Ethiopians in India

Connect with the Aksum Empire and the Mysterious Kingdom of

Murud Janjira ?

Dr Uday Dokras, PhD Stockholm,SWEDEN

Prof. Dr. Ms Laurence Buzenot,
Docteure en géographie, Professeure d'histoire et géographie, Assisted
by Miss Kinjal Shah

PART I

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NOTE: It is now generally believed that ALL Homo Sapiens migrated north from the Rift
Valley of Africa and then gradually spread all over the world. The impassable barrier of the
great Sahara Desert may have made them go through Ethiopia to the narrow strait in the Red
Sea (that was much shallower at the time ) near Yemen. The first small wave was about
200,000 years ago followed by a bigger wave about 70,000 years ago. These early humans
then scattered all over the world and gradually acquired their distinct ethnic characteristics
shaped by climate and geography.It is rumoured that during the nid 1700’s Arabs used to
import many Habshi or Abbysinnian (Ethiopian) slaves to India and these formed pockets of
local population like the Siddis of Janjira and Gujarat but their numbers were quite small.

Why South Indians may look like Ethiopians: South Indians are a separate race ever since
African and Non African people diverged after the first major human migrations out of
Africa. South Indians DO NOT Have frizzy hair like Abyssinian or Yemeni folks do. I have
lived in Both South India and Middle East and there are SOME superficial similarities
between SOME South Indians and SOME People from Ethiopia, Eritriea, Djibouti and
Yemen and some culinary similarities , but nothing so significant that calls for a direct
relatedness or descent. The Only Exception is the Distribution of Haplogroup T ( Y-DNA )
which originated from Haplogroup K in East Central India and then spread into North East
Africa following a migration route via Middle East in Ice ages when Persian Gulf was just a
swampland, so there is some evidence that backmigration happened from South Asia to
Ethiopia via Middle East, but that happened so far back in the past like 30 to 40K YBP. That
being said there is little other genetic correlation like autosomal or mt DNA where the vast
majority of our Genetics reside.

Nevertheless the Indian Ocean Trade and shipping from at least 2000 BC meant a great
exchange of crops and natural products and some cultural items did happen between the Land
of Punt ( Eritrea, Somalia,Djibouti etc) , Yemen and Western India( Gujarat, Konkan,
Malabar) and Sri Lanka .The Following crops seem to be common to cuisines of both places (
West & Central India as well as East Africa), they could have been deliberately introduced
via trade or accidentally as weeds or spread over by some grazing animals over thousands of
years and independently domesticated - that can never be proven or disproven due to absence
of evidence or written records. The highest species diversity for wild crop relatives of these
occur in Africa , except for Serpent Gourd .

1. Sorghum
2. Pearl Millet

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 3. Finger Millet
4. Cowpeas
5. Pigeon Peas
6. Okra
7. Nyjer Seeds
8. Serpent Gourd ( Tricosanthes )
9. Calabash/Bottle Gourd ( Lagenaria)
10. Coffee ( Introduced much later in 16th Cent Ad to South India, Karnataka from
Yemen, but its native to Ethiopia )
11. Plus
12. Recently I heard Teff has been introduced in India,but there is no evidence it was
historically cultivated outside Ethiopia or Eritrea .

Having said that the genetic mutation that transformed the apes into sapiens (it means
wise) happened in Africa according to some theory. So we all probably come from there. But
as far written history can tell, there has not been any known migration from Ethiopia. All
Indians are Indians. All Indians are referred to in puranas and Sanskrit texts as Aryans. All
those who inhabit India, Pakistan, Bangaldesh are Aryans. South Indians migrated from
Bengal, Maharashtra and other places after all the forests got cleared and Tamizh culture got
established in fertile lands such as Tanjai, Nellai, Madhurai and Kanchi. It is very very very
old civilization. At that time there was no Ethiopia , nothing. It was Akahnda bhoomi (Total
Universe). Now it is well established doctrine that Ethiopia is cradle of human (homo sapian
branch of it) civilization. So technically speaking all Indian (North & South Indians included)
have settled in the sub-continent from Ethiopia).

