Btyste 2020 Project Report Book Evan Final

1.
0 SUMMARY OF PROJECT
Climate Change is now acknowledged as the greatest challenge currently facing our planet
and I like most young people am very exercised about how it will impact my future and about
looking for innovative solutions to provide answers to the problem.
Approximately 40% of carbon emissions come from buildings so one of the best ways to
combat climate change is to build better buildings. The Irish Government introduced the nZEB
(nearly zero energy buildings) standard in November just gone and this will really help as
energy efficiency is considered to be the most readily available and cost-effective solution to
combatting climate change.
The benefits of having low energy buildings are two-fold, they reduce our dependence on
fossil fuels and help reduce fuel poverty. This is the other huge challenge facing Ireland at the
moment - the number of people who either can’t afford a home or can’t afford to heat their
home.
Modern houses are very well insulated and need very little to heat them. Even low energy
buildings, however, need some heating. Now imagine a heating system that you can’t see and
isn’t cluttering up your space! That saves you money by not needing to install radiators, pipes
and boilers. That can be powered by your electricity supply or ideally by PV (photovoltaic)
panels on your roof. And is good for the planet. My project is just this!
Graphite is a soft black crystalline form of naturally occurring carbon and materials such as
carbon graphite can conduct electricity. Rather than burning more fossil fuels to produce heat
we could instead also turn a dangerous pollutant CO2 into a useful modern building material.
Using graphite in this way could therefore act as a carbon sequester and help our planet.
The aim of my project is to see whether a new form of electric heating made from carbon can
be used to help combat climate change. Specifically, my project looks at the use of ‘carbon
paint’ as a heating system and I wanted to investigate:
• whether carbon painted plasterboard walls can be used to meet the space heating
requirements of a home;
• the optimum amount of graphite content in carbon paint to be a viable cost-
effective solution;
• the impact on performance of placing different insulation materials behind a wall
panel;
• whether I can use foldable material such as fabric with carbon paint to make a basic
portable heater for use in emergency relief, such as in refugee camps.
My project is very practical. I have made up a mixture of graphite and glue to produce a carbon
paint which I have then applied onto plasterboard panels. A circuit was created connecting
either side. The carbon paint conducted electricity, which in turn heated up the plasterboard,
which then emitted heat. I used LEDs to prove that a current was being conducted through
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the paint, a thermal imaging camera to measure the temperature of the panel’s surface and
a power meter to indicate the wattage of the panel to show that the panel could heat a room.
Once I knew that the carbon paint panels worked as a method of producing heat, I then
experimented with different amounts of graphite in the mixture to establish how this affected
the temperature of panel heaters and so was able to consider the optimum amount of
graphite content to be a cost-effective heating solution. I then tested panels with different
types of insulation attached to see if there was any change in performance. I also attempted
to produce a fabric version.
I then reviewed BER (Building Energy Rating) data collected by SEAI to find out how much heat
is needed for Irish homes and carried out a desktop study to assess the adequacy of my
heaters to meet the need.
Having completed my project my main conclusions are that carbon paint heaters can
successfully be used as an effective invisible domestic heating system. They are most suitable
for homes that are built to a high energy efficient standard such as A-rated, nZEB (nearly zero
energy buildings) or PH (passive house) homes as these require only a very low amount of
heat for space heating. Their performance is improved by the addition of insulation behind
the heated panel. They would not be effective for homes with poor insulation or airtightness
levels.
Ireland’s electricity grid is becoming more ‘green’ each year as more and more of the national
supply is being generated by renewable energy, so powering the carbon panels from such a
renewable electricity supply serves the wishes of those who wish to avoid the use of fossil
fuels and also allows for households that are not on a gas network. By installing PV panels a
homeowner is making an even more sustainable decision as the power required to run the
panels is both produced and used on-site.
The successful production of a portable heater for cold weather emergency relief has proven
to be more difficult than I anticipated. To be an effective conductor the carbon paint needs
to be unbroken and the risk is that by using a rollable material for the blanket - for ease of
delivery such as from a helicopter - the surface paint may become dislodged and cause a break
in the conductivity. Then the panel would not work. Also, as mentioned earlier the panel is
not hugely effective in non-airtight environments. Obviously in emergency camps the house
structures / tents would be of poor quality and would result in the heat produced by the panel
not being as contained as in better conditions. Nonetheless, in such circumstances, any
amount of heat at all would no doubt be very welcome. I would like to work on this further
to develop a more robust solution.
I am really looking forward to displaying my Project to the public and engaging with people
about finding new solutions for fighting climate change and safeguarding my future.
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2.0 INTRODUCTION
Hello and welcome to my project. My name is Evan Dargan Hayes and I am in Transition Year
in St. Gerard’s School in Bray.
Climate Change is now acknowledged as the greatest challenge currently facing our planet. I
have been on my school’s Green Schools committee since First Year and we are always trying
to think about innovative solutions to provide answers to the problem. We all understand
that the environment is in huge danger at the moment and we need to work to try to combat
climate change. As a society if we do nothing to combat increasing carbon emissions there
will be a significant irreversible impact on our environment. The other area we are very
conscious of in school at the moment is the homelessness problem in Ireland and how easy it
is to become homeless if you cannot afford to keep your home due to unemployment,
increasing rents etc. There are also many people who have a home but who can’t afford to
heat it due to the rising cost of their energy bills. This is known as being in fuel poverty.
Doing a project that considered both these topics seemed a good way for me to bring these
two issues that interest me together, so I decided to investigate the use of carbon graphite to
make an electric heater for domestic space heating. By doing this project I hope to make
people more aware that there are ways available to them that help the environment and at
the same time can save them money.
My project is targeted at people who are interested in environmental issues and are looking
to reduce their carbon footprint by avoiding the use of fossil fuels to heat their home but I am
also targeting people who don’t know a lot about the changing environment but who are
interested in novel ways of heating their home while avoiding the clutter of radiators, the cost
of servicing boilers etc. I hope however to raise awareness of carbon footprints and show
these people a way they can reduce their carbon consumption. There are three main sections
to my project:
• making working models of my domestic carbon heaters with different specifications

and testing them
• gathering data on the heating needs of Irish homes
• making a working model of a portable heater for emergency relief
When I started this project, I was interested in making carbon paint as I had made some
previously to make mini circuit boards for CoderDojo projects. I followed YouTube videos on
the subject as I knew it had been used to conduct electricity.
In the following sections I will explain some of the background research that informed me as
I developed my project. I love a challenge and so I thought this would be an excellent project
to do, and sure enough after completing it I still think it was a great project for me to do. I
now really appreciate how much effort goes into the research and development of a product.
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How W e Built Bare Conductive
How vision, passion and paint propelled us to global

