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POA - Suite 3
POA - Suite 3
Electromagnetic Waves
For fast-varying phenomena, the displacement current cannot be
neglected, and the full set of Maxwell’s equations must be used
G
G ∂B ( t )
∇× E = −
dt
G
G G ∂D ( t )
∇× H = J +
∂t G G G G
G F = q ( E + v × B)
∇⋅ D= ρ
G
∇⋅B= 0
G G
D=ε E
G G
B=µ H
The two curl equations are analogous to the coupled (first order)
equations for voltage and current used in transmission lines. The
solutions of this system of equations are waves. In order to obtain
uncoupled (second order) equations we can operate with the curl
once more. Under the assumption of uniform isotropic medium:
G
G ∂ (∇ × B( t)) ∂ G
∇ × ∇ × E ( t) = − = −µ ∇ × H ( t )
∂t ∂t
G 2G
∂ J ( t) ∂ E ( t)
= −µ − µε
∂t ∂ t2
G
G G ∂ ( ∇ × D( t) ) G ∂ G
∇ × ∇ × H ( t) = ∇ × J + = ∇ × J + ε ∇ × E ( t)
∂t ∂t
G
G ∂ H ( t)
2
= ∇ × J − εµ
∂ t2
© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 34
Electromagnetic Fields
2G
2G ∂ E(t)
∇ E(t) − µε =0
∂ t2
G
2G ∂ H(t)
2
∇ H(t) − µε =0
∂t
When currents and charges are involved, the wave equations are
difficult to solve, because of the terms
G G
∇ ( ∇ ⋅ E ( t )) and ∇ × J(t)
G ∂φ G
∇ ⋅ A ( t ) = −µ ε ∇⋅ A= 0
∂t
2 G
2G ∂ A( t ) G
∇ A( t ) − ε µ = −µ J ( t )
∂ t2
G G ρ
∇ ⋅ D( t ) = ρ ⇒ ∇ ⋅ E(t) =
ε
G
G ∂ A( t ) ρ
∇ ⋅ E(t) = ∇ ⋅ − − ∇φ =
∂t ε
∂ G ρ
−∇ φ − ∇ ⋅ A ( t ) =
2
∂t ε
After applying the Lorenz gauge once more, we arrive at the
potential wave equation
2 ∂ 2φ ρ
∇ φ − εµ =−
2 ε
∂t
We define
G G jϕ E G
E = E0 e = phasor of E ( t )
G G jϕ H G
H = H0 e = phasor of H ( t )
G
G ∂ E(t)
jω E = phasor of
∂t
2 G
2G ∂ E(t)
− ω E = phasor of
∂ t2
G G G G
F = q ( E + v × B)
2G G
2
∇ E + ω µ0 ε0 E = 0
2G 2 G
∇ H + ω µ0 ε0 H = 0
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f
∇2 f = + +
2 2
∂x ∂y ∂ z2
and that the Laplacian of a vector is a vector
2G
∇ E = iˆx∇ 2 E x + iˆy∇ 2 E y + iˆz∇ 2 E z
G G 2
∂ Ex ˆ
2 2
∇ E + ω µ0 ε0 E = ix + ω2µ 0 ε 0 ( E x iˆx ) = 0
∂ z2
Only the x-component of the electric field exists (due to the chosen
orientation) and only the z-derivative exists, because the field is
uniform on the { x , y }-plane.
