market in 1999. They offered the first moisturizing and slimming tights. A drug
was encapsulated by coacervation and deposited by exhaustion bath on the textile
item. Most often, capsules are fixed on the fiber with a binder.
In 2002, FIRTEX L.L.C. [4] patented a textile functionalization technique using
nanoparticles whose sizes allow them to enter natural fibers. Nanoparticles were
formed by starch with a molecular weight ranging from 1000 to 1000000 g/mol.
These particles have a nano-helical configuration with a hydrophilic nano-cavity and
hydrophobic inner wall. Such cavities can contain various kinds of active molecules
endowed with numerous functions.
These nanoparticles are immobilized via covalent grafting to natural fiber thanks to
the use of epichlorohydrin, polycarboxylic acid, dimethyloldihydroxyethylurea or other
formaldehyde-free substances. In some cases, immobilization via adsorption or
special binders is performed. If covalent bonding cannot be accomplished (absence
of reactive groups on the surface fiber) the nanoparticles are fixed by a binder. Once
nanoparticle immobilization on fibers has been accomplished, the nano-cavities can
be filled or not. Table 1 below reports possible functionalization methods.
Tab. 1. Examples of textile functionalization.
Functionalization added to
Content
the fabric
Empty Odor control
Silicone Water proof
Fluor hydrocarbon Oil proof
Cosmetic drug Drug release
In the same year, Combe [5] registered a patent describing the impregnation of fabric
by a drug and a binder that allows the consumer to reload the particles. The binders
used are, for example, guar, xanthan, cellulose derivatives soluble or dispersible in
water (methylcellulose, β-hydroxy-ethylcellulose, hydroxy-propylcellulose, hydroxy-
propyl-methylcellulose). Prior to drug impregnation by spraying, the fabric is heated
in an atmosphere with high relative humidity and then cooled to between 40 and 50
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°C. The spray solution contains the drug, a binder, a penetration enhancer and a
gelling agent. According to P. Combe [5], the binder can be defined as a substance
that facilitates the drug immobilization on a fiber to ensure it remains fixed for long
periods and at least more than 3 days.
In 2008 [6], Skin' Up patented a fabric treatment process using a drug encapsulated
in nanoparticles. According to the author, nanoparticle can be titanium or zinc
dioxide, fullerenes, nanocrystals, nanoemulsions, nanocapsules, nanospheres, as
well as spherulites. The fabrics are first impregnated with particles by exhaustion
bath or spraying. Then fibers are coated with a protective filmogenic polymer to
increase washing resistance and prolonged drug release kinetics. In parallel, the
authors [6] developed a technique to track drug release according to the number of
washings [6] by using a label impregnated by a coloring agent. The concentration of
the coloring solution is adjusted as a function of the release kinetics of the drug.
Washing depletes the particles present on the fiber and fades the coloring agent on
the tag. Thus when the label becomes white the textile no longer contains particles,
meaning that reloading is necessary. However, this system does not take into
account the release of the drug when the clothes are worn. Therefore the label can
still retain its color although there is no more or insufficient active molecules present
on the fiber.
Particular attention has been focused on the elaboration of phase change materials
(PCM). The properties of such materials are related to their ability to change their
physical state (solid-liquid) as a function of temperature. PCM was first developed in
the 1980s in order to protect astronauts against the high temperature fluctuations.
Today such materials are used in textile to provide thermal control. There are
different ways to obtain PCM, but the most investigated ones are based on the
encapsulation [7] of phase change material in microparticle. Then such microparticles
are immobilized on textile or included into the fiber [8-12].
Some years ago cosmetotextiles resisted only several washes. Currently, this
resistance is being improved by the development of new particles and new fixing
methods. The industry has also developed reload systems that increase
cosmetotextile life. These systems allow reloading fibers with particles and drugs
when the latter have been exhausted. Reloading consists of spraying or the addition
of a monodose to the last washing step.
Briefly, cosmetotextiles could be used in a wide range of applications : functional
fabric of all types (girdles, socks, trousers, underwear) and for all purposes
(slimming, antibacterial, anti-odor, hydration) [2, 6].
Fiber, yarn and textiles