leadership and partnerships w ith the world’s largest
2.1 Electronic Clothing
companies
Bare Conductive sold its rst jar of electrically conductive paint in September of 2011. But w e started
A twgroup of that,
o years before students in London’s
as a student project Royal
at the Royal College College
of Art and of Art
Imperial College (RCA) created electrically conductive
in London.
July 31 w as our tenth anniversary. Given this signi cant milestone, I thought it w ould be appropriate to
paint
indulge for an art project in 2009. They were originally interested in trying to apply electronics
in a bit of storytelling. Speci cally, I w ant to tell the story of how w e w ent
project to a maker movement icon to a partner of the largest and most dynamic companies on the
from a student
toI moved
the from
planet.
skin
the USand they
to study at the came up with a safe paint that could be painted onto the body.
Industrial Design Engineering dual master’s program at the Royal
Help I was
College of Art and Imperial College, London. The course promised to deliver a uniquely diverse intake of
amazed
technical andwhen I read
creative students w hoabout
w ere seriousthis.
about Iw have included
orking their ass off for tw o two
years. It articles
w as in the Appendices but there are
fantastic. Those tw o years changed my life in many w ays, but most signi cantly, I met Isabel Lizardi,
many articles
Bibi Nelson,
business.
and Beckywritten
Pilditch. Theyabout
w ere rst my these
partners students andmytheir
in a project and soon electric
co-founders in a paint. One of the articles I have
included was written by one of
the founders Matt Johnson and
describes how the 4 students
have turned their product ‘Bare
Paint’ into a huge business and
the range of uses it has today.
Over the last 10 years however
they have mainly focussed on
the use of the paint in
Creating a vision: Looking at electronics in a new way electronics.
As students, Isabel, Bibi, Becky, and I almost immediately focused on three trends: materials innovation,
Inprinted
theelectronics,
other and included article
the promise of the smart by
homeCNN it mentions
and w earable that the
revolution. In retrospect, students “liked the idea of having a
I can see
that w e w ere successful at combining these areas into a vision of minimal electronic devices that could
jumper that has some intelligence in it….” But they didn’t progress this because it was bulky
be placed intimately around the body or seamlessly in the environment. A vision that still drives us
today.
But there w as a catch. The prototyping materials available threatened to constrain our vision. W e
and lost
w anted its afunctionality
to create new category of deviceswhen you
that could took
seamlessly it off.
integrate into any material or
environment. But early experiments w ith copper tape and w ires didn’t achieve w hat w e w anted. W e
couldn’t deliver our most radical ideas w ithout also rethinking the materials that w e used for
This gave me the idea that if paint on clothing can conduct electricity and if electricity can
prototyping. It didn’t take long to realize that w hat w e needed w as conductive ink.
A quick search on Amazon today reveals that there are many conductive inks, paints, and pastes
available for purchase. But this w asn’t true in 2009. W e couldn’t get a hold of a single gram. Not from
produce heat, then paint on cloth could become an electric heater.
an academic laboratory or a global player like DuPont, Henkel, or 3M. Utterly ignorant of the complexity
of the task in front of us, w e had an idea to formulate our ow n conductive ink.
I have seen many, many news reports on television showing people in dire situations after
earthquakes, floods etc. They often have to leave their homes and end up in camps or in
villages in remote areas, sometimes on mountains and it is often in winter in freezing
conditions. Sometimes the only way to get relief to them is by air. I have seen blankets getting
dropped by air and this gave me the idea that if I could produce an electric heater that was
roll-able and safe that it could bring comfort and even possibly help to save lives in these
remote situations.
A solar panel could be attached to power the heater as it is also likely that there would be no
local power
Our drive to rapidlysupply
prototype ouravailable.
ideas gave us threeMycritical
idea is forthat
criteria the
our new solar
material. First,panel
it had
to be easy to apply on a w ide variety of substrates, like acrylic or w ater-based paint. Second, it needed
is also roll-able and connected by
to be compatible w ith screen printing. Third, it had to be air drying and safe for a novice user to handle.
a Wlength of cablew ithtoconductors,
e began experimenting the blanket
binders, and heater so that
plasticizers making the
over 100 solar panel can be positioned on the roof
material
formulations before our graduate show . W e w ere proli c and unquestionably lucky. W e also gained an
ofinvaluable
the tent andon conductive
perspective the blanketinks and theheater placed
printed electronics onw hich
industry, a wall within
still serves us the tent a short distance below.
today.
The
By ourentire
graduationproduct
show , w e hadcan be
created a fewrolled
litres of aup andmaterial
prototype dropped
that could from
be appliedalike
paint and w as impressively conductive w hile dry. But w hat w e didn’t appreciate w as that w e had
plane to those in need below.
created a highly unique formulation, tuned perfectly for prototyping and experimentation. This ease of
use w ould form the foundation for a global community of users.
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2.2 Climate Change
The climate can be described as the average weather over a period of time. Climate change
refers to a significant change in the measures of climate, such as temperature, rainfall, or
wind, lasting for an extended period, decades or longer. The earth's climate has changed
many times during the planet's history, with events ranging from ice ages to long periods of
warmth.
The scientific community and governments across the world are in agreement - the climate is
changing. Climate change can result from natural processes and factors such as:
• Changes in the sun's intensity

• Volcanic eruptions, or slow changes in the Earth's orbit around the sun
• Natural processes within the climate system such as changes in ocean current
circulation.
However, what is different about this period of the earth’s history is that human activities are
significantly contributing to natural climate change through our emissions of greenhouse
gases. This human influence is resulting in increased air and ocean temperatures, drought,
melting ice and snow, rising sea levels, increased rainfall and flooding. Examples of human
activities contributing to climate change include:
• Carbon dioxide emissions through burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas and
peat
• Methane and nitrous oxide emissions from agriculture
• Emissions through land use changes such as deforestation, reforestation,
urbanization, desertification.
These emissions that are changing the composition of the earth’s atmosphere are termed ‘the
greenhouse effect’. For the past 200 years, the burning of fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, and
deforestation have caused the concentrations of heat-trapping greenhouse gases to increase
significantly in our atmosphere. These gases prevent heat from escaping to space and the rise
in greenhouse gases has increased the amount of energy being trapped in the climate system.
The result of this is that global temperatures increase and this has become known as ‘global
warming’.
I have researched several different websites on climate change and carbon emissions and all
of them are highlighting the need for everyone to play their part in reducing the impact.
The current global aim is to tackle climate change resulting from the human activities whose
greenhouse gas emissions are changing the composition of the earth’s atmosphere.
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In a press release in December 2019 highlighting a worsening climate crisis, the UN Secretary
General set out his ten priority areas for 2020 where more action is required in order to keep
a 1.5°C future within reach:
1. Securing commitments from the main emitters of more ambitious national

commitments.
2. All countries coming forward with 2050 carbon neutrality commitments.
3. Increasing the ambition of national commitments in sectors that were not fully taken
into account in the past, such as the use of nature-based solutions.
4. Tackling the social dimension of climate change by ensuring that national
commitments include a just transition for people whose jobs and livelihoods are
impacted.
5. Curtailing current coal capacity and ensuring no more new coal power plants are built
after 2020.
6. Accelerating the transition to 100% renewable energy.
7. Accelerating the shift of the financial flows, pushing on carbon pricing to tax pollution
not people, and ensuring access to sustainable finance.
8. Stepping-up support for people affected by climate change and making the shift
towards a resilient future.
9. Delivering on commitments made at the Summit to Small Islands Developing States
and Least Developed Countries.
10. Implementing the Summit’s initiatives aiming at the deep decarbonization of key
economic sectors.
My project is relevant to a number of these goals, namely 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9.
“It is five minutes to midnight in the global climate emergency. Carbon pollution must stop
rising in 2020 and start falling to keep the Paris Agreement goals within realistic reach,”
Secretary-General Antonio Guterres said. “We are a very long way behind, but there is still
reason to believe we can win this race. The next 12 months will be crucial.”
However, the latest data from United Nations Environment show that emissions must fall in
the order of 7.6% every year to 2030 to keep the 1.5°C goal within reach. And the Sec Gen
has said that we must change course by 2020 or we risk missing the point where we can avoid
the “disastrous consequences for people and all the natural systems that sustain us”.
There is general consensus that “climate change is the defining issue of our time and now is
the defining moment to do something about it. There is still time to tackle climate change,
but it will require an unprecedented effort from all sectors of society.”
If we all play a small part it will make a big difference. My project is attempting to show
people that the choices they make in how they heat their homes can actually make a big
difference, as rather than consuming energy from fossil fuels and adding to the global
problem, they can instead reduce their family’s ‘carbon footprint’ and make their homes self
sufficient in relation to the energy required for space heating.
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2.3 Carbon Footprint
A carbon footprint is a measure of the impact that our human activities have on the
environment, in terms of the amount of greenhouse gases we produce, measured in terms of
CO2. The biggest contributors to our individual carbon footprints are transport and electricity
demands at home. Much of the energy used for transport and heating comes from fossil fuels
and also much of the electricity that we use comes from fossil fuel burning power plants
although recently more and more electricity is coming from renewable sources. However, all
our actions have a direct or indirect impact, including what we eat and what we wear as the
production of food and clothing result in the emission of CO 2. All these actions contribute to
accelerating climate change.
A carbon footprint includes a primary footprint and a secondary footprint:

1. Primary footprint is a measure of our direct emissions of CO2 from the burning of
fossil fuels including domestic energy consumption and transportation (e.g. car and
plane). We have direct control of these emissions.
2. Secondary footprint is a measure of the indirect CO2 emissions from the whole
lifecycle of products we use - the emissions associated with their manufacture and
eventual breakdown. Therefore, the more products we buy the more emissions will
be caused on our behalf.
There are many free web-based carbon footprint calculators. Using a carbon calculator to
measure our carbon footprint is an easy way to understand the impact of personal behaviour
and to take individual responsibility for the greenhouse gas emissions we create when we
heat our homes, take a flight, charge our phones, turn on our television or use the dishwasher.
The calculator highlights which areas of our lifestyle have the greatest impact and this
information allows us to be better informed when making future choices. Most people are
shocked when they see the amount of CO2 their activities create. If you want to contribute to
stop global warming, the calculation and monitoring of your personal carbon footprint is
important.
A Home Energy Saving Kit, developed by Codema (Dublin’s Energy Agency) which is available
from many libraries has 6 devices to help you understand your energy use, along with
booklets giving helpful hints for energy savings (see Appendices). I have been using the
Thermal Leak Detector and the Plug-In Energy Monitor to take readings for my project.
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2.4 Carbon Sequestration
Carbon dioxide is the most commonly produced greenhouse gas. Carbon sequestration can
be defined as the capture and secure storage of carbon that would be otherwise remain in or
be emitted to the atmosphere. It is one method of reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere with the goal of reducing global climate change. Atmospheric carbon dioxide
comes from two primary sources - natural and human activities. Natural sources of carbon
dioxide include most animals, which exhale carbon dioxide as a waste product. Human
activities that lead to carbon dioxide emissions come primarily from energy production,
including burning coal, oil, or natural gas.
Trees and woodlands play an important role in the removal of carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere. Through the biochemical process of photosynthesis carbon dioxide is taken in
by trees and stored as carbon in the trunk, branches, leaves and roots. Carbon is also stored
in the soil and this is a major sink for carbon in the forest. Decay of the organic material
eventually releases the CO2 back to the atmosphere, and providing the forests are sustainably
managed, it is taken up by replacement trees, which maintains a balance in the carbon
budget. The release of CO2, however, can be delayed through the harvesting of trees as they
mature if the wood is used for construction, furniture and other end uses that prolong its life.
Sustainable forestry is positively contributing to the carbon sequestration and is an important