Everyone went from Africa. I guess southern Indians went to Africa directly via middle East
to India while northern Indians took a detour to caucus mountains before moving towards
Iran and India. So I guess northern Indians have less diluted m13 Gene compared to southern
Indians and also northern Indians race mix more so the m13 is diluted further.

Ethiopia–India relations have existed for almost two millennia. Modern diplomatic

relations between India and Ethiopia were established at the level of legations in July 1948,
after the independence of India. The relationship was raised to the ambassadorial level in
1952.  India maintains an embassy in Addis Ababa and Ethiopia in New Delhi. The two
countries have enjoyed close and friendly relations with India supporting Ethiopian
developmental efforts while Ethiopia has supported Indian interests such as its claim to a
permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council.  India and Ethiopia share a common
understanding on such issues as cross-border international terrorism, the need and direction
for reform of the United Nations, and the importance of action on climate change.
Historical ties
Trade and people-to-people contacts have existed between India and Ethiopia for almost two
millennia, Hoard of Kushan period coins have been excavated from Debre Damo, northern
Ethiopia. Beginning at the time of the Axumite Empire. Indians traded in silk, spices, gold
and ivory with the Ethiopians in the 6th century. Portuguese assistance to the King of
Ethiopia in the 16th century saw the arrival of people from Goa in Ethiopia. British
interventions in Ethiopia in 1835 to free European diplomats imprisoned by Emperor
Tewodros II under General Robert Napier and in 1941 that ended the Italian occupation both
involved large contingents of Indian soldiers who fought as part of the British commanded
forces.

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Indian Ocean Trade has been a key factor in East–West exchanges throughout history.
Long-distance trade in dhows and proas made it a dynamic zone of interaction between
peoples, cultures, and civilizations stretching from Java in the East to the city states
of Zanzibar and Mombasa in the West. Cities and states on the Indian Ocean rim focused on
both the sea and the land. Even as far back as thought to have developed during the second
half of 3rd millennium BCE, until they came to a halt with the extinction of the Indus
valley civilization after around 1900 BCE. There was an extensive maritime trade network
operating between the Harappan and Mesopotamian civilizations as early as the middle
Harappan Phase (2600-1900 BCE), with much commerce being handled by "middlemen
merchants from Dilmun" (modern Bahrain and Failaka located in the Persian Gulf). Such
long-distance sea trade became feasible with the development of plank-built watercraft,
equipped with a single central mast supporting a sail of woven rushes or cloth.
Several coastal settlements like Sotkagen-dor (astride Dasht River, north of Jiwani), Sokhta
Koh (astride Shadi River, north of Pasni), and Balakot (near Sonmiani) in Pakistan along with
Lothal in western India, testify to their role as Harappan trading outposts. Shallow harbours
located at the estuaries of rivers opening into the sea allowed brisk maritime trade with
Mesopotamian cities.

The Kingdom of Aksum."  The Kingdom of Aksum (Ge'ez: መንግሥተ አክሱም), also known

as the Kingdom of Axum or the Aksumite Empire, was an ancient kingdom centered in
Northern Ethiopia, and Eritrea. Axumite rulers styled themselves as King of kings, king
of Aksum, Himyar, Raydan, Saba, Salhen, Tsiyamo, Beja and of Kush.  Ruled by the
Aksumites, it existed from approximately 80 BC to AD 825. The polity was centered in the
city of Axum and grew from the proto-Aksumite Iron Age period around the 4th century BC
to achieve prominence by the 1st century AD. Aksum became a major player on the
commercial route between the Roman Empire and Ancient India. The Aksumite rulers
facilitated trade by minting their own Aksumite currency, with the state establishing
its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush. It also regularly entered the politics of the
kingdoms on the Arabian Peninsula and eventually extended its rule over the region with the
conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom. The Manichaei prophet Mani (died 274 AD) regarded
Axum as one of the four great powers of his time, the others being Persia, Rome and China. It
ruled the South Arabia of Yemen for half a century in the 6th century. International use of
Aksumite coins seems to have begun early on, as coins of King Ezana and even of King
Aphilas (the second Aksumite ruler to issue coins) have been found in India. Ethiopia has

4
also been home to a sizable Indian diaspora consisting of traders and artisans who settled
down there in the latter half of the nineteenth century.