The development of cosmetotextiles requires knowledge of the textile support on
which the particles are going to be deposited.
Kinds of fiber
There are several types of fibers that can be grouped into four categories such as
natural, artificial, synthetic and technical fibers [13].
Natural fibers are extracted from plants (cotton, flax), trees (kapok) and animals
(cotton, silk). These fibers can be found in many different sectors (clothes,
automobiles, insulation, and dressings).
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Artificial fibers are obtained after the dissolution of natural fibers. The resulting fiber
solution is spun by extrusion to obtain uninterrupted filament, which is then cut into
fibers. Viscose is the most commonly used artificial fiber (clothing, sponge,
reinforcement of pneumatic tubing). Viscose fibers are particularly interesting
because they can be functionalized by the introduction of particles or active principles
directly in the solution before spinning.
Synthetic fibers are produced by extruding/spinning synthetic polymers. There are
many synthetic fibers such as polyesters, polyamides [14, 15] (Nylon), spandex
(Lycra, Elaspan, Linel), polyolefin, acrylics, chlorofibers [6].
Technical fibers are high-performance fibers. They are specially developed for
specific applications requiring high resistance to traction, temperature and
conductivity. These fibers can be organic, for example, para-amide fibers, but also
inorganic with glass and carbon fiber.
Apart from technical fibers that are only used for technical purposes, all these fibers
can be applied for traditional use.
Operation on yarn
A yarn can be defined as the assemblage of fibers tightly bound together. Fibers
constituting thread can be assembled in simple (linear) or more complex ways
(twisted yarn) [16]. Then they can undergo several operations to change their aspect
and behavior.
-Texturation
All operations consisting in increasing the volume and sometimes the elasticity of
thread (by using its thermoplastic properties) are grouped under the term
"texturation". These treatments allow changing the aspect and comfort of a textile
[17].
- Twisted yarn
This operation adds torsion to a yarn to improve its mechanical characteristics and
reduce its diameter. Twisting is also used to keep several threads together by torsion
[18].
- Yarn covering
Yarn covering is a technique that uses a core thread around which a second thread
called a coating or cover is wrapped. Covered yarns are widely used for making
tights and are often constituted of a spandex yarn core and a polyamide yarn coating
[19].
- Oiling
Oiling consists in depositing a chemical additive on thread to facilitate spinning by
changing the surface properties of the yarn. This additive ensures the cohesion of the
filament and it also decreases surface abrasion and electrostatic charges [20].
Particle deposition on the fabric surface remains difficult without de-oiling as the oil
changes the fiber surface.
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Kinds of textile
There are many types of textiles that are distinguished mainly by their methods of
manufacture. Textiles can be non-woven, woven, braided and knitted [21].
These textile manufacturing processes lead to very diverse properties (resistance,
absorption) and the development of fabrics for various applications such as
traditional textile, twines, bags, wall coatings, rubber reinforcements, prosthesis,
dressings, thermal protection, building structures.
Textile finishing
- Mechanical finishing
Finishing treatments involve the passage of the material in an apparatus whose
mechanical action provides the desired effect. This step is often accompanied with a
heating process to enhance the effects of mechanical action. The most common
types of mechanical finishing are:
Calendaring: this consists in increasing softness, smoothness, opacity and luster of
fabric, decreasing air permeability and consolidating non-woven textiles.
Raising: this is done to obtain a brushed and napped appearance.
Cropping and singeing process: this consists in trimming hair from the textile surface
to obtain a smooth and soft appearance. Cropping is often used on wool products
when singeing is not possible.
Finally, compressive shrinkage avoids the well-known phenomenon of fiber retraction
fibers that takes place during washing [13].
- Functional finishing
The textile industry has developed treatments applied at the end of production,
allowing textile functionalization. These treatments can be qualified as standard and
do not constitute functionalization with high added value. Mention can be made of
waterproofing, fireproofing, and soil repellant and anti pilling treatments. Generally
they are applied by impregnation methods [13].
Encapsulation
Definition
Encapsulation is defined as a group of techniques allowing the inclusion of a solid,
liquid or gaseous substance in a material [22].
Microencapsulation is used in many industries such as agribusiness, cosmetics and
pharmaceuticals [23, 24].
This technology has existed since 1950 and applied industrially for the manufacture
of carbonless photocopy paper [25].
In the textile industry, encapsulation is also used for tincture operations and for fabric
functionalization [26, 27]. The drug is encapsulated in individualized particles that can
be classified according to their size: molecular, nanoparticle, microparticle.
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Molecular inclusion, also known as molecular encapsulation, is done with molecules
able to include drugs in their cavity. The best known of these molecules are
cyclodextrins [28] and calix[n]arene [29].
A nanoparticle is a particle of which at least one dimension is less than 1µm while a
microparticle has a size ranging from 1 µm to 1000 µm.
A second classification is possible according to the distribution of the drug inside
particles: microcapsules or microspheres.
A microcapsule is a particle in which a drug is maintained by a mono or multi-
compartmented membrane called core-shell system. The shape of the particle is
directly linked to the form of the drug. In a microsphere, the drug is dispersed within
the particle to form a matrix system.
The release kinetics of these systems is directly dependent on process and
formulation parameters.
Microparticle systems allow two modes of release: forced and controlled release.
Forced release is obtained by using microcapsules that release the drug by the
membrane breaking under stress (thermal or mechanical).
Controlled release is based on the diffusion of the drug through the membrane or the
degradation of the latter.
Encapsulation processes
There are many techniques to produce particles that can be classified according to
process:
 Physicochemical processes (simple and complex coacervation, solvents
evaporation, thermal jelling).
 Mechanical processes (spray drying, spray coating, prilling).
 Chemical processes (radical polymerization, interfacial polycondensation).
 Supercritical Processes.
All these techniques have already been the subject of many reviews [30, 31]. Here,
only the most common techniques will be described briefly.
-Chemical processes
Radical polymerization
Radical polymerization can be performed by different processes that can be
classified by the method of particle formation: in suspension, emulsion (direct or
inverse), dispersion, or by precipitation [32].
All these processes follow the same reaction scheme broken down into 3 steps: first
an initiation reaction is followed by a propagation reaction until total consumption of
monomers, and finally a termination reaction.
This technique forms micro or nanospheres whose sizes generally range from 0.1 to
15 µm.
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Interfacial polycondensation
This process favors the formation of nano or microcapsules and requires an
emulsification step containing a monomer and a drug in its organic stage.
After emulsification, another monomer is added in aqueous phase leading to a
polymerization reaction at the interfaces of the droplets. The size of the emulsion
corresponds directly to the size of the particles. The size of these particles ranges
from 0.5 to 50 µm. However nanoparticles could be obtained by microemulsion
formulation [33, 34].
- Physical processes
Prilling
This process makes use of polymer fusion properties. The drug is dispersed in a hot
polymer solution remaining in liquid state. The solution is then pulverized in a liquid at
low temperature; the polymer solution is cooled and driven to solidification. Size
distribution is very narrow and depends directly on the size of the spraying nozzle.
Particle size generally ranges from 200 to 800 µm [35].
Spray coating
Spray coating allows solid drug coating. In the case of liquid drugs, they must first be
adsorbed on a solid support. This technique has 3 steps: drug fluidization,
pulverization of the coating material, drying of the coating film. Spray coating is
sometime used on nano or microparticles to perform double - encapsulation.
The size of the particles depends on the form of the initial solid as well as on the
thickness of the coating layer. Size generally ranges from several micrometers to 20
µm and must be thick enough to perfectly cover the surface [36].
Spray-drying
Spray-drying is very useful in the agrochemical and pharmaceutical industries to
obtain solid particles from a liquid formulation. The liquid formulation contains drug
and coating material. The process consists in placing nebulized liquid in contact with
a controlled temperature air flux to ensure quick drying and the formation of solid
particles.
The particles are microspheres whose size ranges from 1 to 50 µm [37-38].
- Physicochemical processes
Coacervation
Coacervation is a macromolecule desolvation phenomenon allowing the formation of
2 phases:
 Coacervate (rich in macromolecules and poor in solvent)
 Supernatant (rich in solvent and poor in macromolecule)
The coacervation process is based on precipitation of polymer in solution, which can
be obtained by modifying the temperature, the pH, and the addition of a non-solvent
or specific electrolytes [39] in the medium.
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Complex coacervation results from the agglomeration by pH modification of two
colloids with opposing charges. This technique allows encapsulating lipophilic drugs
in particles whose size range from 5 to 200 µm [40-42].
Hot melting
