CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Deflection is defined as the movement of a beam from its initial position after forces and
loads are applied to the beam. It is known as well as displacement from external loads,
weight, and gravity. Beam Apparatus will be in the conducting of this experiment which has
an extensive range that can cover experiments relating with bending of beams. The Beam
Apparatus is an essential tool where it has a wide range experiment use from determining
elastic modulus of beams of different materials to study of beams with any loading. This
experiment is conducted to study the relationship between the load and the deflection of
cantilever beam. Therefore, this experiment will focus more on cantilever type of beam.
 CHAPTER 2

THEORY

2.1 CANTILEVER BEAM

Cantilever beams is only constrained by one support. Naturally, these members will
deflect more due to the one support at one end. To understand the concept of
deflection, we take cantilever beam as an example. A load is applied on the end of the
cantilever beam.

As the load is applied, the cantilever beam will start to bend and deflect away
from its initial position. The dotted line in the diagram below portrays the deflection
of the beam.
 2.2 DEFLECTION EQUATION
Deflection of beams can be calculated by using equations and formulae. However,
they are factors that need to be take into account before proceeding in calculating the
deflections. These factors include, material, distance from support, moment of
inertia of a section, force applied and types of beams. Generally, deflection can be calculated
by double integrating Bending Moment Equation, M(x) divided by Young’s Modulus
multiply to Moment of inertia:

M ( x)
EI

When beam is loaded such as figure 1, the relationship of stress distribution and
curvature of the beam is as follow:

Figure 1
 M σ E
= = … … … … .(1)
I y R
My
σ=
Ix
Where,
M = Bending moment
I x = 2nd Moment of inertia of area of the beam section (moment
of inertia)
E = Modulus of elasticity
R = Radius of curvature
σ = Bending stress at the distance y from neutral axis
y = Distance from neutral axis
The 2nd derivative of the deflection is able to show that the curvature of beam 1/R is
given to a close approximation. If z is the deflection of beam at distance x from an
origin, therefore:

d2 z 1 M
= = . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .(2)Deflection of beam subjected to direct loading can be
d x 2 R EI
shown by using equation (2) and can also be expressed in big

W L3 a = 1 for central axial loading of a

z=a . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. .(3) Where ,
EI 48
simply supported beam
Z = Deflection
W = Load exerted on beam
L = Length
E and I = As defined earlier.

Macaulay Method is the method used to determine the deflection of beam in this
experiment.

d2 y L
EI 2
=W 2 x − W ( x − ). . .. . . .. . .(1)
dx 2
2
dy W 2 x W
EI = − ¿
dx 2 2
 W 2 x3 W
EIY= − ¿
2 6
1
x=L , Y =0=¿ C= (W L2 −8 W 2 L2)
48
dy 5W
x=L , =0=¿ W 2 =
dx 16
Deflection at point x, = L/4

L3 W 2 W − 8 W 2
y= ( + ) . .. . .. . .. .(4)
EI 384 192

Where,
L = Length of beam
E = Young’s Modulus (205GPa)
I = 2nd Moment area of beam
W = Load
Y = Deflection at point x = L/4

CHAPTER 3

RESULTS
 CHAPTER 4

OBSERVATION
 First of all, before conducting the experiment it is required to check the balance of the
beam by using bubble level. This is so that all the data that will be collected are precise. Next,
the first dial gauge is to be placed one forth of the beam and another one at the end of the
beam. Set these two dial gauges to zero value before placing load on the hanger. As for the
supportive force, all the data must be multiplied by 2 which is 1mm = 2N. Before adding
more loads, both dial gauges must be set to zero so that it would not mess with the new value.
This crucial step is to be done for both increment and decrement of loads.

During the experiment, no error occurred. It is safe to say that all the data are taken
correctly. To clarify this, the collected data can be compared to the theoretical data. It can be
seen that both collected and theoretical data possess small difference in values which
indicates that the experiment is conducted in the correct manner.