management tool is combating climate change. International agreements to regulate carbon
emissions such as the Kyoto Protocol recognize the importance of forests as carbon
sinks. This is taken into account when deriving national targets for allowable emissions.
Concrete on the other hand is the most abundant artificial material on earth, but the
production of its main ingredient, cement, has a huge carbon footprint. Cement functions as
a glue to hold the other ingredients of concrete together. To make cement, calcium
carbonate, also known as limestone, is heated, which releases massive amounts of carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere. Cement is responsible for 7% of global greenhouse emissions.
A Canadian company ‘CarbonCure’ has developed a system to trap CO2 forever by injecting it
into the concrete when it is being mixed. The carbon dioxide reacts with the concrete, turning
into a mineral. When the concrete hardens, the carbon is sequestered forever. The main
advantage of this method is of course that since the CO 2 is trapped, it can’t be released into
the atmosphere, adding to global warming. In addition, the carbon makes the concrete
stronger, reducing the need for cement.
Graphite which is the main component of my electric paint is a soft black crystalline form of
naturally occurring carbon. By using graphite as an actual building material we could also use
it to trap carbon that has been extracted from CO2 which would otherwise end up in the
atmosphere. This is a win-win as not only does the electric paint potentially sequester carbon,
but it also avoids the addition to the atmosphere of other polluting fossil fuels which would
probably otherwise have been chosen for a source of heat.
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2.5 Climate Action Plan
The Government published a Climate Action Plan in June 2019 which set several targets
aimed at improving levels of energy efficiency in the Irish housing stock.
One of the main aims of the plan is to upgrade an additional 500,000 homes to a Building
Energy Rating of B2 or above by 2030.
Despite significant improvements in recent years, Ireland’s per dwelling energy use
remained 7% higher than the EU average in 2015. In 2019, 80% of Irish homes and other
buildings had a BER rating of C or lower.
The Climate Action Plan also sets a target of increasing the number of renewable energy
sources (e.g. heat pumps) used in residential buildings to 600,000 by 2030 (DCCAE, 2019).
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2.6 Building Energy Rating (BER)
A Building Energy Rating is an energy label that suggests the energy performance of your
home. The rating is similar to the energy label for household appliances and is shown on a
scale of A to G, with A1 homes being the most energy efficient and G being the least energy
efficient.
You must have a BER carried out if you are selling or renting your house. The certificate shows
the building name and address, the BER number, the date of issue, the date until when the
BER is valid, the BER assessor number and the BER assessor company number. A BER
certificate is valid for 10 years.
The requirement for having a BER comes from the (Irish) Energy Performance of Buildings
Regulations and these Regulations were written so that Ireland complies with the (EU) Energy
Performance of Buildings Directive which is the legislation that promotes the energy
performance of EU buildings.
The BER for a house is calculated using the Dwelling Energy Assessment Procedure (DEAP)
software which is published by the Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (SEAI). The
software also calculates the carbon dioxide emissions associated with the house. The BER
calculation includes the energy use and carbon dioxide emissions associated with the building
fabric, space heating, hot water heating, ventilation and lighting. It is based on the average
number of occupants in buildings of a similar size. Actual energy performance will depend on
how the occupants use the house. When you get your BER certificate you also get an Advisory
Report which makes recommendations for improvements you can make to increase the
energy efficiency of your home.
In the Domestic Building Energy Ratings Quarter 1 Report released in April 2019 by the CSO
(see Summary in Appendix 8.5), I read that there were 817,916 unique domestic BERs
completed between 2009 up to the end of March 2019. But the 2011 Census counted approx.
1.66 million occupied private households and there have been more households built since
that date. Even though the statistics on BERs therefore actually refer to less than 50% of Irish
households, it is still useful data to have. As you only need to have a BER carried out when
you rent or buy a house/apartment many homes will not have needed to get one done yet.
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Some interesting facts I noted from the CSO statistics report (Table A and Table 2) were that
homes built in 2015-2019 were a lot more energy efficient than earlier homes with 97%
getting an ‘A’ rating compared to 36% built in 2010-2014 and only 1% in 2005-2009. And you
can see this general trend towards ‘green’ in Figure 1. Nonetheless, the CSO (Table 2) also
shows that when you average this out over all the homes with BERs completed only 4% of
Irish homes have an ‘A’ rating and 11% achieve a ‘B’ rating. This means that in 2019 well over
80% of Irish homes still have a BER rating of ‘C’ or lower. This is relevant information for my
electric paint study.
Another point to note (Table 9) is that mains gas was the main space heating fuel used in 56%
of the almost 30,000 homes completed during 2015-2019 and used in 55% in 2010-2014, an
increase from 2000-2004 when it was 40%. This is not good when we should be trying to
reduce our use of fossil fuels. Electricity came next at 38%. Interestingly (Table 6) we can see
that electricity was both the main space heating and (Table 7) the main water heating fuel for
the highest number of ‘A’ rated homes from 2009-2019. This is also relevant for my project.
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Also I noted (Table 11) that the average
floor area of all houses with a BER audit
was 111m2. This varied from 156m2 for
detached houses to 58m2 for basement
dwellings and apartments are listed as
76m2.
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The fuel costs for heating your home based on a range of house sizes as estimated by SEAI
are shown here. You can clearly see the cost benefit of having a low energy A-rating versus
the worst rating of G for the same size of house. Source: SEAI
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This is what a BER certificate looks like. To be an A1 rated house for example, the energy use
must be < or equal to 25 kWh/m2/yr. This means that for each 1m2 of a house size, it uses
max 25 kilowatt-hour (kWh) per year for its energy needs. So for a 100m2 A1 rated house, it
would expect to use max 2500 kWh of energy per year. This is approximately 6.8kW hours
per day although it would not typically be evenly spread thoughout the year as heating and
lighting would not be required as much during summer.
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Importantly for my project this 2500 kWh will not all be used for space heating. The Codema
‘Guide to Home Energy Savings’ says that 60% of energy use in an average Irish home is used
for space heating therefore I will base my study on this 60% proportion.
I found similar figures in a Eurostat report on Energy Consumption in EU households. The data
is from 2017 but published in May 2019. The image suggests an EU average of 64.1% for space
heating but the Table following puts Ireland at 58.9%, very close to the Codema 60% figure.
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2.7 Graphite
You sometimes hear the words ‘carbon’ and ‘graphite’ being said or used in broadly the same
context. But they are not interchangeable and there are certain areas where the two are
different.
‘Carbon’ comes from the Latin word ‘carbo’, which in English means ‘charcoal’ - a noun. It is
an element represented by the letter ‘C’ and has the atomic number 6 on the periodic table.
All living things contain carbon. Although the carbon content on earth is <1%, it stills forms
the basis for organic chemistry and therefore for life itself. Carbon can be found in large
amounts in the sun as well as in the atmosphere of most planets.
Carbon produces the softest material (graphite) and the hardest (diamond). The main
difference between carbon substances is in the way the carbon forms. Carbon atoms bond in
chains and rings. In every carbon substance, a unique formation of carbon can be produced.
Carbon has a wide variety of uses, both as pure carbon and carbon compounds. Primarily, it
acts as hydrocarbons in the form of methane gas and crude oil. Crude oil can become gasoline
and kerosene and both substances are used for fuel for heating and for machines. Carbon is
also responsible for forming water, a compound necessary for life.
On the other hand, graphite is an ‘allotrope’ of carbon - this means it is a substance made
completely of pure carbon. Other allotropes include diamonds and charcoal.
‘Graphite’ comes from the Greek word ‘graphein’, which in English means ‘to write’ - a verb.
Graphite is a crystalline form of the element carbon and is the most stable form of carbon
under standard conditions and is formed when carbon atoms link with each other in a
hexagonal structure.
Graphite is soft but very strong. It is resistant to heat and, at the same time, is a good heat
conductor. It is found in metamorphic rocks and ranges from dark grey to black in colour.
Graphite is greasy, a characteristic that makes it a good lubricant and is the only non-metal
element that is a good conductor of electricity.
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My first attempt at making carbon paint was to mix the embers from our stove at home. I
learned this from YouTube. I took some embers and ground them down, then I added PVA
glue and lit my Arduino bulb.
Then I read an interesting article called ‘Charcoal: a burning issue’ on the UN Environment
Programme website. It is about how the traditional methods used for producing charcoal in
Zambia are leading to deforestation, high carbon emissions and are wasting wood as well as
being bad for the health of the people making it and using it for cooking. People are now being
trained in sustainable charcoal production using an kiln with a chimney made of drums, which
reduces the need to cut trees. The old way of making charcoal was to cut logs, put sand on
them and set them on fire. They burn without oxygen for a few days and create charcoal. But
the carbon stays in the charcoal and is then emitted when burned. With the new way, they
prune the trees and only use small branches, put them in the improved kiln, seal it with sand
and then burn it. The carbon stays in the drums and is then poured back into the ground when
being cleaning out.
This is a more sustainable way of making charcoal, it helps limit emissions and therefore is
better for the enviornment.
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2.8 Carbon Electric Paint (CeP)
An Irish company called Ecovolt has started to install carbon electric paint to create heated
plasterboard walls or ceilings. They have not invented carbon paint but they have patented
their roller application method of applying the paint.
Carbon electric paint is a highly conductive electric coating used for the production of electric
radiant heating. It uses 24V SELV, ‘safety extra low voltage’ power, electricity that is safe to
touch. It heats large heating areas compared to traditional heating systems without the need
for any pipes, water, boilers, gas or oil. The paint is 100% efficient as all of the electrical energy
is converted into heat.
The CeP passes a current from one electrode to another when 24V is applied across the
electrodes. The voltage band can be AC or DC or a battery can be used which can be charged
from renewable energy technologies.
Ecovolt is marketing two panel sizes - 1500mm x 780mm (350W) and 1000mm x 480mm
(175W). Materials such as gypsum plasterboard, fire rated plasterboard, fibreboard and
concrete board are considered suitable bases for the CeP but concrete floors, timber, cork,
plastic, wallpaper and walls with silicate paint are not suitable.
Special plasterboard recessed electrode connection boxes are required to make a connection
from an isolator to the 2 strips of electrode tape. Ecovolt advise that there should always be
an isolating switch installed beside every Electric Paint heating panel. The isolator is required
as a means of isolation for testing and maintenance purposes. The isolator switch must be
rated to carry the current of the 24V load.
When installing CeP panels Ecovolt says that room temperatures should be maintained
between 15o-25o and room humidity should not exceed 70%.
I have carried out my testing at home. Obviously the testing conditions at my house would
not be equivalent to in a laboratory, nonetheless having received encouragement from
Stephen Dempsey of Ecovolt I have followed proper procedures as best I could when doing
my experiments.
Stephen also advised me to understand Ohm’s Law as it is fundamental to my project.
20
3.0 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
There are 4 distinct parts to my project and each part required investigations to be carried
out. My project included making panels for testing, making prototypes and carrying out
desktop studies.
I wanted to investigate:
• whether carbon painted plasterboard walls can be used to meet the space heating
requirements of an Irish home
• the optimum amount of graphite content in my carbon electric paint to be a cost-
effective solution
• the impact, if any, on performance of placing different insulation materials behind a
carbon electric painted wall panel
• whether I could use foldable material such as fabric with carbon paint to make a basic
portable heater for emergency relief use, such as in refugee camps.
The majority of the work on my project was based around producing working models of my
carbon electric paint heaters on small plasterboard panels using different paint specifications,
which were then tested.
I will first describe the standard procedure I followed when constructing my own electric paint
sample panels and when carrying out my test experiments. Then I will describe the tests I did.
Before commencing - I ensured all the required materials were present. The items I needed
included:
• Graphite powder
• PVA glue
• Water
• Plasterboard panels
• Tape measure, pencil, ruler, notebook
• 20mm and 40mm self adhesive copper tape
• 2.5mm crimp tape connectors
• 24V transformer
• Hair dryer
• Multimeter for measuring resistance (R)
• Meter for measuring current (I) and Voltage (V)
• Thermal imaging camera
• Water based solvent free primer (PVA or similar)
• Water based sealing primer and paint
• 2” paint roller / paint brush
• Paper towel and wipes for cleaning
• Painting pots and stirring rods
• Airtight plastic bag for the paint roller
• Weighing scales set to grams and measuring spoons
• Ohm’s Law App
21
3.1 Test Procedure
Step 1: I measured and cut out a large number of sample panel boards. I made sure the boards
were dry, smooth and free of dust and cracks.
Step 2: I marked out the heating area with a pencil and ruler. It is important that this is
accurately measured as a proportion of a square metre so that later figures can be calculated
correctly.
Step 3 - Priming the substrate - the board was primed on and around the heating area with a
solvent free primer (PVA). I mixed the PVA primer with water (at about 1:10) and applied it,
making sure to cover at least 100mm over the marked-out area. I then allowed the primer to
dry or in some cases used my hairdryer to accelerate the drying out time.
Step 4: Installing the copper electrodes - once the PVA primer had completely dried out, it
was time to apply the electrodes. I cut 2 strips of copper electrodes. I carefully applied the
adhesive side of the copper strip to the board taking care to position the copper at the exact
face measurement of the marked heating area. I then removed any creases in the copper as
best I could. It is very important that both electrodes are parallel to each other. Most of the
copper electrode should be stuck to the board but a short section of the tape should overhang
the edge of the board as this is required for connections later. If the copper electrodes got
damaged during the installation or showed signs of tears or scratches, I replaced them. On
some samples I used 20mm copper and on other ones I used 40mm copper tape.
22
Step 5: Cleaning the copper electrodes - using wipes and paper towels, I carefully cleaned all
dirt and fingerprints off the electrodes.
Step 6: Stirring the pre-prepared Electric Paint trial mixtures - this is an extremely important
part of the process of making the carbon paint as the conductive particles in it can settle when
left to sit. My carbon paint was made by mixing graphite, water and glue. Before being used,
the mixture must be thoroughly stirred, otherwise incomplete stirring can lead to varying
results afterwards.
Step 7: Pre-coating the copper electrodes - the process of pre-coating the electrodes was only
required when I used the rolling process of applying the mixture. I rolled when the consistency
of the mixture allowed me to and when the mixture was not runny enough I used a paint
brush. When it is not possible to see the electrodes then there is sufficient coating applied.
• I allowed the 2” paint roller to soak in the Paint container