This process is based on the fusion of the coating material in which the active
material is dissolved or dispersed. This stage is then emulsified and rapidly cooled,
most often by beating to ensure the gelation of the coating material. The particles are
generally spheres ranging from 30 to 300 µm [43-45].
Solvent evaporation
This process involves the formation of oil in water emulsion containing a volatile
solvent, polymer and drug in organic phase. The solvent diffuses toward the external
phase and evaporates. The polymer precipitates and forms microspheres of sizes
ranging from 0.5 to 200 µm. Microcapsules are also formed by adding the organic
phase, which is not volatile and does not dissolve the polymer [46, 47].
Inclusion processes
Some molecules naturally form cavities that are capable of encapsulating molecules
in their cavities according to a host-guest mechanism. These molecules are used in
inclusion techniques, complexations and molecular encapsulations. Among these
molecules, two families are mainly used for textile functionalization.
- Cyclodextrin
Cyclodextrins are cyclic molecules with a non-polar cavity that can receive other
molecules. Cyclodextrin is part of cyclic oligosaccharide composed of glucopyranose
sub-units α-(1.4) linked. Three families are mainly used: α - β - and γ-cyclodextrins
formed by 6, 7 or 8 sub-units.
Fig. 1. Diagram of α-, β- and γ-cyclodextrins.
The cavity and depth of a cyclodextrin are linked to the number of sub-units. α - β -
and γ-cyclodextrins have a diameter of 5, 7 and 9 Angströms and a depth of 5, 5 and
7 Angströms respectively [48].
The conformation of cyclodextrin allows them to form complexes with a guest
molecule. It has been shown that the stoichiometry and stability of the complex in
solution or in solid state depends on the conformation, volume and polarity of the
guest [49].
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Semi-empirical methods exist that can be used to calculate the complexation energy
(ΔEc) necessary for the inclusion reaction [50]. When ΔEc is negative, inclusion is
thermodynamically favorable.
According to the Benesi-Hildebrand equation [49] the inclusion constant (K) can be
determined by UV spectroscopy:
(1)
where [PA] and [CD] are the concentration of the drug and the cyclodextrin
respectively.
Δε is the difference between the absorption coefficient of the drug and the
complexes.
ΔA is the difference of absorbance between the drug and the complex.
The stoichiometry of the complex as well as its structure can be determined by RMN
analysis [51].
Drug inclusion is mainly performed in solution. Thanks to this method Davaran et al.
formed an inclusion complex between cyclodextrin and nicotine [52]. Inclusion in
cyclodextrin is performed by dissolution of cyclodextrin in water at 75 °C (28g of CD
for 100ml of water). The drug is added to the solution under stirring at room
temperature. However, this inclusion can also be performed by solid, gaseous or
supercritical methods [53, 54].
When cyclodextrins are deposited on a support such as a fabric, inclusion can be
performed by spraying the drug on the dry support. The drug is then diluted in water
or in water/co-solvent [55].
-Calix[n]arene
Calix[n]arene are macro cycles formed by a reaction between phenol and aldehyde.
[n] symbolizes the number of cycles that compose the macro cycle. Like cyclodextrin,
calixarene has a hydrophobic cavity that can house guest inclusion complexes [56,
57].
Calix[4]aren are widely used but there are also larger macro cycles such as the
calix[6]aren and calix[8]aren that entrap bulkier molecules [58, 59].
Fig. 2. Chemical structure of calixarene.
The presence of alcohol groups let the synthesis of many calix[n]aren derivatives
allowing a large variety of applications [60, 61].
Inclusion phenomena and the release of guests in calixarene are similar to those
governing the inclusion of drugs in cyclodextrin. However, for the same drug,
differences in cavity height and chemical group make it possible to obtain different
stoichiometries and release kinetics [62].
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- Dendrimer
Dendrimers are hyperbranched macromolecules whose conformation is similar to
tree branches (Figure 3). They were synthesized for the first time in 1979 by the Dow
Chemical Company and then their forms and their particular properties have been
subject to a large number of studies. Dendrimers are grouped by generation
corresponding to the number of branching points encountered between the core and
the termini. The core is hydrophobic and the diversity of terminal groups makes them
suitable for solubilizing lipophilic drugs [63-65].
Fig. 3. Scheme of a dendrimer.
Physical adhesion
As seen above, cosmetotextiles include cosmetic preparations (drug, essential oils,
etc.). Generally cosmetotextiles are produced in two stages:
 Particle preparation (according to the different methods described above)
 Particle deposition on fabric.
Sometimes particles form physical links directly with the fiber so they adhere to the
support. Most often, they are not able to bind directly to the fiber, so they are linked
by a binder that fixes the particles on the fiber through other interactions (Van Der
Waals, hydrogenates) [5, 66].
A second method to functionalize fibers is the preparation of polymeric film that can
be fixed on the surface of fibers. The film can, for example, have intrinsic antimicrobic
properties or include drug, cyclodextrins, calixarenes or dendrimers. Rohrbach et al.
[67] functionalized substrates (fiber, glass, silica) by using a polymeric film formed
from the polymerization between cyclodextrine and a crosslinking agent (hydroxyls,
isocyanate, polycarboxylic acid, halogen, divinylsulfones). Temperature and kinetics
reaction depends on the choice of crosslinked agent. For example, the
polymerization reaction with polyisocyanate takes 20 min at 130-140 °C.
In these two modes of preparation, the adhesion between particles and fibers is
achieved physically. There are several methods for depositing particles or film on
fabric surfaces.
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- Impregnation
Impregnation is the most common process for depositing particles on fibers. Fabrics
are impregnated in a bath by an impregnation solution containing particles and most
often some additives (binder, penetration enhancer, solvents). Several industrial
processes have been developed to impregnate textiles and these processes stem
directly from dry filling and tincture processes [15, 26, 68].
Exhaustion bath
This process is based on the dyeing process and was used in 1999 by DIM to
impregnate its first cosmetotextile.
Here the cloth is immersed in a bath containing a coloring agent or impregnation
solution. The bath becomes increasingly clear as the solution is absorbed on the
fabric. Absorption progress is performed by turbidity measurements [61, 68, 69].
Pulverization
In this technique the textile is simply impregnated by pulverizing the impregnation
solution through a nozzle. The solution viscosity has to be low in order to pass
through the buzzard.
Beam
The fabric is wound in open-width on a perforated cylinder called a beam (Figure 4).
The textile is immobile and the bath is pumped through the beam. The direction of
the flow is usually from the inside to the outside of the textile spin. One difficulty is the
risk of non-homogeneous penetration of particles used for the treatment [70].
Fig. 4. Diagram of a beam [70].
Jigger
A Jigger (5) is made of a trapezoidal tub containing the bath and two rollers on which
the fabric is wound alternatively. In this apparatus the bath is immobile while the
fabric is in motion. The material, initially wound on the first roller, is passed through
the bath and then wound on the other one. Rotation is then reversed and the cycle is
continued. The main disadvantage of this process is the risk of non-homogeneity
between the initial and final part of the roll due to variations in speed, the feed
tension of the fabric and bath temperature during the treatment [70-71].
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Fig. 5. Diagram of a Jigger.
Padding machines
Padding machines (Figure 6) (foulards) are used to apply dyestuffs or other
chemicals, like particles, onto the fabric. This process is the most common process
used to functionalize fabrics with particles. The fabric passes through the pad trough
where it picks up the impregnation solution. After leaving the pad trough, the fabric is
squeezed between rubber rollers. The amount of impregnation solution picked up
depends mainly on the pressure between the rollers, the speed at which the fabric is
transported and the kind of material. The solution level in the batch is maintained
constant to compensate impregnation solution picked up by the fabric [26, 27, 34].
Fig. 6. Kind of padding machines.
After its passage in the foulard, the fabric can undergo different treatments, from the
simplest to the most complex.
Pad-batching remains the simplest technique used. The fabric is impregnated by a
padding machine and then wrapped on a roller rotated at low speed until the
impregnation solution has been fixed.
The pad-roll process is similar to the pad-batch process except that the fabric goes
through an infrared oven before being wrapped on the roller. The fabric can also
pass through a jigger, after the padding machine, to fix the impregnation. This
process, called Pad-jig, improves impregnation homogenization.
Knife coating
In this process, the solution containing particles is directly applied on the fabric and
spread uniformly with a knife [13].
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The thickness of the film deposited on the fiber is regulated directly by the gap
between the knife and the fabric. There are several variants of this process, with the
knife being placed over a table, a roller or a blanket.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig. 7. (a) "Knife over table" (b), "Knife over roller", (c) “Knife on air” and (d) “Knife
over blanket” (9).
-Spin-coating
This process is based on the deposition of thin films on a surface glide. A substrate is
deposited on a centrifuge set and the impregnation solution is deposited in the centre
of the set, which is then rotated and the centrifugal force exerted on the solution
ensures homogeneous and fine deposition [68].
Solution
Substrate Thin film
Rotation step
Fig. 8. Deposition by spin coating.
- Chemical Vapor Deposition and Derivatives