CHAPTER 5

CALCULATION
 Deflection at point x=L/4 of the theoretical value of the Young’s Modulus of each
specimen

L3 W 2 W −8 W 2
Y= (
EI 384
+
192 )
Given E Brass=110 GPa, when W =5 N , W 2 =2.13 Nm

0.6 3 2.13 5− 8(2.13)

Y= 9 − 10
(110 ×10 )(1.715 ×10 ) 384 (+
192 )
Y =− 0.00065 m

Given E Aluminium =70 GPa, when W =5, W 2 =2.49 Nm

0.63 2.49 5 − 8(2.49)

Y= 9 −10 (
(70× 10 )(3.959× 10 ) 384
+
192 )
Y =− 0.00056 m

Given E Mild Steel=210 GPa, when W =5, W 2 =2.26 Nm

0.63 2.26 5 −8 (2.26)

Y= 9 −11
(210× 10 )(5.177 ×10 ) 384
+ ( 192 )
Y =− 0.00124 m

Table 4: Theoretical deflection value for each specimen

Load Theoretical Deflection (m)

Brass Aluminium Mild Steel
(N)
5 0.00065 0.00056 0.00124
 10 0.00115 0.00096 0.00205
15 0.00169 0.00131 0.00276
20 0.00213 0.00168 0.00398
25 0.00276 0.00207 0.00475
30 0.00322 0.00242 0.00520

From the graph 2, the gradient of the theoretical value is

25 −10
m=
0.00276 −0.00115

m=9316.77 N m −1

From the graph 3, the gradient of the theoretical value is

25 −10
m=
0.00207 −0.00096

m=13513.51 N m− 1

From the graph 4, the gradient of the theoretical value is

25 −10
m=
0.00475 −0.00205

m=5555.56 N m −1

To find the modulus of elasticity, by using equation

L3 W 2 W −8 W 2
Y= (
EI 384
+
192 )

Since Y and W is the x-axis and y-axis of the graph respectively, by changing the
equation to

L3 W 2 L3 W L3 8 W 2
Y= + −
EI 384 EI 192 EI 192

L3 W 2 L3 2 W L3 16 W 2
Y= + −
EI 384 EI 384 EI 384
EI ∙ 384 ∙Y =L3 W 2+ L3 2 W − L3 16 W 2

EI ∙ 384 ∙Y =L3 2 W − L3 15W 2

EI ∙ 384 ∙ Y + L3 15 W 2
W=
L3 2

EI ∙ 192 ∙Y 15 W 2
W= +
L3 2

From the formula for straight line,

Y =mX +C

We know that

EI ∙ 192
m=
L3

The equation for modulus of elasticity will be

m L3
E=
I ∙ 192

For brass, its modulus of elasticity is

9316.77 ×0.6 3
E=
(1.715× 10−10 )(192)

E=6.11 ×1010 Pa /61.1 GPA

For aluminium, its modulus of elasticity is

13513.51 ×0.63
E=
(3.959 ×10−10 )(192)

E=3.84 ×1010 /38.4 GPA

 For mild steel, its modulus of elasticity is

5555.56 ×0.63
E= − 11
(5.177 ×10 )(192)

E=1.207 ×1011 /120.7 GPA

The percentage difference for brass is

110 −61.1
× 100 %=44.45 %
110

The percentage difference for aluminium is

70− 38.4
× 100 %=45.14 %
70

The percentage difference for brass is

210− 120
×100 %=42.86 %
210

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION
 Load vs. Deflection(experimental)
35
30 30
30
25 25
25
20 20
20
Load(N)

15 15
15
10 10
10
5 5
5

0
0 0 0 0 0 0.01 0.01
Deflection(m)

Deflection of Brass(m) Deflection of Aluminium(m)

Deflection of Mild Steel(m)

Figure 1: Graph of Load vs. Deflection ( experimental)