• I coated the electrodes until it was difficult to see them
• I ensured both electrodes had an even coverage of coating applied
• I allowed it to dry for 2 hours or accelerated drying by using a hair dryer.
Step 8: Measuring the amount of Electric Paint to be used - this is probably the most important
part of the process and required my utmost attention. I needed to ensure that the full amount
of measured mixture was used on each of the sample boards so that the test results reflected
the actual proportions of the various ingredients used for each test. For consistency I used
the same measuring spoons for quantities and the same size of plasterboard test area. This
process was a guarantee that the variable in each case was the specification of the Electric
Paint mix. The different mixes I tested are listed separately in this chapter.
23
Step 9: Applying the Electric Paint to the heating zone - it was now time to begin rolling (when
consistency allowed) the paint onto the heating zone. I began to apply the paint coating in a
45o cross action from electrode to electrode until the entire heating area was covered. I had
been advised by Eric Bates, Lecturer from TUDublin that this was the best way to ensure the
best paint coverage and therefore would ensure the best conductivity result when later
tested. When the heating area was completely covered, I began covering the heating area in
the opposite cross pattern. Finally, I painted the board parallel to the electrodes. I was careful
to apply the coating as evenly as possible to the whole heating area. I did not paint outside
the heating area. When the total paint quantity had been applied to the heating area I allowed
it to dry. Drying time was around 12 hours but could be accelerated by using a hair dryer.
Step 10: Testing the Resistance of the Electric Paint heating zone - the main purpose of
carrying out these experiments was to test each different specification sample board for
Resistance(R). The heating area needed to be completely dry before testing the resistive
values. For this process a digital multi-meter was required. Using both probes of the multi-
meter I placed one probe on one electrode and placed the other probe on the other electrode
and took a reading.
Step 11: Using Ohm’s Law, taking the Voltage (V) at 24V in each case, I then used the
Resistance(R) figure I got on each test panel to calculate the Current (I) and then the
Wattage/Power (P). I used my calculator and also an Ohm’s Law App to get my answers. Then
I multiplied the wattage value I achieved on the small sample panel up to a wattage achieved
per m2 so that I could use these comparison values in my study.
Step 12: I connected each panel to a power supply and measured the temperature achieved.
24
3.2 Experiments Conducted
I carried out a number of other experiments but these were the main ones that show the
development process of my project.
Test 1 - Impact of Separation Distance on Resistance
I prepared 3 boards with 2 parallel copper strips on each. On one board I placed the copper
strips 150mm apart, on the second board 200mm apart and on the third board 250mm apart.
I made a mix of acrylic paint and graphite and applied it in a band across each of the boards.
Using the multimeter probes I tested to see if there was any resistance created and if so the
difference the distance apart made.
I made a second mix, this time containing an unmeasured