Tiller et al. [72] used CVD to deposit a thin silica layer in the surface of high density
polyethylene. Polyethylene has no surface reactive group, so the addition of silica
film activates the surface substrate, causing it to react with functional molecules or
particles.
Only substrates that tolerate high temperatures can be coated by this technology, on
textile fibers. Other processes have been developed to functionalize fibers.
Martin et al. [73] used iCVD to deposit an antimicrobic polymer on nylon fibers. iCVD
(Initiated chemical vapor deposition) is a derivative of CVD in which deposition is
performed at low pressure and without heating the support.
To carry out coating, the authors injected a monomer and a free radical initiator in
vapor phase into a reactor under low pressure. A key feature of iCVD is the
introduction of a free radical initiator species that is thermally cracked over a heated
filament to cause the monomers in vapor phase and deposit coatings at high rates.
The free radical initiator reacts with the monomer and triggers the polymerization
reaction on the surface of the fiber.
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The results show a good polymer adhesion without changing the appearance of the
fiber or its texture. The same method was used to deposit a film of fluorocarbon on
cotton fiber to make it hydrophobic [74, 75]. iCVD was also used to deposit a film of
linear or branched poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) on silicone fiber [76].
Fig. 9. Illustration of a derivation of a polymer surface with poly(vinyl-N-