∂2 Ex
+ ω2 µ 0 ε 0 E x = 0
∂ z2
A exp ( − jβ z ) + B exp ( jβ z )
We can also assume that the amplitude of the forward plane wave
solution is given and that it is in general a complex constant fixed
by the conditions that generated the wave
A = E0 e jϕ
G
(
jϕ − jβ z ˆ
∇ × E = ∇ × E0 e e
G
ix = − jωµ 0 H )
G
H=−
(
∇ × E0 e jϕ e− jβ z iˆx )
jωµ 0
=
(
∂ E0 e jϕ e− jβ z ) iˆy − (
∂ E0 e jϕ e− jβ z ) iˆz =
∂z ∂y
=0
= − jβ E0 e jϕ e− jβ z iˆy
G − j β E0 e jϕ e− jβ z ˆ
H y ( z) = − iy =
jωµ
ω µ 0ε 0
= E0 e jϕ e− jβ z iˆy =
ω µ0
ε0 jϕ − jβ z ˆ ε0
= E0 e e iy = E x ( z ) iˆy
µ0 µ0
We define
µ0
= η0 ≈ 377 Ω = Intrinsic impedance of vacuum
ε0
z
H
y
G G G
P(t) = E(t)× H (t)
G
|β |=ω µε
G
E( x, y, z) x
y
G z
H ( x, y, z)
G G
β, P
G G G
∫ plane P ( t) = ∫
plane
E ( t) × H ( t) → ∞
G
Medium 1 G H1
ε 1 ; µ1
Hn1
G
H t1
boundary
G
G G Ht 2
Medium 2 Hn2 H2
ε2; µ2
Medium 1 G
ε 1 ; µ1 H t1
G G
boundary
H n3 H n4 a
G
Medium 2 Ht2 y
ε2; µ2
b
z
. x
Ampère’s law for the boundary region in the figure can be written as
G ∂H y ∂H x
∇×H⇒ − = J z + jω ε E z
∂x ∂y
H n4 − H n3 H t1 − H t 2
− = J z + jω ε E z
b a
If one lets the boundary region shrink, with a going to zero faster
than b,
H n3 − H n4
H t 2 − H t1 = lim ( J z a + jωε E z a + a )
a→ 0 b
for materials with finite conductivity
⇒ H t 2 − H t1 = 0 Tangential components are conserved
G G G
nˆ × (H t1 − H t 2 ) = Js
For a real medium, with finite conductivity, the fields can penetrate
over a certain distance, and there is a current distributed on a thin,
but not infinitesimal, skin layer. The tangential field components on
the two sides of the interface are the same. Nonetheless, the
perfect conductor is often a good approximation for a real metal.
Medium 1 G
ε 1 ; µ1 E t1
G G
boundary
E n3 E n4 a
G
Medium 2 Et2 y
ε2; µ2
b
z
. x
G ∂ E y ∂E x
∇×E⇒ − = jω µ H z
∂x ∂y
E n4 − E n3 E t1 − E t 2
− = jωµ H z
b a
If one lets the boundary region shrink, with a going to zero faster
than b,
E n3 − E n4
E t 2 − E t1 = lim ( jωµ H z a + a )
a→ 0 b
G G
nˆ × (E t1 − E t 2 ) = 0
Normal components
Medium 1 G G
ε 1 ; µ1 Dn1 Bn1
boundary
ρs + + + + + + w
G G
Medium 2 Dn2 Bn2 y
ε2; µ2
Area
z
. x
Integrate the divergence of the fields over the volume of the box:
G G G
∫∫∫ ∇ ⋅ D dr = ∫∫∫ ρ dr
Volume Volume
Divergence ⇓ theorem
G G G
∫∫
w D ⋅ n̂ ds = Flux of D out of the box
Surface
G G
∫∫∫ ∇ ⋅ B dr = 0
Volume
Divergence ⇓ theorem
G G G
∫∫
w B ⋅ n̂ ds = Flux of B out of the box
Surface
If the thickness of the box tends to zero and the charge density is
assumed to be uniform over the area, we have the following fluxes
G
D-Flux out of box = Area ⋅ (D1n − D2 n ) =
= Total interface charge = Area ⋅ ρ s
G
B-Flux out of box = Area ⋅ (B1n − B2 n ) = 0
The resulting boundary conditions are
D1n − D2 n = ρ s B1n − B2 n = 0
G G G G
Dn1 − Dn2 = ε1E n1 − ε 2 E n2 = ρ s
G G G G
Bn1 − Bn2 = µ1H n1 − µ 2H n2 = 0
SUMMARY
If medium 2 is
perfect conductor
G
H t1 G G G G
ε 1 , µ1 H t1 = H t 2 nˆ × H t1 = J s
G ε 2 , µ2 G
Ht2 Ht2 = 0
G
E t1 G G G
ε 1 , µ1 E t1 = E t 2 E t1 = 0
G ε 2 , µ2 G
Et2
Et2 = 0
G G G G
H n1 ε 1 , µ1 µ1H n1 = µ 2 H n2 H n1 = 0
G ε 2 , µ2 G
H n2 H n2 = 0
G G G G
E n1 ε 1 , µ1 ε 1E n1 = ε 2 E n2 +ρ s E n1 = ρ s ε 1