mix of graphite, glue and water and painted across the
sample boards again. Using the probes I again checked for
resistance across each board by prodding the copper strips
with probes.
Test 2 - Creating a Circuit
My first mini challenge was to demonstrate an electrical circuit created using my carbon paint.
On a plasterboard panel with 2 parallel copper strips, I applied a continuous band of a mixture
of carbon paint made with graphite, glue and water across the panel between the strips of
copper. I placed a probe on an unpainted section of each of the copper strips and used a
multimeter to check if resistance existed. I then placed the probes on a section of copper that
had paint applied and checked the readings again.
I applied a further band of the paint mixture across the board between the copper strips but
this time I left a gap in the band. By using a small light and some copper wire from my Arduino
belongings I tested to see if a circuit existed.
25
Test 3 - Producing Heat
Once I had established that I could create a paint using graphite that provided resistance I
wanted to test to see if it could produce heat.
I prepared another panel with a larger test area. I first tested for resistance. Then I connected
the panel using crocodile clips and via a 24V transformer to a power supply. And waited!
Test 4 - Specification with constant graphite, varying liquid content
The next step was to look at the actual specification of my electric paint. On a pre-primed
board I measured out 4 small test areas and placed copper strips at the marks so that each
area was 100mm x 50mm. Each marked area equated to 0.005m2 or one 200th of a square
metre. I needed this to be accurate for calculations later.
I made 4 measured mixes containing graphite powder, water and glue. I decided to do this
test with the same amount of graphite in each sample and varying amounts of glue and water.
Mix 1: 6g graphite 10ml water 5ml glue
I had found from making earlier sample mixes that adding the water to the graphite first,
followed by adding the glue provided the best consistency so I did this here.
I carefully painted the board with the 4 mixes and when the boards were dry, helped by the
hair dryer, I tested for resistance using the multimeter. I applied a second layer of paint on
mixes 3 and 4 as these 2 mixes with more glue had a runnier consistency so spread better and
used less when being applied and I wanted to use up all the mixture so that I would be
comparing like with like. I also measured the temperature of each panel with voltage added.
26
Test 5 - Specification with constant liquid, varying graphite content
Having decided that the specification with a ratio of glue to water of 2:1 was the best from
Test 4 next I needed to test this consistency against varying amounts of graphite to select the
optimum graphite content.
I made 4 test boards each 250mm x 200mm in size with a ratio of 5ml water and 10ml glue.
The related graphite ratio was 2g, 4g, 6g and 8g. However I used double the amounts I had
used for Test 4, therefore the actual mixes were 10ml water and 20ml glue with 4,8,12 and
16g graphite.
I tested each board.
Test 6 - Specification with constant liquid, varying graphite content - smaller test panel
I wanted to repeat Test 5 but using the small 100mm x 50mm panel sizes I had used in Test 4.
I felt I could get more accuracy with the smaller panels. This time I used 4g, 6g, 8g and 10g
graphite as I felt the 10g might be of more relevance than the 2g in the previous test. Each
mixture had 5ml water and 10ml glue as before so that I could compare the impact of varying
the amount of graphite. I tested the panels.
Test 7 - Impact of changing level of Voltage
I wanted to determine if changing the voltage applied to my electric paint panel would change
the result in any way so I tested the same panel off the mains power via a 24V transformer
and then again powered it directly from a 12V battery.
27
Test 8 - Impact of placing Insulation behind Electric Paint
I wished to determine the impact on performance, if any, of placing insulation materials

behind the carbon paint panels. I tested 3 different insulations that we had in our garage at
home. They were each about the same thickness. I took the temperature of the panel before
placing each of the insulations beneath it. I let the panel cool back down between each test
so one insulation wasn’t affecting another’s results.
2 3
1. PIR (polyisocyanurate) (thermal conductivity of 0.023W/mK)

2. Glass fibre (thermal conductivity of 0.044W/mK)
3. EPS (expanded polystyrene) (thermal conductivity of 0.037W/mK)
3.3 Emergency Portable Heater
Another aim of mine as part of this project was to make a working model of a portable heater
for emergency relief. My idea is that if the blanket is rollable and can be delivered by road or
air along with a rollable solar panel and a length of connection cable then the solar panel can
be positioned on the roof of a tent and the blanket heater placed within the tent a short
distance below which might make life just a tiny bit easier in freezing but bright conditions.
I took a mattress cover that I found at home that was fluffy on one side and smooth on the
back, I attached 2 parallel copper strips onto the smooth side and painted the area between
the strips with carbon paint. I folded the material over so that the paint and the copper were
on the inside like in a sleeping bag. I waited for it to dry and then I tested it.
28
3.4 Desktop Study on Space Heating Needs in Irish Homes
Using the same sizes (75m2 / 100m2 / 150m2 / 200m2 / 300m2) as SEAI did for their fuel cost
study I have made a spreadsheet of the amount of energy needed for different size Irish
homes for each of the BER grades A1-G.
Energy Need in Irish Homes

kWh / yr kWh / yr kWh / yr kWh / yr kWh / yr kWh / yr
Rating for 1m2 for 75m2 for 100m2 for 150m2 for 200m2 for 300m2
2 bed apt 3 bed semi 4 bed semi detached large house
A1 not > 25 not > 1875 not > 2500 not > 3750 not > 5000 not > 7500
A2 > 25 > 1875 > 2500 > 3750 > 5000 > 7500
A3 > 50 > 3750 > 5000 > 7500 > 10000 > 15000
B1 > 75 > 5625 > 7500 > 11250 > 15000 > 22500
B2 > 100 > 7500 > 10000 > 15000 > 20000 > 30000
B3 > 125 > 9375 > 12500 > 18750 > 25000 > 37500
C1 > 150 > 11250 > 15000 > 22500 > 30000 > 45000
C2 > 175 > 13125 > 17500 > 26250 > 35000 > 52500
C3 > 200 > 15000 > 20000 > 30000 > 40000 > 60000
D1 > 225 > 16875 > 22500 > 33750 > 45000 > 67500
D2 > 260 > 19500 > 26000 > 39000 > 52000 > 78000
E1 > 300 > 22500 > 30000 > 45000 > 60000 > 90000
E2 > 340 > 25500 > 34000 > 51000 > 68000 > 102000
F > 380 > 28500 > 38000 > 57000 > 76000 > 114000
G > 450 > 33750 > 45000 > 67500 > 90000 > 135000
I then made another spreadsheet taking 60% of the annual energy need figures as this is the
% as assessed by Codema as being associated with space heating. Space heating however is
not equally used all year round. I assessed the heating season as being 8 months or 240 days.
So I then divided the yearly space heating needed by 240 to find the amount of heat required
each day for each house type and rating.
Energy Need for Space Heating in Irish Homes

kWh / yr kWh / day kWh / yr kWh / day kWh / yr kWh / day kWh / yr kWh / day kWh / yr kWh / day kWh / yr
Rating for 1m2 for 75m2 for 75m2 for 100m2 for 100m2 for 150m2 for 150m2 for 200m2 for 200m2 for 300m2 for 300m2
2 bed apt 2 bed apt 3 bed semi 3 bed semi 4 bed semi 4 bed semi detached detached large house large house
A1 not > 25 not > 4.7 not > 1125 not > 6.3 not > 1500 not > 9.4 not > 2250 not > 12.5 not > 3000 not > 18.8 not > 4500
Energy Needed for Space Heating in Irish Homes
A2 > 25 > 4.7
kWh / yr > 1125
kWh / day kWh> /6.3
yr kWh />day1500kWh / yr> 9.4
kWh / day > kWh
2250/ yr > 12.5
kWh / day kWh> /3000
yr kWh />day
18.8kWh / yr> 4500
A3 > 50 Rating
> 9.4
for 1m2 > 75m
for 22502
for > 12.5
75m 2 > 3000
for 100m 2
for 100m>2 18.8
for 150m2 > for
4500
150m2 for> 25.0
200m2 for > 6000
200m 2 > 37.5
for 300m2
for 300m>2 9000
B1 > 75 > 14.1 2>bed
3375 > 18.8
apt 2 bed apt 3 bed > 4500
semi > 28.1
3 bed semi 4 bed semi > 46750 > 37.5
bed semi detached > 9000 large house
detached > 56.3large house
> 13500
B2 > 100 A1> 18.8
not > 25 > 4500
not > 4.7 not>> 1125
25.0 not > 6.3
> 6000 > 37.5
not > 1500 not > 9.4 > not
9000 > 50.0
> 2250 not > 12.5 not>> 3000
12000not > 18.8
> 75.0not > 4500
> 18000
B3 > 125 A2> 23.4
> 25 >> 4.7
5625 > 1125> 31.3 > 6.3 > 7500> 1500 > 46.9> 9.4 > >11250
2250 >> 12.5
62.5 > 3000
> 15000> 18.8> 93.8 > 4500 > 22500
A3 > 50 > 9.4 > 2250 > 12.5 > 3000 > 18.8 > 4500 > 25.0 > 6000 > 37.5 > 9000
C1 > 150 > 28.1 > 6750 > 37.5 > 9000 > 56.3 > 13500 > 75.0 > 18000 > 112.5 > 27000
B1 > 75 > 14.1 > 3375 > 18.8 > 4500 > 28.1 > 6750 > 37.5 > 9000 > 56.3 > 13500
C2 > 175 B2> 32.8
> 100 > 7875
> 18.8 >
> 450043.8 > 25.0> 10500
> 6000 > 65.6
> 37.5 > 15750
> 9000 > 87.5
> 50.0 > 21000
> 12000 > 75.0> 131.3> 18000> 31500
C3 > 200 B3> 37.5
> 125 >> 23.4
9000 > 5625> 50.0 > 31.3> 12000> 7500 > 75.0
> 46.9 > >18000
11250 >> 62.5
100.0 > 15000
> 24000> 93.8> 150.0> 22500> 36000
D1 > 225 C1> 42.2
> 150 >> 28.1
10125 > 6750
> 56.3 > 37.5> 13500> 9000 > 84.4
> 56.3 > >20250
13500 >> 75.0
112.5 > 18000
> 27000> 112.5 > 168.8> 27000> 40500
D2 > 260 C2> 48.8
> 175 >> 32.8
11700 > 7875
> 65.0 > 43.8> 15600> 10500> 97.5
> 65.6 > >23400
15750 >> 87.5
130.0 > > 31200> 131.3 > 195.0> 31500> 46800
C3 > 200 > 37.5
E1 > 300 > 56.3 > 13500 > 9000> 75.0 > 50.0> 18000> 12000 > 75.0
> 112.5 > >27000
18000 > 100.0
> 150.0 > 24000
> 36000> 150.0 > 225.0> 36000> 54000
D1 > 225 > 42.2 > 10125 > 56.3 > 13500 > 84.4 > 20250 > 112.5 > 27000 > 168.8 > 40500
E2 > 340 D2> 63.8
> 260
> 15300
> 48.8
> 85.0
> 11700 > 65.0
> 20400
> 15600
> 127.5
> 97.5
> 30600
> 23400
> 170.0
> 130.0
> 40800
> 31200
> 255.0> 46800> 61200
> 195.0
F > 380 E1> 71.3
> 300 > 17100
> 56.3 > 95.0
> 13500 > 75.0> 22800
> 18000 > 142.5
> 112.5 > 34200
> 27000 > 190.0
> 150.0 > 45600
> 36000 >
> 225.0 285.0> 54000> 68400
G > 450 E2> 84.4
> 340 >> 63.8
20250 > 15300
> 112.5 > 85.0> 27000
> 20400> 168.8
> 127.5 > >4050030600 >> 170.0
225.0 > 40800
> 54000> 255.0 > 337.5> 61200> 81000
F > 380 > 71.3 > 17100 > 95.0 > 22800 > 142.5 > 34200 > 190.0 > 45600 > 285.0 > 68400
G > 450 > 84.4 > 20250 > 112.5 > 27000 > 168.8 > 40500
House Area x Max allowable kWh/yr for Building Energy Rating Grade x 60%> for
225.0
space >heating
54000 > 337.5 > 81000
= kWh of space heating required per year