hexylpyridinium bromide), step 1 : coating with a SiO2 nanolayer using combustion
chemical vapor deposition. Step 2: treatment with 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane, Step
3: alkylation with 1,4-dibromobutane. Step 4: derivatization with poly(vinyl-N-
hexylpyridinium bromide), in the presence of 1-bromohexane [72].
Chan et al. [77] used the piCVD (photoinitiated chemical vapor deposition), a
derivative of CVD, to deposit a thin film of PGMA (polyglycidyl methacrylate) on a
silicone substrate. In this technique, a monomer and a free radical initiator in vapor
phase are atomized in a vacuum chamber. The polymerization reaction is started by
UV radiation that cracks the free radical initiator.
- Plasma and derivatives

Plasma is made up of neutral particles (atoms and molecules) and charged particles
(ions and electrons). Plasmas are neutral and characterized by their ionization
degree and temperature.
Plasmas are generally classified into two main categories according to temperature:
cold plasmas and hot plasmas.
Hot plasmas have a very high degree of ionization and are therefore mainly
constituted of ions and electrons. The temperature of these plasmas can reach
several thousand degrees.
Cold Plasmas have a low degree of ionization. These plasmas are mainly composed
of neutral particles and are generated by an electrical discharge or by the energy
transfer of an electromagnetic wave across a gas [78].
According to the plasma power and therefore the speed of the particles present,
plasma technology can be used for applications such as etching, cleaning,
functionalizing and depositing thin films on surfaces [79-81].
In the case of surface functionalization, cold plasma treatment allows:
 increasing the hydrophilic area at the treated surface,
 increasing binder adhesion,
 obtaining hydrophobic or lipophobic surfaces,
 grafting polymers.
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Deposition process by plasma-spray is based on spraying a substance across a
plasma flame at very high temperature. The substance is instantly cooled to form a
thin layer coating the surface [82-83]. It is possible to use a monomer that, once
pulverized on the support polymerizes.
It is important to note that these techniques are only applicable through the use of
chemicals to maintain flame temperature [84].
Another technique involves of the introduction of a substrate in a plasma reactor. The
chemical present in the plasma bombed the substrate surface which allows the
deposition of a thin film. By using this method, Balu et al, deposited a fluorocarbon
film on a substrate in PET [85, 86].
- Sol-gel
The sol-gel process allows the formation of vitreous materials without a fusion step.
This technique, based on the polymerization of a molecule in solution, was first used
at the beginning of the 20th century to produce glass and ceramics.
Indeed, this technology permits the fabrication of an inorganic polymer by simple
chemical reaction at low temperatures (20 – 400 °C). Synthesis is achieved from a
liquid or solid alcoolate monomer that is soluble in an organic solvent [87, 88].
Alcoolates can be described by following expression:
M(OR)n where:
M: Metal or silicium
R: organic group
The hydrolysis of alkoxy is started by adding water in the reactor (Figure 10).
Fig. 10. Reaction flowchart of the condensation of two silanol groups.
Fig. 11. Reaction scheme of the condensation of two silanol groups.
Adjusting the reaction parameters (pH and salt) leads to a condensation gelation
(Figure 11).
The final material is obtained after a drying step to evaporate the solvent. The
porosity of the material is linked to the evaporation rate.
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This technique can form thin films (nanometric to micrometric), which can be
fabricated by dip-coating or spin-coating [71].
Due to the low drying temperature of the process, it is possible to add organic parts
to the mineral part:
 By dissolving organic molecules less volatile than the solvent in solution
 By using a monomer including an organic part to form a network including
functional groups.
The literature provides examples of wool, cotton, and polyester fibers rendered
hydrophobic [89, 90], antimicrobic, [91-93] and self-cleaning [94] by the sol-gel
method.
Chemical adhesion
The second method allowing surface functionalization is chemical adhesion. In these
techniques, the particles or molecules are grafted directly on the surface by a
covalent link.
- Organic chemistry reaction

Fiber functionalization performed by this method is based on classical organic
reactions between the functional groups of the fiber and those of the particle.
Fig. 12. Schematic representation of the synthesis of N-alkylated PEIs covalently

immobilized onto cotton, wool, nylon, or polyester cloths. Step 1: alkaline hydrolysis
of polyester or cotton. Step 2: acid hydrolysis of nylon or wool. Step 3: acylation of
hydrolyzed textiles with hydroxyl or amino groups with 4-bromobutyryl chloride. Step
4: covalent attachment (N-alkylation of PEI). Step 5: N-hexylation of the immobilized
PEI with bromohexane, and step 6: N-methylation of the immobilized PEI with
iodomethane [95].
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Lin et al. have functionalized natural fibers (cotton and wool) and synthetic materials
(nylon and polyester) by performing acid or basic hydrolysis to activate the fibers
(Figure 12). The fibers can be functionalized once they have been activated [95].
Wang et al [97] succeeded in fixing a lysozyme on wool fiber by activating with
glutaraldehyde (Figure 13).
Fig. 13. Lysozyme immobilization onto wool fibers.
Another example is provided by Öktem [98] who grafted cotton fibers with chitosan to
make bacteriostatic fibers. Soares et al. [96] studied the durability of antibacterial
products by comparing graft functionalization of quaternary ammonium salts and
functionalization with microencapsulated antibacterial product.
The literature also provides examples of textile functionalization with cyclodextrins.
The presence of alcohol groups in cyclodextrins has made it possible to elaborate a
large number of derivatives. El Ghoul et al. [99-102] used these groups to graft
cyclodextrins on polyamide, cotton and wool fibers [103]. The authors used a diacid
as crosslinking agent (Figure 14). A parallel reaction occur leading to a chemical
bond between two cyclodextrins which allow the formation of a cyclodextrins network
linked to the fibers via a covalent bond.
Fig. 14. Reaction between polycarboxylic acid and cyclodextrin.
There are other examples of textile functionalization with cyclodextrin, by using

crosslinking agent:
 epichlorhydrin [104],
 chlorinated heterocyclics [105],
 siloxans,
 aminosiloxans,
 dimethyol urea group and derivatives [106].
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The covalent bond between fibers and cyclodextrins can also be formed without a
crosslinking agent. Functionalized cyclodextrins react directly with the reactive group
present on the fiber (Figure 15a). The permanent functionalization of polyester fiber
by the penetration of a cyclodextrin alkyl chain in fiber has also been reported. This
penetration occurs above glass transition temperature (Figure 15b) [103].
OH
(a) (b)
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
O
fiber fiber
Fig. 15. (a) Penetration of an alkyl chain into a polyester fiber, (b) covalent bond
between cyclodextrin and cotton fiber [107].
Similarly, calixarenes can be used for textile functionalization. However, to the best of
our knowledge, few academic studies focus on fixing calixarenes on textile fibers
[108]. A patent describing the application of these particles on different types of fibers
was taken out in 2003 by Jansen et al. [109]. The Figure 16 presents the different
fiber functionalized with calixarene.
Fig. 16. Example of textile fiber functionalization by calixarene [109].
Furthermore, information on textile functionalization using dendrimers is lacking. A

patent taken out by the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, describing textile
functionalization by a solution containing dendrimers, was registered in 2007 [110].
The patent describes the fixing of dendrimers by chemical reaction between particles
and fiber, either by physical adhesion or by the sol-gel process.
- Radical reaction
This process is rather similar to that described previously, but uses radical reactions
to activate the fiber and then perform particle grafting. The advantage of this method
is that it is suitable for substrates since it introduces no reactive group (Polyolefin).
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Jian Lin et al. [95] grafted N-alky-polyethylenimine onto a polyethylene fiber to obtain
a fiber that is both hydrophobic and antimicrobic. To achieve this, a polyethylene
fabric was plunged into a solution containing maleic anhydride and a free radical
initiator. Maleic anhydride was covalently linked to the fiber and acted as a reactive
group to functionalize the fabric (Figure 17).
Fig. 17. Shematic representation of the synthesis of N-alkylated PEIs covalently