Trade & Economy : Aksum was an important participant in international trade from the 1st
century AD (Periplus of the Erythraean Sea) until circa the later part of the 1st millennium
when it succumbed to a long decline against pressures from the various
Islamic powers leagued against it.It traded with India amongst other countries.
The state already had a long trade history with Greece, Rome, the Persian Empire, and India
when it started minting coinage. That coinage began so late is in fact a little surprising. The
late use of coinage may be attributed to the lack of a developed economy, required for
coinage to be accepted. Most Aksumite coins were found in the large trade centres with very
few in remote villages, where trade would be more through barter and not coinage based. In
fact, the motivation for Aksum's initial minting of coins was for foreign trade and markets, as
evidenced by the use of Greek on most of its coins. Moreover, gold coins seem to have been
intended primarily for external trade, while copper and silver coins probably mainly
circulated within the Aksumite empire, as the gold issues generally specified "king of the
Aksumites" as title of the Aksumite king, whereas the title of silver and copper issues
generally only read "king." International use of Aksumite coins seems to have begun early
on, as coins of King Ezana and even of King Aphilas (the second Aksumite ruler to issue
coins) have been found in India.

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An Ethiopian illuminated Evangelist portrait of Mark the Evangelist, from the Ethiopian Garima Gospels, 6th century, Kingdom of
Aksum, influenced by Eastern Roman art (PIC TO RIGHT) The economically important northern Silk Road and southern Spice
(Eastern) trade routes. The sea routes around the horn of Africa and the Indian sub-continent made Aksum an important trading
port for nearly a millennium.

Covering parts of what is now northern Ethiopia and southern and eastern Eritrea, Aksum

was deeply involved in the trade network between India and the Mediterranean (Rome,
later Byzantium), exporting ivory, tortoise shell, gold and emeralds, and importing silk and
spices. Aksum's access to both the Red Sea and the Upper Nile enabled its strong navy to
profit in trade between various African (Nubia), Arabian (Yemen), and Indian states.

The main exports of Aksum were, as would be expected

of a state during this time, agricultural products. The land was much more fertile during the
time of the Aksumites than now, and their principal crops were grains such as wheat
and barley. The people of Aksum also raised cattle, sheep, and camels. Wild animals were
also hunted for things such as ivory and rhinoceros horns. They traded with Roman traders as
well as with Egyptian and Persian merchants. The empire was also rich with gold and iron
deposits. These metals were valuable to trade, but another mineral was also widely
traded: salt. Salt was abundant in Aksum and was traded quite frequently.

Maritime trading system: It benefited from a major transformation of the maritime trading
system that linked the Roman Empire and India. This change took place around the start of
the 1st century. The older trading system involved coastal sailing and many intermediary
ports. The Red Sea was of secondary importance to the Persian Gulf and overland
connections to the Levant. Starting around 100 BC a route from Egypt to India was
established, making use of the Red Sea and using monsoon winds to cross the Arabian
Sea directly to southern India. By about 100 AD, the volume of traffic being shipped on this
route had eclipsed older routes. Roman demand for goods from southern India increased
dramatically, resulting in greater number of large ships sailing down the Red Sea
from Roman Egypt to the Arabian Sea and India.