G ε 2 , µ2 G
E n2 E n2 = 0
Examples:
An infinite current sheet generates a plane wave (free space on
both sides)
x
Js
-z +z
y
H
G
Js ( t ) = − Jso cos(ω t ) iˆx
G
Phasor J s = − Jso iˆx
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
G G G
nˆ × (H t1 − H t 2 ) = J s
G G
H t1 − H t 2 = Jso iˆx
G G
E t1 = E t 2
G G
E t1 = η 0 H t1
G G
Symmetry ⇒ H t1 = H t 2
Jso Jso
H1 = H2 = −
2 2
x
Perfect Free Space
Conductor
Js
-z +z
y
H
G
J s = − Jso cos(ω t ) iˆx
The E.M. field is zero inside the perfect conductor. The wave is only
transmitted into free space.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
G G G
nˆ × (H t1 − H t 2 ) = J s
G G G
H t1 − H t 2 = H t1 − 0 = Jso iˆx
G
Et2 = 0
G G
Asymmetry ⇒ H t1 ≠ H t 2
H t1 = Jso Ht2 = 0
Jc = σ E
ε = εr εo µ = µr µo
∇ × E = − jωµ H
σ
∇ × H = σ E + jωε E = jω(ε − j )E
ω
In phasor notation, it is as if the material conductivity introduces an
imaginary part for the dielectric constant ε. The wave equation for
the phasor electric field is given by
∇ × ∇ × E = ∇∇ ⋅ E − ∇ 2 E = − jωµ ∇ × H
= − jωµ(J c + jωε E)
⇒ ∇ 2 E = jωµ(σ + jωε )E
We have assumed that the net charge density is zero, even if a
conductivity is present, so that the electric field divergence is zero.
∂ 2E x
= jωµ(σ + jωε )E x = γ 2 E x
∂ z2
with general solution
E x ( z) = A exp(−γ z) + B exp( γ z)
1 ∂E x σ + jωε
H y ( z) = − = ( A exp(−γ z) − B exp( γ z) )
jωµ ∂ z jωµ
1
= ( A exp(−γ z) − B exp( γ z) )
η
These resemble the voltage and current solutions in lossy
transmission lines.
jτ jωµ
η= η e =
σ + jωε
For the propagation constant, one can obtain the real and imaginary
parts as
γ= jωµ(σ + jωε ) = α + jβ
1/ 2
2
ω µε σ
α= 1 + − 1
2 ωε
1/ 2
2
ω µε σ
β= 1 + + 1
2 ωε
© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 78
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Electromagnetic Fields
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( )
ω 2 σ
2
vp = = 1+ + 1
β µε ωε
−1 / 2
( )
2π 2 σ
2
λ= = 1+ + 1
β f µε ωε
The intrinsic impedance of the medium is complex as long as the
conductivity is not zero. The phase angle of the intrinsic
impedance indicates that electric field and magnetic field are out of
phase. Considering only the forward wave solutions
E x ( z) = A exp( −γ z) = A exp( −α z) exp( − jβ z)
1 1
H y ( z) = A exp( −γ z − jτ ) = A exp( −α z) exp( − jβ z − jτ )
η η
In time-dependent form
A = A exp( jθ)
Classification of materials
σ
γ= jωµ(σ + jωε ) = jω µε 1 − j
ωε
σ µ
≈ + jω µε + …
2 ε
σ µ
α≈ β ≈ ω µε
2 ε
ω 1 2π 1
vp = ≈ λ= ≈
β µε β f µε
−1
jωµ jωµ σ 2 µ
η= = 1 − j ≈
σ + jωε jωε ωε ε
σ
≤ 0.1
ωε
When the condition above is verified, the imperfect dielectric
behaves in all respects like a perfect dielectric, except for an
attenuation term in the fields.
σ
≥ 10
ωε
Note that for a good conductor the attenuation constant α and the
propagation constant β are approximately equal.
1 1
=δ= = Skin depth
α π f µσ
σ = 5.80 × 10 7 [S/m]
ε ≈ εo
µ ≈ µo
σ ≈ 4.0 [S/m]
ε ≈ 80ε o
µ ≈ µo
At a frequency of 25 kHz
σ
≈ 36, 000
ωε
For this material, the attenuation is also infinite and the skin depth
goes to zero. This means that the electromagnetic field must go to
zero below the perfect conductor surface.