immobilized onto polyolefin fabric/film. Step #1: free-radical grafting of polyolefin with
maleic anhydride. Step #2: covalent attachment of PEI. Step #3: N-hexylation of the
immobilized PEI with bromohexane. Step #4: N-methylation of immobilized N-hexyl-
PEI with iodomethane.
On the other hand, this technique has also been used to functionalize polyamide
fibers with acrylic acid to produce hydrophilic textiles [110].
- Ozonization
This technique activates fibers by introducing reactive groups on their surfaces in
order to graft particles via classical organic reactions.
Youling et al. [112] used the results of Smith et al. [113] to functionalize a
polyurethane surface by ozone activation. The ozonization reaction occurred in
vacuum reactor and lasted 30 minutes. When the fibers were activated, the authors
used sulfobetaine to perform the grafting and obtained an antithrombogenic surface
(Figure 18). In the literature, ozone activation has also been used to functionalize
PET fibers [114].
Fig. 18. Chemical grafting of sulfobetaine.
- Photochemistry
Photochemical grafting makes use of UV, laser and γ radiation of an electron beam,
and takes place in a heterogeneous medium where the substrate is exposed to
auxiliaries (functional molecules, particles). The radiation generates photons with
sufficient energy to obtain homolytic cleavages at the substrate surface. The radical
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reacts with the auxiliaries to form a new covalent bond. Generally, grafting is done in
the presence of a free radical initiator to initiate a radical reaction [115, 116].
The free radical initiator and auxiliaries can be in solution, as in Opwis et al. [117],
which first impregnated polyethyleneterephthalate (PET) or polyamide fabric with an
emulsion containing the crosslinking agent and an enzyme. The latter is then
exposed to UV radiation to perform the grafting reaction.
It is also possible that the free radical initiator is in solution and the auxiliaries are in
vapor phase. Grafting then takes place in two steps [118]. The substrate is
impregnated with the solution before being exposed to UV radiation under monomer
vapor.
Since the free radical initiator is in vapor phase, grafting can be done without the
impregnation step [119]. Mention can be made of the works of Praschak et al. [116]
who used UV radiation to graft different auxiliaries (1,5-hexadiene monosilane
(Gaseous), perfluoro-4-methylpent-2-ene (Gaseous), polyethyleneglycol and
acetonitrile on PET in liquid or gaseous medium.
-Plasma and derivatives

Plasma technology allows activating surfaces leading to the subsequent grafting of
particles by radical or organic reactions.
Indeed, when the plasmas are composed of an oxidative gas, reactive groups such
as-C-OH,-C=O and COOH form at the substrate surface [81, 120-122].
Functionalization by plasma is limited to an extremely small surface area, typically
100-200 Å, and the literature describes the phenomenon as very rapid (less than one
minute) [25].
Tab. 2. Proportion of oxygenated functions produced by different types of plasmas on

polyethylene film.
Plasma (/100 C)
Reactive group
Plasma CO2 Plasma CO Plasma NO2 Plasma NO Plasma O2
OH 22 0 2.5 0.6 3.2
CO 22 0.23 2.1 1.3 2
COOH 8.9 3.3 1.1 0.5 1.2
By changing the plasma parameters (discharge power, treatment time, type of gas
and flow rate) it is possible to control the nature and density of the reaction function
fixed on the surface. Furthermore, it is also possible to choose the type of superficial
function allowing covalent bonding of the particle [123, 124].
Molecule grafting by plasma in one step is possible by introducing monomers and a
free radical initiator in the reactor. Tsafack et al. successfully used this process to
grafted polyacrylonitrile fibers with poly(perfluoroalkylacrylate), poly(methacrylate
phosphates) and poly(methacrylate phosphonates) [125].
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Characterization
Properties of fibers and yarns

As seen above, yarn is a continuous length of interlocked fibers. Characterization test
(diameter, density, tensile strength) is the same for fiber and yarn when the fibers are
assembled linearly. Indeed, if the yarn is made of n fibers, the characterization tests
on fibers are approximately multiplied by n. This result is no longer true for twisted
yarn. Indeed this fiber can be considered as an assemblage of filaments with more or
less helical torsion. This operation modifies traction test results because un-twisting
occurs before real traction [126].
Diameter
The main characteristic of a fiber should be its diameter. Polymer fibers have an
average diameter of 20 µm. In recent years, the emergence of microfibers has led to
the production of fibers with diameters ranging from 1 to 7 µm.
Relative density
At present, fiber diameter is rarely used to describe a textile. The textile industry talks
about “tex”. Tex is a unit of measurement of fiber linear mass density. It is defined as
the mass in grams per kilometer. The unit commonly used is the decitex (dtex), which
is the mass in grams per 10 kilometers.
(2)
It is easy to calculate the diameter (D) of a fiber by using its weight in dtex with the
formula below:
(3)
where D is in cm and ρ is the density in grams per cubic centimeter.
Tab. 3. Approximate density in g.cm-3 of organic fibers [126].
Fibers Density (g.cm3)

Polypropylen 0.89
Polyester 0.97
Polyamide 1.15
Wool 1.30
Cotton 1.50
Strength
Resistance strength is a fundamental characteristic, especially in the case of
technical fibers, and traditionally corresponds to:
 Fracture stress (σ) in megaPascal (MPa or N / mm ²) corresponding to force
stress over in the sample section ratio. 
 Young's modulus (E) in MPa or GPa corresponding to fiber rigidity [127].
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Specific sizes are used to highlight the mass saving achieved by substituting
classical material (plastic, cement...) by textile fibers. These masses are calculated
by dividing fracture stress (σ) and Young's modulus (E) by the fiber density [128,
129].
Specific Resistance (tenacity):
(4)
Specific Young modulus:
(5)
Tab. 4. Example of tensile force on standard fibers [128].
Breaking
Esp σsp
Fibers E (GPa) σ (GPa) elongation
(GPa/g/cm3) (GPa/g/cm3)
(%)
Polyamide 6 1 0.7 0.9 0.6 30
Polyamide 6-6 4 0.8 3.51 0.70 25
Polyester 18 0.9 13 0.6 15
PE (high
117 3 121 3 3.5
performance)
Paraaramide
60 2.8 41 1.9 4
(Kevlar 29)
Moisture take-up
Moisture take-up is an important parameter influencing the stability and mechanical
characteristics of a fiber. For example, the presence of humidity in a polyamide 66
fiber leads to a plastification phenomenon. Its glass transition can vary from 0 °C to
100 °C [128-130].
Chemical and thermal properties