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The Kingdom of Aksum was ideally located to take advantage of the new trading
situation. Adulis soon became the main port for the export of African goods, such as ivory,
incense, gold, slaves, and exotic animals. In order to supply such goods the kings of Aksum
worked to develop and expand an inland trading network. A rival, and much older trading
network that tapped the same interior region of Africa was that of the Kingdom of Kush,
which had long supplied Egypt with African goods via the Nile corridor. By the 1st century
AD, however, Aksum had gained control over territory previously Kushite. The Periplus of
the Erythraean Sea explicitly describes how ivory collected in Kushite territory was being
exported through the port of Adulis instead of being taken to Meroë, the capital of Kush.
During the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD the Kingdom of Aksum continued to expand their
control of the southern Red Sea basin. A caravan route to Egypt was established which
bypassed the Nile corridor entirely. Aksum succeeded in becoming the principal supplier of
African goods to the Roman Empire, not least as a result of the transformed Indian Ocean
trading system.
The Aksumite population consisted of Ethiopic-speaking people, Cushitic-speaking people,
and Nilo-Saharan-speaking people (the Kunama and Nara).Aksumites had a modified feudal
system to farm the land. The Aksumite kings had the official title ነገሠ ፡ ነገሠተ ngś ngśt –
King of Kings.
The Aksumites erected monumental stelae, which served a religious purpose in pre-
Christian times. One of these granite columns is the largest such structure in the world, at 90
feet. Under Ezana (fl. 320–360) Aksum adopted Christianity. 
The kingdom's ancient capital, also called Axum, is now a town in Tigray
Region (northern Ethiopia). The Kingdom used the name "Ethiopia" as early as the 4th
century. Tradition claims Axum as the alleged resting place of the Ark of the Covenant and
the purported home of the Queen of Sheba.
Ethiopian historiography
Aksum is mentioned in the first-century AD Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as an important
market place for the trade in ivory, which was exported throughout the ancient world. It states
that the ruler of Aksum in the first century was Zoskales, who, besides ruling the kingdom,
likewise controlled land near the Red Sea: Adulis (near Massawa) and lands through the
highlands of present-day Eritrea. He is also said to have been familiar with Greek literature.
Geographically, Below  Ptolemais of the Hunts, at a distance of about three thousand stadia,
there is Adulis, a port established by law, lying at the inner end of a bay that runs in toward
the south. Before the harbor lies the so-called Mountain Island, about two hundred stadia
seaward from the very head of the bay, with the shores of the mainland close to it on both
sides. Ships bound for this port now anchor here because of attacks from the land. They used
formerly to anchor at the very head of the bay, by an island called Diodorus, close to the
shore, which could be reached on foot from the land; by which means the barbarous natives
attacked the island. Opposite Mountain Island, on the mainland twenty stadia from shore, lies
Adulis, a fair-sized village, from which there is a three-days' journey to Coloe, an inland
town and the first market for ivory. From that place to the city of the people called Auxumites
there is a five days' journey more; to that place all the ivory is brought from the country
beyond the Nile through the district called Cyeneum, and thence to Adulis. Practically the
whole number of elephants and rhinoceros that are killed live in the places inland, although at
rare intervals they are hunted on the seacoast even near Adulis. Before the harbor of that
market-town, out at sea on the right hand, there lie a great many little sandy islands called
Alalaei, yielding tortoise-shell, which is brought to market there by the Fish-Eaters.

