EXPERIMENT NO.

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“To determine the Modulus of Elasticity of the material of the wire”

Wasib Muzammil
2017-ME-151
September 26,2018

1 Objective
i. To draw the load-extension curve of a metallic wire
ii. To determine the modulus of elasticity of the material of the wire.

2 Apparatus
i. Young’s Modulus of Elasticity Apparatus
ii. Meter Rod
iii. Hangers and Weights

iv. Micrometer Screw Gauge

3 Introduction
In this experiment, we will discuss the relationship between stress and strain for different materials. This
experiment will also help us to understand the construction and working of Young’s Modulus Apparatus and
we will determine the modulus of elasticity of the material of the wire using this apparatus.

4 Theory
4.1 Stress
The external forces acting on the body are called loads. All loads deform an elastic material and the material
develops an internal resistance to the deformation.
“The internal resistance force per unit area applied against the applied load or external force is called
stress.”
Mathematically,
Force
Stress =
Area
or,
F
σ=
A

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The units of stress are Newton per meter square (N m−2 ) = Pascal (P a) or Pounds per inch square (psi).

Stress can be classified into:

i. Engineering Stress

ii. True Stress

4.1.1 Engineering Stress

“Engineering Stress is the ratio of applied force to original cross sectional area of material.”

Mathematically,
Applied Force F
Engineering Stress = =
Original Area Ao

4.1.2 True Stress

“The ratio of load to the instantaneous area of specimen is called True Stress [1]”

Mathematically,
Applied Force F
True Stress = =
Instantaneous Area Ai

Figure 1: Engineering Stress VS. True Stress [2]

There are following types of stress:

i. Normal Stress

ii. Volumetric Stress

iii. Shear Stress
iv. Torsional Stress

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4.1.3 Normal Stress(Longitudinal Stress)
“If the load is perpendicular to the stressed area or surface, then the stress is called Normal Stress.”

It may be tensile or compressive.

Tensile Stress
Tensile means the material is under tension. The forces acting on it are trying to stretch the material.
“When a body is stretched by two equal forces applied normal to its cross-sectional area, this restoring
force per unit area is called Tensile stress.”

Figure 2: Tensile Stress [3]

Compressive Stress
Compression is when the forces acting on an object are trying to squash it.
“When a body is compressed under the action of applied forces, this restoring force per unit area is known
as Compressive stress.”

Figure 3: Compresive Stress [4]

4.1.4 Volumetric Stress(Bulk Stress)

“When the volume of body changes due to the stress it is termed as Volumetric stress [5]”

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 Figure 4: Volumetric Stress [6]

4.1.5 Shear Stress(Tangential Stress)

“If the load is parallel to the stressed area or surface, then the stress is called Shear Stress ”
Mathematically,
V
τ=
A
where V is the resultant shearing force which passes through the centeroid of area A being sheared [7]

Figure 5: Shear Stress [8]

4.1.6 Torsional Stress

“It is the stresses and deformation induced in a circular shaft by twisting moment [9]”

Figure 6: Torsional Stress [10]

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4.2 Strain
“Strain is the measure of deformation of the body when stress is applied to it.”

Strain can be classified as:

i. Engineering Strain
ii. True Strain

4.2.1 Engineering Strain

“The ratio of change in length and original length is called Engineering Strain.”

Mathematically,
Change in length δl
Engineering strain = =
Original Length lo

4.2.2 True Strain

“The ratio of change in length and instantaneous length is called True Strain [11]”

Mathematically,
Change in length δl
Engineering strain = =
Instantaneous Length li
There are following types of strain:
i. Normal Strain

ii. Volumetric Strain

iii. Shear Strain

4.2.3 Normal Strain

“Normal Strain is defined as the ratio of change in length and original length.”

Mathematically,
Change in length
Normal Strain =
Original length
or,
δl
ε=
l
Since strain is a ratio of two quantities having same units, so it has no units.It may be tensile or compressive
strain.

Tensile Strain
“It is the ratio of increase in length to its original length.”

Mathematically,
Increase in length
Tensile Strain =
Original length

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 Figure 7: Tensile Strain [12]

Compressive Strain
“It is the ratio of decrease in length to its original length.”

Mathematically,
Decrease in length
Compressive Strain =
Original length

Figure 8: Compressive Strain [13]

4.2.4 Volumetric Strain

“Volumetric strain is defined as the ratio of change in volume to original volume.”

Mathematically,
Change in Volume
Volumetric Strain =
Original Volume
or,
δV
εv =
V

4.2.5 Shear Strain

“Shear strain is defined as the deformation caused by the shearing force per unit height or length [14]”

Consider a rectangular block ABCD subjected to shearing force P while keeping the face AB fixed. The
clock will take the new position ABC 0 D0 .Hence

CC0
Shear Strain = =θ
BC

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 Figure 9: Shear Strain [15]

4.3 Elastic Limit

“The elastic limit is the point beyond which the material you are stretching becomes permanently
stretched so that the material does not return to its original position when the force is removed [16]”

Figure 10: Elastic Limit [17]

4.4 Hooke’s Law

Hooke’s law , law of elasticity discovered by the English scientist Robert Hooke in 1660, states that,
“For materials subjected to tension or compression, within the elastic limit the strain produced is
proportional to the applied stress.”
Mathematically,
Strain ∝ Stress
or,
ε∝σ
1
ε = .σ
E
σ
E=
ε
where E is the Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus. [18]

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4.5 Elastic Constants
Experiments have revealed that the ratio of stress to strain is a constant for a given material provided that
the external force is not to great.The ratio is called Modulus of Elasticity and is mathematically described
as:
Stress
Modulus of Elasticity =
Strain
Since strain is a dimensionless quantity, the units or modulus of elasticity are same as that of stress i.e. P a
or N m−2 .