House Area x kWh/yr for Building Energy Rating Grade x 60% associated with space heating
House Area =x kWh
Maxofallowable kWh/yr
space heating forper
required Building
year Energy Rating Grade x 60% for space heating / 240 days (8 months)
of heating per yearArea
House = kWh of space
x kWh/yr heating
for Building required
Energy per day
Rating Grade x 60% associated with space heating / 240 days (8 months)
of heating per year = kWh of space heating required per day
Suitable for 0.550W Electric Paint panels
This is relevant for mySuitable

project
Not
for 1kW Electric Paint panels
as my
suitable for Electric main investigation is to figure out whether my electric
Paint panels
paint is capable of supplying sufficient heat to heat Irish houses. I then took some sample
house types and considered whether my electric paint panels of 550W and 1kW would be
sufficient to meet their heating needs.
29
4.0 TEST RESULTS
Test 1 - Impact of Separation Distance on Resistance
No resistance at all was created by the mixture containing the graphite with acrylic paint,
regardless of the distance apart of the copper strips. This was interesting as it showed me that
graphite on its own could not achieve resistance despite having conductivity properties.
However, the mix containing the graphite, glue and water provided resistance when the
probes were positioned either from copper to copper, or between locations on the carbon
paint on top of the copper strips at either side. Resistance was also created from carbon paint
to carbon paint even when not placed over copper. This proved that the carbon paint was
providing resistance and can complete a circuit.
Where the copper strips were positioned 150mm apart the reading was 1.98kΩ, 200mm apart
gave a reading of 3.75kΩ and 250mm apart gave a reading of 6.14kΩ. The small carbon paint
sample gave a reading of 1.2kΩ.
Test 2 - Creating a Circuit
I was very excited when the multimeter reacted to show that my band of carbon paint mixture
across between the copper strips was actually providing resistance. I was even more excited
when the light worked to prove a circuit was being created via the paint on the second strip
where the gap had been left. After all, seeing is believing!
30
Test 3 - Producing Heat
The resistance of this larger test panel measured 34.8Ω, a huge improvement on my earlier
sample. After waiting a short time the panel started to heat up and quite quickly showed a
temperature on a thermal imaging camera of 35.5o. This was a great feeling as I had now
achieved a major step by producing a paint that could emit heat.
Using Ohm’s Law I calculated the wattage of the sample panel to be 16.55W as follows:
V/R=I
24 / 34.8 = 0.6897
I2R = Power (W)
0.68972 x 34.8 = 16.55W for sample panel of 250mm x 200mm (1/20 m2)
Therefore the power of a 1m2 panel = 16.55 x 20 = 331W
Test 4 - Specification with constant graphite, varying liquid content
This was the most significant experiment of my project. This took quite a bit of time as I had
to wait for the samples to dry to get accurate results. For example, panel 1 initially gave a
resistance reading of 302Ω but with the help of the hair dryer it quickly reduced to 196Ω and
finally settled at 107Ω.
I measured each of the 4 specifications for resistance and using Ohm’s Law I calculated the
wattage a sq m panel that each of the mixes would achieve.
31
Mix 1: 6g graphite / 10ml water / 5ml glue
V/R=I 24 / 107.3 = 0.2237 Amps
I2 R = P 0.22372 x 107.3 = 5.37W for the sample panel
5.37 x 200 = 1074W or 1.074kW for a 1m2 heater
V/R=I 24 / 80.8 = 0.297 Amps
I2 R = P 0.297 x 80.8 = 7.13W for the sample panel
V/R=I 24 / 226 = 0.106 Amps
I2 R = P 0.1062 x 226 = 2.55W for the sample panel
2.55 x 200 = 510W for a 1m2 heater
Mix 3 - 2 Layers
V/R=I 24 / 140 = 0.1714 Amps
4.11 x 200 = 822W for a 1m2 heater
V/R=I 24 / 214 = 0.112 Amps
2.55 x 200 = 538W for a 1m2 heater
Mix 4 - 2 Layers
V/R=I 24 / 111 = 0.2162 Amps

32
I then connected the copper strips from each panel to a power supply via a 24V transformer
and used a themal imaging camera to see what temperature each panel reached. Then I
calculated for each panel how much power was required to achieve each degree of
temperature based on a one sq m size panel.
Temperature = 50.7o Power required = 1074/50.7 = 21.18W/o
Temperature = 95o Power required = 1426/95 = 15.0W/o
Mix 3 - 2 Layers
Mix 4 - 2 Layers
The result from this experiment determined that the best mix was one layer of mix 4
containing 6gr graphite and twice the amount of glue (10ml) as water (5ml) for my test panel.
The temperature achieved was suitable for homes unlike mix 2 which reached 950. Stephen
from Ecovolt infomed me that for safety, temperatures need to be below 820. Nowadays most
buildings are putting in low surface temperature heaters as they are more efficient and they
are not a touch safety risk to older people or children. One layer of mix 3 at 36 0 is too low to
be really effective as a heat source but the temperature produced from mix 1, 2 layers of mix
3, and 1 or 2 layers of mix 4 are suitable.
However when I looked at the power to temperature ratio, mix 4 with one layer was the best
at 12.8W/o. Also a heater with a power usage of c.540W that achieves a good temperature
seemed reasonable to me as it would be a more cost effective home heating method than for
example 2 layers of mix 3 which would use 822W and therefore cost more to achieve the
same temperature. If extra temperature is required a second layer of mix 4 could be added.
33
Test 5 - Specification with constant liquid, varying graphite content
This test did not really work at all for me. The mistake I made was that although the sample
panel increased in area from 0.005m2 (100mm x 50mm) to 0.05m2 (250mm x 200mm) which
was multiplied by ten, I only doubled the mix. The reason I did this was that Stephen in Ecovolt
was describing how thin layers work best. But for me I could only get resistance on the 6g and
the 8g panels. Maybe if I added more layers it would improve the readings but I felt it would
take a very long time to build up in layers so I abandoned this test.
Test 6 - Specification with constant liquid, varying graphite content - smaller test panel
The purpose of this test was to figure out whether changing the proportion of graphite from
what I used in Test 4 would improve the results achieved more accurately than my attempt
in Test 5. I was happy that my selected specification from Test 4 would be a suitable heater
for my project but I wanted to see if it could be improved on.
The results were as follows:
V/R=I 24 / 373 = 0.064 Amps
1.53 x 200 = 306W for a 1m2 heater
V/R=I 24 / 205 = 0.117 Amps
2.8 x 200 = 561W for a 1m2 heater
34
V/R=I 24 / 110 = 0.218 Amps
V/R=I 24 / 90 = 0.2667 Amps
What was interesting from these results was the large variation in temperature achieved by
changing the amount of graphite - approximately an extra 20o for each 2g extra of graphite in
the mix. In deciding on the optimum specification I discarded mix 1 as the temperature
achieved was too low at 24.5o, I also discarded mix 4 as the temperature was too high at 83.3o.
I determined that the best option was mix 2 with 6g or mix 3 with 8g.
Mix 2 was the repeat of the 6g graphite specification from Test 4 but I got slightly different
results this time - temperature of 42o v 43o / power of 538W v 561W / power to temperature
ratio of 12.8 v 13.05. These results are quite close though considering the background
conditions would not have been identical when the tests were carried out as it was in my
home and this can cause variations. If I take values in the middle I get a temperature of 42.5 o
for a 550W heater.
Mix 3 (8g graphite) is a 1.046kW heater getting a temperature of 60 o with a power to