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There are imported into these places, undressed cloth made in Egypt for the Berbers; robes
from Arsinoe; cloaks of poor quality dyed in colors; double-fringed linen mantles; many
articles of flint glass, and others of murrhine, made in Diospolis; and brass, which is used for
ornament and in cut pieces instead of coin; sheets of soft copper, used for cooking-utensils
and cut up for bracelets and anklets for the women; iron, which is made into spears used
against the elephants and other wild beasts, and in their wars. Besides these, small axes are
imported, and adzes and swords; copper drinking-cups, round and large; a little coin for those
coming to the market; wine of Laodicea and Italy, not much; olive oil, not much; for the king,
gold and silver plate made after the fashion of the country, and for clothing, military cloaks,
and thin coats of skin, of no great value. Likewise from the district of Ariaca across this sea,
there are imported Indian iron, and steel, and Indian cotton cloth; the broad cloth
called monache and that called sagmatogene, and girdles, and coats of skin and mallow-
colored cloth, and a few muslins, and colored lac. There are exported from these places ivory,
and tortoiseshell and rhinoceros-horn. The most from Egypt is brought to this market from
the month of January to September, that is, from Tybi to Thoth; but seasonably they put to
sea about the month of September.
Origins
Largely on the basis of Carlo Conti Rossini's theories and prolific work on Ethiopian history,
Aksum was previously thought to have been founded by the Sabaeans, who spoke a language
from the Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family. Evidence suggests that Semitic-
speaking Aksumites semiticized the Agaw people, who originally spoke other Afroasiatic
languages from the family's Cushitic branch, and had already established an independent
civilization in the territory before the arrival of the Sabaeans.
Scholars like Stuart Munro-Hay thus point to the existence of an older kingdom known
as Dʿmt, which flourished in the area between the tenth and fifth centuries BC, prior to the
proposed Sabaean migration in the fourth or fifth century BC. They also cite evidence
indicating that Sabaean settlers resided in the region for little more than a few decades.
Sabaean influence is now thought to have been minor, limited to a few localities, and
disappearing after a few decades or a century, perhaps representing a trading or military
colony in some sort of symbiosis or military alliance with the civilization of D'MT or some
proto-Aksumite state.[12] As George Hatke put it:
The most significant and lasting impact of these colonists was the establishment of a writing
system and the introduction of Semitic speech—both of which the Ethiopians modified
considerably. . . . South Arabian culture [was] a foreign commodity from which the
Ethiopians were able to freely pick and chose when they saw fit, rather than an entire
civilization imposed by foreign rulers.
The Ge'ez language is no longer universally thought of, as previously assumed, to be an
offshoot of Sabaean or Old South Arabian, and there is some linguistic (though not written)
evidence of Semitic languages being spoken in Eritrea and Ethiopia since approximately
2000 BC. However, the Ge'ez script later replaced Epigraphic South Arabian in the Kingdom
of Aksum.

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A 1907 reproduction of the damaged painting Painting of the Six Kings depicting the Ethiopian Emperor of Axum, created by an
Umayyad Caliphate painter in the 8th century AD.An Axumite jar spout. The  King Ezana's Stela, an Aksumite obelisk  in Axum,
Ethiopia

Empire
The Kingdom of Aksum was a trading empire centered in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. It
existed approximately 100–940 AD, growing from the Iron Age proto-Aksumite period c.
fourth century BC to achieve prominence by the first century AD.
According to the Book of Aksum, Aksum's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of
Cush.The capital was later moved to Axum in northern Ethiopia. The Kingdom used the
name "Ethiopia" as early as the fourth century.
The Empire of Aksum at times extended across most of present-day Eritrea,
northern Ethiopia, Western Yemen, southern Saudi Arabia and parts of eastern Sudan.[23] The
capital city of the empire was Aksum, now in northern Ethiopia. Today a smaller community,
the city of Aksum was once a bustling metropolis, cultural and economic center. Two hills
and two streams lie on the east and west expanses of the city; perhaps providing the initial
impetus for settling this area. Along the hills and plain outside the city, the Aksumites had
cemeteries with elaborate grave stones called stelee or obelisks. Other important cities
included Yeha, Hawulti-Melazo, Matara, Adulis, and Qohaito, the last three of which are now
in Eritrea. By the reign of Endubis in the late third century, it had begun minting its own
currency and was named by Mani as one of the four great powers of his time along with
the Sasanian Empire, Roman Empire, and "Three Kingdoms" China. The Aksumites

9
adopted Christianity as its state religion in 325 or 328 AD under King Ezana, and Aksum was
the first state ever to use the image of the cross on its coins.
Around the 3rd century (possibly c. 240–c. 260), the Axumites led by Sembrouthes were
victorious over the Sesea, with Sesea becoming a tributary of the Kingdom of Aksum.
Around 330, Ezana of Axum led his army into the Kingdom of Meroë, conquering and
sacking the town itself. A large stone monument was left there, and the conquest is also
related on Ezana Stone

The Ezana Stone  records negus Ezana's conversion to Christianity and his subjugation of various neighboring peoples,
including Meroë./Axumite Menhir in Balaw Kalaw (Metera) near  Senafe