The chemical and thermal properties of fibers are important factors to be taken into
account in many applications and directly determine the behavior of a textile
confronted to thermal and chemical stresses.
Thermal tests consist in assessing the thermo-mechanical and flame resistance of a
textile.
As for chemical properties, these concern tests to measure resistance to bases,
acids, solvents and UV [131, 132].
Textile properties
Textiles are a more or less complex assembly of yarns and are defined by:
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 Grammage:
In the metric system, the density of a textile is expressed in grams per square meter.
This quantity is commonly called grammage [133]. Obviously, the grammage is
increased by coating with a substrate.
 Strength:
The same tests are used to test textile strength as for fiber and yarn strength. Tensile
behavior is assessed by using fabric test pieces.
Surface characterization
Scanning electronic microscopy

Several techniques can be used to determine the appearance of both uncoated and
coated surfaces. For example, SEM (scanning electronic microscopy) can be used to
provide informations on surface morphology [134, 135]. Figure 19 shows SEM image
of microparticles fixed on cotton fiber.
Fig. 19. SEM micrographs of cotton fabric with microcapsules. (a) Microcapsules
applied by bath exhaustion. (b) Microcapsules applied by impregnation [68].
Profilometry and atomic force microscopy

Profilometry and atomic force microscopy (AFM) are other methods used to measure
film thickness and surface roughness. In profilometry, a diamond tip is brought in
contact with a sample and then moved laterally for a specified distance with a
controlled contact force. The profilometer can measure small surface variations. AFM
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measures the interaction between a surface and a microscale cantilever with a sharp
tip. Typically the deflection of the probe is measured by a laser spot reflected from
the top surface of the cantilever into an array of photodiodes [136].
Fourier transform infrared spectrophotometer

This is a quantitative and qualitative method that can be used to identify compounds
and investigate sample composition.
Infrared spectroscopy uses the fact that molecules have specific frequencies at which
they rotate or vibrate. Molecules can vibrate in six specific different ways:
symmetrical and anti-symmetrical stretching, wagging, twisting, scissoring and
rocking. Usually, a beam of infrared light is passed through the sample and a
transmittance or absorbance spectrum is produced [137]. As an example, IR spectra
of PA 66 coated with nHA are presented in Figure 20.
Fig. 20. IR spectra of PA66 (a), nHA/PA66-40 (b), nHA/PA66-60 (c) and nHA (d)
powders [137].
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TOF-SIMS
TOF-SIMS or Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry is a technology used
for surface characterization. This technology uses a weak energy beam of primary
ions to pulverize the surface of a material, generating secondary atomic or molecular
fragments. These fragments are then analyzed by TOF-SIMS. Due to the weak
energy of primary ions, TOF-SIMS is a soft ionization method and allows the analysis
of the extreme surface. TOF-SIMS is not only used for elementary surface analysis
but also for surface and depth analysis, by alternating acquisition and abrasion
sequences. TOF-SIMS is a method under development about which more can be
read in the literature on surface analysis [138-143].
X-Ray Diffraction
This technology is based on the X-ray diffraction phenomena that occur after the Z-
ray hits a substrate under an angle θ. X-ray diffraction is a well-suited method for
analyzing the surfaces of materials and powders. It determines the composition and
crystal structure of substrates. XRD is used in domains such as the synthesis of new
materials (ceramics, cements, steels), and in organic synthesis to determine possible
polymorphisms. In surface treatments, analysis by X-ray diffraction quantifies and
proves the presence of a surface film. However, this method does not allow
identifying amorphous materials. Figure 21 present XRD patterns of PA66 coater with
different ratio of nHA.
Fig. 21. XRD patterns of PA66 (a), nHA (b), nHA/PA66-40 (c) and nHA/PA66-60 (d)
in powder [127].
X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy

X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) is a quantitative and qualitative technique
that determines the elemental composition (without hydrogen and helium) of the
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substrate surface (1 to 10 nm) [139]. XPS has been widely used for the surface
characterization of solid surfaces. This technique involves a soft X-ray beam to
measure the binding energies of electrons ejected by the ionization of atoms. The
binding energy of the emitted electrons characterizes the elements present at the
surface while the intensity of the signal indicates their quantity. To illustrate this
technique, Figure 22 presents an XPS spectra of a coated homopolymer.
Fig. 22. XPS high-resolution scans of (a) the homopolymer film, sample X1, and (b)
the most cross-linked film, sample X5. The intensity of peak 2 that refers to the O*-H
oxygen decreases with increasing degree of cross-linking [140].
Contact angle
Fig. 23. The surface energy of e6PTFE, PA66, nHA/PA66-40 and PA66-60
membranes [127].
Contact angle measurement evaluates the aptitude of a liquid to spread out on a

surface. This method consists in measuring the angle formed between the drop of
liquid and the surface of a substrate.
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The contact angle allows calculating the surface energy of the liquid or solid, in order
to assess hydrophobic or hydrophilic behavior. The way in which a substrate is
functionalized has a direct effect on the value of the contact angle (Figure 23).
Zeta-potential
Particles in solution form electro-kinetic charges at the interface between the
substrate and the solvent. The nature of these charges depends on surface
properties. A layer of dehydrated counter ions forming the internal Helmholtz layer
are directly adsorbed on the surface of the particle, followed by a layer of partly
hydrated counter ions forming the external Helmholtz layer. These two layers are
called Stern layers. The Stern layer is then covered with a more mobile diffuse layer
(Gouy-Chapman layer) containing counter ions and co-ions. The Zeta Potential is the
value of the potential measured at the shearing plane located between the Stern
layer and the diffuse layer [141, 142].
The literature [143, 144] gives the example of Pothan et al. [139] who used the pH
dependence of the Zeta potential to qualitatively determine the Bronsted acidity or
alkalinity of banana fibers and derivatives (Figure 24).
Fig. 24. Dependence of the apparent zeta-potential, úapp on pH values of variously