temperature ratio of 17.43W/o. These results are quite similar to using 2 layers of the 6g mix
(from Test 4) which gave 55o and use 1.038kW with a power to temperature of 18.87W/ o.
Both would cost roughly the same for the homeowner to run as their wattage is almost the
same, but the advantage of choosing 2 layers of 6g is that it requires less graphite so the raw
materials would be cheaper, therefore the end product to the homeowner should be cheaper.
Also you can produce 2 different heater strengths from the same material which is easier for
the manufacturer. Finally the mix with 6g was easier to spread than the mix with 8g so this
makes it easier to work with.
My selected specification is therefore a ratio of 6g graphite, 5ml water, 10ml glue in one layer
to produce a 1m2 550W / 42.5o carbon electric paint panel or in two layers to produce a 1kW
/ 55o panel as required.
35
Test 7 - Impact of changing level of Voltage
The results were as follows:
Using a 12V battery achieved a temperature of 34o.
12 / 8.6 = 1.4A
1.42 x 8.6 = 16.86W /sample panel
x 12.5 = 210W/m2.
In summary, if you drop the voltage, you drop the current and you drop the
temperature. This is typically below the normal useful level of about 40 o but maybe
could be useful for specific needs, eg. special accommodation.
Using a 24V transformer achieved a temperature of 70o.
24 / 8.6 = 2.79A
2.792 x 8.6 = 66.9W / sample panel
x 12.5 = 836W/m2.
Using direct mains power (this would have been unsafe to test) in theory:
240 / 8.6 = 27.9A
27.92 x 8.6 = 6694W / sample panel
x 12.5 = 83,679W/m2.
Obviously taking power directly off the mains would kill someone whereas my electric panels
are safe to touch.
36
Test 8 - Impact of placing Insulation behind Electric Paint
The panel without any insulation behind reached a temperature of 76o.
With the Glass Fibre (thermal conductivity of 0.044W/mK) behind the temperature was 81o.
With the Polystyrene (thermal conductivity of 0.037W/mK) behind the temperature was 83.9o.
With the PIR (thermal conductivity of 0.023W/mK) behind the temperature reached 86.3o.
The importance of this result is that the better the quality (as shown by their thermal
conductivity value) of the insulation behind, the higher the temperature that was achieved at
the panel’s face. Glass fibre improved the temperature the least and PIR the most but all of
the insulations improved the effectiveness of the panel. I also noticed that the insulations got
warm when the panel was switched on which shows that heat passes back through the
plasterboard from the paint at the front and if there is no insulation present this heat would
go into the wall of the house rather than into the room that it is supposed to heat. This is
significant in the context of using the panels in a house that has poor or no insulation.
37
4.1 Emergency Portable Heater
When making the blanket I noticed that it was absorbing quite a lot of paint which is not
surprising given that it is made of fabric. This meant that it took a long time to dry and also
that the blanket got stiff when the paint dried. The blackness of the paint started to show
through on the outside as it seeped into the fabric. I had only painted a small portion of the
blanket, if I had done the entire thing it would not have been very pretty!
But despite the fact that it didn’t feel soft and fluffy anymore, when I tested the blanket, it
performed just like the wall panels. It reached a temperature of 65o very quickly. As an initial
idea it worked, but it would need lots more thought and testing in relation to safety and
robustness.
When looking into this online I noticed that sometimes Aid Agencies set out bays with
concrete floors so people don’t have to sleep on the earth and I wondered whether it might
be more suitable in these more formal emergency camp situations for the electric paint to be
painted directly onto the concrete floor of the bay. You can also buy copper paint that would
do the same job as the strips of copper I have been using. Then you would need to put solar
panels on the roof for power and link to the copper paint on the floor. Of course this would
all only provide minimal heat at best.
38
4.2 Desktop Study on Space Heating Needs in Irish Homes
Many new houses built to recent building regulations will have a ventilation and heat recovery
system which also provides heat so my electric panels would not be required to meet the full
space heating requirement. However for this study I have considered my panels only. In my
study I have looked at the output achievable by 1sqm of carbon paint, obviously there is the
option of using larger panels or more than one panel could be used in any room as 1m 2 is
quite small. However each house would have to be studied to see whether the layout could
accommodate sufficient panels to heat the house.
Sample House 1:
From my 60% Table it can be seen that an A1 rated 100m2 house requires max 6.3 kWh/day
for its space heating needs. Owners of a 3 bed semi may want heaters in 3 bedrooms, living,
kitchen, dining, hall and bathroom - 8 in total. 8 of my 1m2 550W heating panels would
provide 4.4kW of heat, so they would be required for 1.43 hrs per day. This is easily
achievable.
Taking a sample electricity cost of 18c per kWh to run the space heating for this 100m2 house,
and a max heating need of 6.3kWh per day for the A1 BER,
this house would cost 18c x 6.3hr x 240 heating days = €272.16 for space heating per year.
The suggested fuel cost shown on page 15 from SEAI’s diagrams suggest a fuel cost of €380
but this is for an A rather than an A1 rated house so is probably roughly comparable.
Sample House 2:
An A1 rated 300m2 house requires max 18.8 kWh/day for its space heating needs. This owner
may want heaters in up to 5 bedrooms, living x 2, dining, kitchen, bathroom x 2, study, hall -
maybe 13 in total. 13 of my 550W panels would provide 7.15kW and so would be required
for 2.6 hours per day. This is achievable.
Sample House 3:
A D1 rated 75m2 2 bed apartment requires minimum 42.2kWh/day. This may have heaters in
2 bedrooms, living, dining, bathroom, hall - 6 in total. 6 of my 550W panels would provide
3.3kW so would require to be running for 14 hours per day. 6 of my 1kW panels would need
to be running for 7 hours per day. Neither of these options would be viable.
Sample House 4:
A B2 rated 150m2 4 bed semi requires 37.5kWh/day, maybe 10 heating panels. This is either
5.5kW using 550W panels or 10kW using 1kW panels. 10 panels would need to run for 3.75
hours per day. This is achievable.
39
Taking a range of house sizes (as per SEAI) and BERs I have done an analysis based on my
assessment of how many heaters each house might typically require and I have developed
the spreadsheet below to show which homes I feel would be suitable for heating by my
Carbon paint.
The yellow homes would work by using my 550W heating panels and the blue would work
using the 1kW panels.
For the homes shown in red my electric paint would not work as a viable space heating
system.
Energy Needed for Space Heating in Irish Homes

kWh / yr kWh / day kWh / yr kWh / day kWh / yr kWh / day kWh / yr kWh / day kWh / yr kWh / day kWh / yr
Rating for 1m2 for 75m2 for 75m2 for 100m2 for 100m2 for 150m2 for 150m2 for 200m2 for 200m2 for 300m2 for 300m2
2 bed apt 2 bed apt 3 bed semi 3 bed semi 4 bed semi 4 bed semi detached detached large house large house
A1 not > 25 not > 4.7 not > 1125 not > 6.3 not > 1500 not > 9.4 not > 2250 not > 12.5 not > 3000 not > 18.8 not > 4500
A2 > 25 > 4.7 > 1125 > 6.3 > 1500 > 9.4 > 2250 > 12.5 > 3000 > 18.8 > 4500
A3 > 50 > 9.4 > 2250 > 12.5 > 3000 > 18.8 > 4500 > 25.0 > 6000 > 37.5 > 9000
B1 > 75 > 14.1 > 3375 > 18.8 > 4500 > 28.1 > 6750 > 37.5 > 9000 > 56.3 > 13500
B2 > 100 > 18.8 > 4500 > 25.0 > 6000 > 37.5 > 9000 > 50.0 > 12000 > 75.0 > 18000
B3 > 125 > 23.4 > 5625 > 31.3 > 7500 > 46.9 > 11250 > 62.5 > 15000 > 93.8 > 22500
C1 > 150 > 28.1 > 6750 > 37.5 > 9000 > 56.3 > 13500 > 75.0 > 18000 > 112.5 > 27000
C2 > 175 > 32.8 > 7875 > 43.8 > 10500 > 65.6 > 15750 > 87.5 > > 131.3 > 31500
C3 > 200 > 37.5 > 9000 > 50.0 > 12000 > 75.0 > 18000 > 100.0 > 24000 > 150.0 > 36000
D1 > 225 > 42.2 > 10125 > 56.3 > 13500 > 84.4 > 20250 > 112.5 > 27000 > 168.8 > 40500
D2 > 260 > 48.8 > 11700 > 65.0 > 15600 > 97.5 > 23400 > 130.0 > 31200 > 195.0 > 46800
E1 > 300 > 56.3 > 13500 > 75.0 > 18000 > 112.5 > 27000 > 150.0 > 36000 > 225.0 > 54000
E2 > 340 > 63.8 > 15300 > 85.0 > 20400 > 127.5 > 30600 > 170.0 > 40800 > 255.0 > 61200
F > 380 > 71.3 > 17100 > 95.0 > 22800 > 142.5 > 34200 > 190.0 > 45600 > 285.0 > 68400
G > 450 > 84.4 > 20250 > 112.5 > 27000 > 168.8 > 40500 > 225.0 > 54000 > 337.5 > 81000
House Area x kWh/yr for Building Energy Rating Grade x 60% associated with space heating
= kWh of space heating required per year
House Area x kWh/yr for Building Energy Rating Grade x 60% associated with space heating / 240 days (8 months)
of heating per year = kWh of space heating required per day
Suitable for 0.550W Electric Paint panels

Suitable for 1kW Electric Paint panels
Not suitable for Electric Paint panels
40
5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Having carried out my project I conclude the following:
• I achieved all the study areas I set out to explore.