Load vs. Deflection of Brass specimen

35

30

25

20
Load(N)

15

10

0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Deflection(m)

Deflection of Brass(theoretical) Deflection of Brass(experimental)

Figure 2: Graph of Load vs. Deflection of Brass specimen

 Load vs. Deflection of Aluminium specimen
35

30

25

20
Load(N)

15

10

0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Deflection(m)

Deflection of Aluminium(theoretical) Deflection of Aluminium(experimental)

Figure 3: Graph of Load vs. Deflection of Aluminium specimen

Load vs. Deflection of Mild Steel specimen

35

30

25

20
Load(N)

15

10

0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.01 0.01

Deflection(m)

Deflection of Mild Steel(theoretical) Deflection of Mild Steel(experimental)

Figure 4: Graph of Load vs. Deflection of Mild Steel specimen

1) Discuss the relationship observed for all the experiment conducted. Possible sources
of error include errors in cross-sectional dimensions and gauge measurement.\

According to the graphs obtained, we can see that all the three specimens, brass,
aluminium and mild steel shows increasing graphs. This means that when the load
applied increases, the defection of the specimens also increases. From the graphs above,
we can see that mild steel is the stiffest material while brass is the least stiff material.
After that, the gradient of the graphs above can be used to obtain the theoretical Young’s
modulus for all three specimens. The higher the value of young’s modules, the less the
deflection will occur.

2) Constructional material selection is an important aspect as to meet the engineering

standard and reduce cost. Explain the importance to know the characteristic or
mechanical behaviour of engineering component in material selection.

The characteristic of a material is important to know because we can predict or

calculate the force or stress that the material can withstand, and we can use it in the
suitable product. As for constructional material, the properties or characteristic of the
material must be known in order to use the material in construction and ensure stable and
safety of buildings or machines. Also, the characteristic of material needs to be known so
that suitable material can use in suitable ways to avoid exceed of cost. For example,
metals are more durable compared to plastics, but plastic are cheaper and lighter, so
plastics are used to make the side frame and back panel of low-end smartphones to
reduce the cost and metals are used in higher cost smartphones.
 CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION

From the experiment conducted, we can deduce that mild steel has
the greatest deflection, followed by brass and lastly, aluminium. Although the
deflection of each material varies, the graphs of load against deflection for all
three materials show a proportional relationship. This is due to the fact that the
deflection will increase as the load increases. Based on the graphs, the modulus
elasticity for the three materials is also determined by calculating the gradients.
The calculation shows that the modulus elasticity of the mild steel, brass and
aluminium are 120.7 GPa, 61.1 GPa and 38.4 GPa respectively. Therefore, mild
steel is the stiffest material compared to others. Next, according to the theory,
deflection is inversely proportional to the modulus elasticity and the stiffness.
However, the deflection recorded is contrary to the theory. This might occur due
to some errors while conducting the experiment.

Based on the percentage difference of the modulus elasticity calculated, all

three materials result in more than 40% of difference between the calculated
values and the actual values. This shows that the experiment is less accurate
although it is theoretically accepted. In order to achieve more accurate results,
there are several improvements that can be made. First and foremost, students
should not take parallax errors lightly. All the measurements must be made by
placing the eyes exactly perpendicular to the measurement scale. For instance,
students must read the ruler correctly while placing the hanger and dial gauges at
their positions. Next, students must ensure that the beam is parallel to the cross
member by making sure that the bubble in the center of the leveler is completely
centered. This is indeed important as it will affect the actual deflection values.
Last but not least, students should also ensure that the beam’s end adjuster for
gauge D is positioned back to zero before they proceed to record any data.
 REFERENCES

What is Deflection?. (2021, March 26).SkyCiv.https://skyciv.com/docs/tutorials/beam-

tutorials/what-is-deflection/

(2015) Lab Sheet BDA37301, Topic 1: Deflection of Cantilever Beam.