King Kaleb
Around 525, King Kaleb sent an expedition to Yemen against the Jewish Himyarite king Dhu
Nuwas, who was persecuting the Christian community there. For nearly half a century south
Arabia would become an Ethiopian protectorate under Abraha and his son Masruq. Dhu
Nuwas was deposed and killed and Kaleb appointed a Christian
Himyarite, Esimiphaios ("Sumuafa Ashawa"), as his viceroy. However, around 530 this
viceroy was deposed by the Aksumite general Abraha with support of Ethiopians who had
settled in Yemen. Kaleb sent two expeditions against Abraha, but both were decisively
defeated. Kaleb did not pursue the matter further, and recognized Abraha as his new viceroy. 
After Abraha's death, his son Masruq Abraha continued the Axumite vice-royalty in Yemen,
resuming payment of tribute to Axum. However, his half-brother Ma'd-Karib revolted. After
being denied by Justinian, Ma'd-Karib sought help from Khosrow I, the Sassanid Persian
Emperor, thus triggering the Aksumite–Persian wars. Khosrow sent a small fleet and army
under commander Vahrez to depose the current king of Yemen. The war culminated with
the Siege of Sana'a, capital of Axumite Yemen. After its fall in 570, and Masruq death, Ma'd-
Karib's son, Saif, was put on the throne. In 575, the war resumed again, after Saif was killed
by Axumites. The Persian general Vahrez led another army of 8000, ending Axum rule in
Yemen and becoming hereditary governor of Yemen. According to Munro-Hay, these wars

10
may have been Aksum's swan-song as a great power, with an overall weakening of Aksumite
authority and over-expenditure in money and manpower.

Fresco of king Khosrau I war against Masruq Abraha in Yemen/ According to Ethiopian traditions, Kaleb eventually abdicated and
retired to a monastery. It is also possible that Ethiopia was affected by the  Plague of Justinian around this time. 14th century
illustration showing the king of Aksum declining the request of a Meccan delegation to yield up the Muslims. It is also known as First
Hegira

Aksum, though weakened, remained a strong empire and trading power until the rise
of Islam in the 7th century. However, unlike the relations between the Islamic powers and
Christian Europe, Aksum (see Sahama), was on good terms with its Islamic neighbors and
provided shelter to Muhammad's early followers around 615. Nevertheless, as early as
640, Umar sent a naval expedition against Adulis, the Expedition of Alqammah bin Mujazziz,
but it was eventually defeated. In the 7th century, early Muslims from Mecca sought refuge
from Quraysh persecution by travelling to the kingdom, a journey known in Islamic
history as the First Hijra. However the religion did not established until the arrival of the
Ottomans in the 15th century. 

Aksumite naval power also declined throughout the period, though in 702 Aksumite pirates
were able to invade the Hejaz and occupy Jeddah. In retaliation, however, Sulayman ibn Abd
al-Malik was able to take the occupied parts back and the Dahlak Archipelago from Aksum,
which became Muslim from that point on.
Decline
After a second golden age in the early 6th century,  the empire began to decline in the mid 6th
century, eventually ceasing its production of coins in the early 7th century. Around this same
time, the Aksumite population was forced to go farther inland to the highlands for protection,
abandoning Aksum as the capital. Arab writers of the time continued to describe Ethiopia (no
longer referred to as Aksum) as an extensive and powerful state, though they had lost control
of most of the coast and their tributaries. While land was lost in the north, it was gained in the
south; and, though Ethiopia was no longer an economic power, it still attracted Arab