silanized banana fibers: untreated banana fibers (□), fibers grafted with silane A1100
(■), fibers grafted with silane A151 (○), fibers grafted with silane A174 (●), fibers
grafted with fluorosilane F8261 (▲), and fibers grafted with sulfur containing silane
Si69 (∆). All measurements were performed as streaming potential measurements in
10-3 mol.L-1 KCl [139].
Solvatochromic method
This method uses the possible interaction (acid - base, ion-dipole, dipole-dipole)
between a surface and a solvatochromic pigment. The UV/Vis measurement of
certain solvatochromic pigments adsorbed on the surface determines the different
Kamlet-Taft parameters.
It has been shown that the pigment cis-dicyano-bis (1,10-phenanthroline)-ferric [Fe
(phen) 2 (CN) 2] can be used to quantify the acidic behavior of a surface (α). On the
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other hand, 3-(4-amino-3-methylphenyl-7-phenyl-2,6-dihydrofurano [2’,3':4,5]
benzofuran-2,6-dion and 4,4 '-bis (N,N-dimethylamino) benzophenone (Michler' s
ketone) allow determining the basic character (β) and the polarisability (π*)
respectively of a surface [139, 142, 145]. Formula of these pigments are presented in
Figure 25.
Fig. 25. (a) Cis-dicyano-bis(1,10-phenanthroline)-ferric [Fe(phen)2(CN)2], (b) 3-(4-

amino-3-methylphenyl)-7-phenyl-2,6-dihydrofurano [2’,3’:4,5]benzofuran-2,6-dion, (c)
4,4-bis(N,N-dimethylamino) benzophenone (Michler’s ketone) [135].
Differential Scanning Calorimetry

Although differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is not a surface analysis method, it
is often used to characterize functionalized materials and their surfaces. This
technology measures the energy necessary to establish a nearly zero temperature
difference between a sample and a reference during a heating or cooling cycle at
controlled speed.
Fig. 26. DSC analysis of PA-66 samples containing different amounts of N-EX [146].
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DSC determines the glass transition, fusion and crystallization temperatures, and the
calorific capacity and crystallinity of a material.
During functionalization, DSC is used to visualize the grafting and deposition of new
materials [11, 146-149] as shown in Figure 26.
Conclusions
The functionalization of textiles for pharmaceutical and cosmetic applications can be
achieved by several methods such as microencapsulation, plasma and sol-gel. The
properties of the fiber used and process-engineering aspects strongly influence the
functionalization and the resulting release rate.
Microencapsulation is the most widely used process thanks to its capacity to
encapsulate hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs to its release properties. After the
choice of drug, the microspheres with the desired properties (size, surface
morphology and drug release rate) are obtained by various processes.
Due to the weakness of particle adhesion on fibers, it is often necessary to use a
binder. Different impregnation processes for these particles exist. The exhaustion
bath and padding machine processes remain those preferred by industry. Poor
resistance by binders to washing has orientated research to new modes of adhesion.
To increase product durability, chemical adhesion is often preferred to physical
adhesion. There are therefore several methods for creating a covalent bond between
particle and fibers (organic or radical reactions, ozonization, photochemistry). Other
techniques such as plasma and sol-gel permanently functionalize textiles. These
techniques are soft and suitable for various drugs. However a prior step of drug
encapsulation is necessary if controlled release is needed.
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Cosmeto-textile from formulation to characterization: An overview

Article in E-Polymers · April 2010

Lionel Ripoll Claire Bordes

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Cosmeto-textile from formulation to characterization: an

(Received: 21 January, 2010; published: 01 April, 2010)

Summary: Functionalized textiles and especially cosmetotextiles are increasingly

Cosmetotextile, a functional textile

Tab. 1. Examples of textile functionalization.

Fiber, yarn and textiles

Fig. 1. Diagram of α-, β- and γ-cyclodextrins.

Fig. 2. Chemical structure of calixarene.

Fig. 3. Scheme of a dendrimer.

Fig. 4. Diagram of a beam [70].

Fig. 6. Kind of padding machines.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 8. Deposition by spin coating.

- Chemical Vapor Deposition and Derivatives

Fig. 9. Illustration of a derivation of a polymer surface with poly(vinyl-N-

- Plasma and derivatives

Fig. 10. Reaction flowchart of the condensation of two silanol groups.

Fig. 11. Reaction scheme of the condensation of two silanol groups.

- Organic chemistry reaction

Fig. 12. Schematic representation of the synthesis of N-alkylated PEIs covalently

Fig. 13. Lysozyme immobilization onto wool fibers.

Fig. 14. Reaction between polycarboxylic acid and cyclodextrin.

There are other examples of textile functionalization with cyclodextrin, by using

Fig. 16. Example of textile fiber functionalization by calixarene [109].

Furthermore, information on textile functionalization using dendrimers is lacking. A

Fig. 17. Shematic representation of the synthesis of N-alkylated PEIs covalently

Fig. 18. Chemical grafting of sulfobetaine.

-Plasma and derivatives

Tab. 2. Proportion of oxygenated functions produced by different types of plasmas on

Properties of fibers and yarns

Tab. 3. Approximate density in g.cm-3 of organic fibers [126].

Fibers Density (g.cm3)

Tab. 4. Example of tensile force on standard fibers [128].

Chemical and thermal properties

Scanning electronic microscopy

Profilometry and atomic force microscopy

Fourier transform infrared spectrophotometer

X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy

Contact angle measurement evaluates the aptitude of a liquid to spread out on a

Fig. 24. Dependence of the apparent zeta-potential, úapp on pH values of variously

Fig. 25. (a) Cis-dicyano-bis(1,10-phenanthroline)-ferric [Fe(phen)2(CN)2], (b) 3-(4-

Differential Scanning Calorimetry

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