4.5.1 Young’s Modulus

“In case of linear deformation, the ratio of tensile(or compressive) stress to tensile(or compressive) strain is
called Young’s Modulus.”

Mathematically,
σ
E=
ε
or,
E =σ÷ε
   
P δl
E= ÷
A l
Pl
E=
A δl
and,
  
P l
E= (1)
δl A

4.5.2 Bulk Modulus

“For three dimensional deformation, when volume is involved, then the ratio of applied stress to volumetric
strain is called Bulk Modulus.”

Mathematically,
Volumetric Stress
Bulk Modulus =
Volumetric Strain

4.5.3 Shear Modulus

“The ratio of shear stress to shear strain is called Shear Modulus [19]”

Mathematically,
Shear Stress
Shear Modulus =
Shear Strain

4.6 Young’s Modulus of Elasticity Apparatus

The Young’s Modulus of Elasticity apparatus consists of a wire attached to a fixed support.Th lower
end of wire is attached to a hanger with the help of metallic plate. The extension of the wire can be measured
from the scale present on metallic plate.

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5 Procedure
i. Put the initial load of 2 lb to remove wrinkles in the wire.
ii. Measure the length of wire using meter rod
iii. Measure the diameter of wire
iv. Micrometer Screw Gauge. Check the zero error in screw gauge.
v. Put a load 5 lb in the hanger and measure extension.
vi. Take a set of atleast five readings of increasing value of load and then take readings on unloading.
vii. Plot a graph between P and δl and measure its slope.
viii. Calculate the Young’s Modulus of Elasticity of the material of the wire using the formula:
  
P l
E=
δl A

6 Observations and Calculations

Least count of the scale of apparatus = 0.0196 in
Least count of micrometer = 0.01 mm
Least Count of meter rod = 0.0625 in
Length of wire = l = 34.8 in
Diameter of wire = d = 0.055 in
Initial Load = 2 lb
X-Area of wire = A = 0.0015 in2

Extension δl P
Effective Load P Modulus of elasticity E
No. of Obs. Loading Unloading Average δl
(lb) (in) (in) (in) (lb/in) (lb/in2 )
1. 5 0.0059 0.0079 0.0069
2. 10 0.0098 0.0118 0.0108
3. 15 0.0138 0.0157 0.01475 1185.26892 2.75 × 107
4. 20 0.0157 0.0177 0.0167
5. 25 0.0197 0.0197 0.0197

Table 1: Modulus of Elasticity of material of wire

7 Graphs
7.1 Load Extension Curve
Load-Extension diagram is shown in figure 11.The load- extension diagram is linearly fitted and the slope of
P
this line is evaluated which will give us the best value of δl as shown in figure 11.

7.2 Stress Strain Curve

Stress Strain diagram is shown in figure 12. It is linear fitted and its slope is calculated to obtain the value
of Modulus of Elasticity of the material of wire.

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 Figure 11: Load-Extension Curve

Figure 12: Stress-Strain Curve

8 Comments
The factors that effects the calculations and thus causing the error in linear load-delection curve are as
follows:
i. Human Error
ii. Wrinkles in the wire

iii. External conditions such as atmospheric pressure and temperature etc.

iv. Friction
v. Zero error of the instrument such as micrometer, meter rod etc.

vi. Non-gradual loading

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References
[1] Beer, Ferdinand Pierre; Elwood Russell Johnston; John T. DeWolf (1992). Mechanics of Materials.
McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0-07-112939-1
[2] https://qph.fs.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-04a1b4a9a58b967c3d40eb00efe3e396
[3] https://www.e-education.psu.edu/matse81/sites/www.e-education.psu.edu.matse81/files/tensile stress
figure.png

[4] https://www.e-education.psu.edu/matse81/sites/www.e-education.psu.edu.matse81/files/images/lesson04/compressive
stress figure.png
[5] Chakrabarty, J. (2006). Theory of plasticity (3 ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 1732. ISBN 0-7506-
6638-2

[6] https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTpcKbWKwvs4M8XN-WUtQxoLd9kvNs5
XGQH9v4Qx-nqLl3OYXo
[7] Hibbeler, R.C. (2004). Mechanics of Materials. New Jersey USA: Pearson Education. p. 32. ISBN 0-13-
191345-X

[8] https://qph.fs.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-77d1d65997be75fee41e52fbcf89c722-c
[9] Seaburg, Paul; Carter, Charles (1997). Torsional Analysis of Structural Steel Members. American Insti-
tute of Steel Construction
[10] https://www.engineersedge.com/calculators/torsional-stress-calculator/hollow cylinder torque.jpg

[11] Truesdell, C.; Noll, W. (2004). The non-linear field theories of mechanics (3rd ed.). Springer
[12] https://qph.fs.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-9ef75055b356b336475263dc381734d4
[13] https://www.psi.ch/lmx-interfaces/ThinFilmsEN/igp 8e6702b38d861f9818eb8e361b144130 lattices-
train.jpg

[14] Wu, H.-C. (2005). Continuum Mechanics and Plasticity. CRC Press. ISBN 1-58488-363-4.
[15] http://polymerdatabase.com/polymer20physics/images/Shear.png
[16] Avallone, Eugene A. & Baumeister III, Theodore (1996). Mark’s Standard Handbook for Mechanical
Engineers (8th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-004997-1

[17] https://qph.fs.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-012ea61b4796f94aba99998b480e6450
[18] Ugural, A. C.; Fenster, S. K. (2003). Advanced Strength and Applied Elasticity (4th ed.). Prentice-Hall.
ISBN 978-0-13-047392-9.
[19] ASTM E 111, “Standard Test Method for Young’s Modulus, Tangent Modulus, and Chord Modulu”

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