• I have produced a cost effective answer to the reduction in the fossil fuel debate.
• It is an innovative concept to consider using paint to heat your home.
• I found as one would expect that putting insulation behind the carbon panel improved
the performance of the panel, therefore the carbon paint is best suitable for use
indoors and should only be used in low energy houses and not in houses with high
heat losses.
• I found that moisture has a major negative effect on the performance therefore it
should not be used in damp houses.
• The panels are safe to touch because they are SELV. They would be suitable for nursing
homes and creches.
• The heat produced is clean heat, no boilers, pipes, flues or fossil fuels. This provides a
saving in construction costs and leaves more money for living costs if budgets are tight.
• There is no need for unsightly and awkwardly located radiators.
• The panels can easily be connected to solar PV panels to enable on-site generation of
electricity to serve the homeowner’s needs.
• They are quick and easy to install at construction stage as you are installing
plasterboard, plaster, paint, electrical cables anyway.
• There is no reason that they cannot potentially last a lifetime with no maintenance.
• All materials used are water based, non toxic.
• They can be used on mirrors to de-mist them and supply heat to the bathroom.
• It has the potential to be used to de-ice wings of aeroplanes.
• They can be used on cetain materials to provide background heat in remote areas or
refugee camps.
Some issues that can cause failure in reality:

• It is important that the electric paint is installed on the same sheet of plasterboard
and not across cracks of any type, otherwise the heater will fail as conductivity will not
be achieved.
• Operating the carbon heating on walls that are wet through humidity or condensation
will reduce their effectiveness.
• It is unlikely but possible that damage can be caused to the copper electrodes from
drilling or hammering in nails so consideration could be given to highlighting the
location of the panels to help avoid this.
• The most common cause of irregular readings when testing seemed to be moisture or
humidity. Room humidity improved as the room heated up and in return the test area
resistance also altered.
41
STRONG AND WEAK ASPECTS OF MY STUDY
A positve aspect of the study was when the calculations matched the practical tests, it
demonstrated the accuracy of the scientific principles.
A weak point was that I did not use full m2 size test panels so the tolerance when using smaller
panels would have more of an effect on the outcome.
While I believe that the data I got to be very accurate as I carried out a number of repeat tests,
nevertheless it wasn’t in a laboratory and I noticed that changes in the house temperature
and humidity causesd some results to vary, even for example doing the tests in the morning
when the house was colder.
My work could be extended and improved by using a screen printing process rather than a
roller or a brush as the mixture would ensure a more consistent finish which would provide a
more even heat.
With the ongoing research into low energy houses I feel my research is very pertinent and
would help widen the knowlegde in the low energy area.
This project has the potential to have enough content to develop into a Masters or Phd study.
42
6.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Stephen Dempsey from Ecovolt.
Tim O’Leary, Lecturer in Building Physics in TUDublin.
Eric Bates, Lecturer in Painting and Communications in TUDublin.
Codema for the use of the Home Energy Kit.
Dún Laoghaire-Rathdown County Council for the use of the Thermal Imaging camera.
My science teacher Mr. Reidy and my parents.
43
7.0 REFERENCES
1. A group of students in London’s RCA created electrically conductive paint for use as
electronic clothing for an art project in 2009. I was amazed when I read about this.
https://www.bareconductive.com/news/how-we-built-bare-conductive/
2.The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) provides leadership and encourages
partnership in caring for the environment. They work with member states as well as
representatives from civil society and businesses and are always looking for new ways to
leverage partnerships to drive sustainable development. www.unep.org
3. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the leading international body
for the assessment of climate change. It was established by the United Nations Environment
Programme and the World Meteorological Organization to provide the world with a clear
scientific view on the current state of knowledge in climate change and its potential
environmental and socio-economic impacts. www.ipcc.ch
4. The National Climate Data Centre is a US national resource for climate information.
www.ncdc.noaa.gov
5. This website provides data on CO2 emissions for all EU countries.

www.dataservice.eea.europa.eu
6. Online facility to help individuals and families to understand and reduce their carbon
emissions. https://www.carbonfootprint.com/individuals.html
7. US science agency that collects and provides scientific information.

https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/
8. An initiative of ‘The Society of Irish Foresters’ ForestryFocus.ie gives an overview of the

Irish forestry sector. https://www.forestryfocus.ie/social-environmental-aspects/carbon-
sequestration/
9. https://www.seai.ie/home-energy/building-energy-rating-ber/
10. https://www.daft.ie/building-energy-rating-ber
11. Energy Performance of Buildings Regulations called S.I. 243 of 2012
12. The Energy Performance of Buildings Directive is legislation that promotes the energy
performance of EU buildings. https://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/energy-
efficiency/energy-performance-of-buildings/energy-performance-buildings-directive
44
13. CSO statistical release, 17 April 2019 on Domestic Building Energy Ratings
https://pdf.cso.ie/www/pdf/20190708122818_Domestic_Building_Energy_Ratings_Quarter
_1_2019_full.pdf
14. SEAI
15. Statistics explained by Eurostat and gathered from EU member states.

https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-
explained/index.php/Energy_consumption_in_households#Energy_products_used_in_the_r
esidential_sector
16.http://www.differencebetween.net/science/chemistry-science/difference-between-
graphite-and-carbon/
17. https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/story/charcoal-burning-issue
18. Carbon Electric Paint panels in Ireland. https://ecovolt.ie/wp-

content/uploads/2019/06/2019-05-CeP-brochure-digital.pdf
45

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1.

• making working models of my domestic carbon heaters with different specifications

How vision, passion and paint propelled us to global

• Changes in the sun's intensity

1. Securing commitments from the main emitters of more ambitious national

My project is relevant to a number of these goals, namely 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9.

A carbon footprint includes a primary footprint and a secondary footprint:

Sustainable forestry is positively contributing to the carbon sequestration and is an important

Stephen also advised me to understand Ohm’s Law as it is fundamental to my project.

• I allowed the 2” paint roller to soak in the Paint container

Test 1 - Impact of Separation Distance on Resistance

I made a second mix, this time containing an unmeasured

Test 2 - Creating a Circuit

Test 4 - Specification with constant graphite, varying liquid content

Mix 1: 6g graphite 10ml water 5ml glue

Mix 2: 6g graphite 5ml water 5ml glue

Mix 3: 6g graphite 10ml water 10ml glue

Mix 4: 6g graphite 5ml water 10ml glue

I tested each board.

Test 7 - Impact of changing level of Voltage

I wished to determine the impact on performance, if any, of placing insulation materials

1. PIR (polyisocyanurate) (thermal conductivity of 0.023W/mK)

3.3 Emergency Portable Heater

Energy Need in Irish Homes

Energy Need for Space Heating in Irish Homes

= kWh of space heating required per year

Suitable for 0.550W Electric Paint panels

This is relevant for mySuitable

Test 2 - Creating a Circuit

I2R = Power (W)

Therefore the power of a 1m2 panel = 16.55 x 20 = 331W

Test 4 - Specification with constant graphite, varying liquid content

V/R=I 24 / 107.3 = 0.2237 Amps

I2 R = P 0.22372 x 107.3 = 5.37W for the sample panel

5.37 x 200 = 1074W or 1.074kW for a 1m2 heater

Mix 2: 6g graphite / 5ml water / 5ml glue

V/R=I 24 / 80.8 = 0.297 Amps

I2 R = P 0.297 x 80.8 = 7.13W for the sample panel

7.13 x 200 = 1426W or 1.426kW for a 1m2 heater

Mix 3: 6g graphite / 10ml water / 10ml glue

V/R=I 24 / 226 = 0.106 Amps

I2 R = P 0.1062 x 226 = 2.55W for the sample panel

2.55 x 200 = 510W for a 1m2 heater

V/R=I 24 / 140 = 0.1714 Amps

I2 R = P 0.17142 x 140 = 4.11W for the sample panel

4.11 x 200 = 822W for a 1m2 heater

Mix 4: 6g graphite / 5ml water / 10ml glue

V/R=I 24 / 214 = 0.112 Amps

I2 R = P 0.1122 x 214 = 2.69W for the sample panel

2.55 x 200 = 538W for a 1m2 heater

V/R=I 24 / 111 = 0.2162 Amps

I2 R = P 0.21622 x 111 = 5.19W for the sample panel

5.19 x 200 = 1038W or 1.038kW for a 1m2 heater

Mix 1: 6g graphite / 10ml water / 5ml glue

Temperature = 50.7o Power required = 1074/50.7 = 21.18W/o

Mix 2: 6g graphite / 5ml water / 5ml glue

Temperature = 95o Power required = 1426/95 = 15.0W/o

Mix 3: 6g graphite / 10ml water / 10ml glue

Temperature = 36o Power required = 510/36 = 14.2W/o

Temperature = 43o Power required = 822/43 = 19.1W/o

Mix 4: 6g graphite / 5ml water / 10ml glue

Temperature = 42o Power required = 538/42 = 12.8W/o