σ
10 > > 0.1
ωε
G G G
P(t) = E(t)× H (t)
G 1 TG 1 TG G
P( t ) = ∫ P( t ) dt = ∫ E( t ) × H ( t ) dt
T 0 T 0
T
1 T 2 1 t sin 2ωt 1
∫
T 0
cos ωt dt = +
T 2
4ω 0 2
=
T
1 T 2 1 t sin 2ωt 1
∫
T 0
sin ωt dt = −
T 2
4ω 0 2
=
T
1 T 1 sin ωt
2
∫
T 0
cos ωt ⋅ sin ωt dt =
T 2ω
=0
0
The final result for the time-average power flow density is given by
G 1 TG G
P( t ) = ∫ E( t ) × H ( t ) dt
T 0
1 G G G G
= ( Re{E} × Re{H} + Im{E} × Im{H} )
2
Now, consider the following cross product of phasor vectors
G G* G G G G
E × H = Re{E} × Re{H} + Im{E} × Im{H}
G G G G
+ j ( Im{E} × Re{H} − Re{E} × Im{H} )
G 1 G G*
P = E× H
2
NOTE: the complex Poynting vector is not the phasor of the time-
dependent power nor that of the time-average power density!
G G G G
P( t ) = Re {P} ( don't try P( t ) = Re {P exp( jωt )} )
1 −αz − jβ z o −α z jβ z jτ
*
G 1 G G*
{
P( t ) = Re E × H = Re Eo e e
2 2
}
E
η
e e e
−2 α z −2 α z
1
= Eo
2
2e
η
1
Re e jτ = Eo
2
2 e
{ }
η
cos τ
G 1
{
P( t ) = Re η Ho e−αz e− jβ z Ho* e−αz e jβ z e jτ
2
}
1 2 −2 α z
= η Ho e cos τ
2
Jso Jso
Ho = Eo = η
2 2
G 2
Jso
P( t ) = η e−2αz cos τ
8
For this ideal case, an identical wave exists, propagating along the
negative z-direction and carrying the same amount of power.
Poynting Theorem
Consider the divergence of the time-dependent power flow density
G G G G G G G
∇ ⋅ P ( t ) = ∇ ⋅ ( E ( t ) × H ( t ) ) = H ( t ) ⋅ ∇ × E ( t ) − E( t ) ⋅ ∇ × H ( t )
G G
∫ ∇ ⋅ P( t) dV = w
∫∫ P( t) ⋅ ds = Power Flux through S
V S
2 ∂ 1 2 ∂ 1
= −∫ σE ( t ) dV − ∫ ε E ( t ) dV − ∫ µ H 2 ( t ) dV
∂t 2 ∂t 2
V V V
Power dissipated Rate of change Rate of change
in volume of electric energy of magnetic energy
stored in volume stored in volume
Typical applications
G G
Pin ( t ) Pout ( t )
α=?
1 m2
L
G G Watts
Pout ( t ) = Pin ( t ) exp(−2αL)
2
m
G
1 Pout ( t ) Nepers
⇒α=− ln G m
2 L Pin ( t )
Example:
G Watts G Watts
Pin ( t ) = 30 2 ; Pout ( t ) = 5 2 ; L = 20 m
m m
Nepers
⇒ α = 0.0448
m
G G
Pout ( t ) Pin ( t )
ln G = − ln G
Pin ( t ) Pout ( t )
SURFACE A SURFACE B
G G
∫∫ Pin ( t ) = Power IN ∫∫ Pout ( t ) = Power OUT
A B
Power dissipated
between A and B?
Example
2
Area = 5 m ; L = 1.0 cm; f = 1.0 GHz; Eo = 10 V/m
ε = ε o ; µ = µ o ; σ = 0.45755 S/m
σ
⇒ = 8.2244637 General Lossy medium
ωε
η = 130.88∠ 0.725rad = 130.88∠ 41.534D
G
α = 40.0 Ne/m; Pin ( t ) = 0.286 W/m2 ;
G G
Pout ( t ) B = Pin ( t ) A exp( −2α L) = 0.12845 W/m2 ;
G
Power IN = Area ⋅ Pin ( t ) = 1.43 W
G
Power OUT = Area ⋅ P ( t ) B = 0.6423 W
Power dissipated = Power IN − Power OUT = 0.7876 W