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merchants. The capital was moved to a new location, currently unknown, though it may have
been called Ku'bar or Jarmi. Eventually, the Rashidun Caliphate took control of the Red Sea
and Egypt by 646, pushing Aksum into economic isolation. Northwest of Aksum, in modern-
day Sudan, the Christian states of Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia lasted till the 13th century
before being overrun by bedouin tribes and Funj sultanate. Aksum, isolated, nonetheless still
remained Christian.
Under the reign of Degna Djan, during the 10th century, the empire kept expanding south,
and sent troops into the modern-day region of Kaffa, while at the same time undertaking
missionary activity into Angot and Amhara.
Local history holds that, around 960, a Jewish Queen named Yodit (Judith) or "Gudit"
defeated the empire and burned its churches and literature. While there is evidence of
churches being burned and an invasion around this time, her existence has been questioned
by some western authors. Another possibility is that the Aksumite power was ended by a
southern pagan queen named Bani al-Hamwiyah, possibly of the tribe al-Damutah or Damoti
(Sidama). It is clear from contemporary sources that a female usurper did indeed rule the
country at this time, and that her reign ended some time before 1003. After a short Dark Age,
the Aksumite Empire was succeeded by the Agaw Zagwe dynasty in the 11th or 12th century
(most likely around 1137), although limited in size and scope. However, Yekuno Amlak, who
killed the last Zagwe king and founded the modern Solomonic dynasty around 1270 traced
his ancestry and his right to rule from the last emperor of Aksum, Dil Na'od. It should be
mentioned that the end of the Aksumite Empire didn't mean the end of Aksumite culture and
traditions; for example, the architecture of the Zagwe dynasty at Lalibela and Yemrehana
Krestos Church shows heavy Aksumite influence.
Climate change hypothesis
Climatic change and trade isolation have also been claimed as large reasons for the decline of
the culture. The local subsistence base was substantially augmented by a climatic shift during
the 1st century AD that reinforced the spring rains, extended the rainy season from 3 1/2 to
six or seven months, vastly improved the surface and subsurface water supply, doubled the
length of the growing season, and created an environment comparable to that of modern
central Ethiopia (where two crops can be grown per annum without the aid of irrigation). This
appears to explain how one of the marginal agricultural environments of Ethiopia was able to
support the demographic base that made this far flung commercial empire possible. It may
also explain why no Aksumite rural settlement expansion into the moister, more fertile, and
naturally productive lands of Begemder or Lasta can be verified during the heyday of
Aksumite power. As international profits from the exchange network declined, Aksum lost its
ability to control its own raw material sources and that network collapsed. The already
persistent environmental pressure of a large population to maintain a high level of regional
food production had to be intensified. The result was a wave of soil erosion that began on a
local scale c. 650 and attained catastrophic proportions after 700. Presumably complex socio-
economic inputs compounded the problem. These are traditionally reflected in declining
maintenance, deterioration and partial abandonment of marginal crop land, shifts to
destructive pastoral exploitation, and eventual, wholesale and irreversible land degradation.
This syndrome was possibly accelerated by an apparent decline in rainfall reliability
beginning 730–760, with the presumed result that an abbreviated modern growing season was
reestablished during the 9th century

12
Ruins of Al–Qalis Church cathedral built by Abraha in Sana'a between 527 and 560 RIGHT PICS Typical Aksumite
architecture – the monastery of Debre Damo. RIGHT >Coins of king Endybis, 227–235 AD. British Museum. The left one reads
ΑΞΩΜΙΤΩ BICIΔΑΧΥ, possily "man of Dachu, (king) of Axumites", linguistically mixed(?). The right one reads in Greek ΕΝΔΥΒΙC
ΒΑCΙΛΕΥC, "King Endybis".

The Empire of Aksum is notable for a number of achievements, such as its own alphabet,
the Ge'ez script, which was eventually modified to include vowels, becoming an abugida.
Furthermore, in the early times of the empire, around 1700 years ago, giant obelisks to mark
emperors' (and nobles') tombs (underground grave chambers) were constructed, the most
famous of which is the Obelisk of Aksum.
Under Emperor Ezana, Aksum adopted Christianity in place of its
former polytheistic and Judaic religions around 325. This gave rise to the present
day Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (only granted autonomy from the Coptic Church
in 1959), and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church (granted autonomy from the Ethiopian
Orthodox church in 1993). Since the schism with Orthodoxy following the Council of
Chalcedon (451), it has been an important Miaphysite church, and
its scriptures and liturgy continue to be in Ge'ez.
Religion
Before its conversion to Christianity, the Aksumites practiced a polytheistic religion related
to the religion practiced in southern Arabia. This included the use of the crescent-and-disc
symbol used in southern Arabia and the northern horn. In the UNESCO sponsored General
History of Africa French archaeologist Francis Anfray, suggests that the pagan Aksumites
worshipped Astar, his son, Mahrem, and Beher.
Steve Kaplan argues that with Aksumite culture came a major change in religion, with only
Astar remaining of the old gods, the others being replaced by what he calls a "triad of
indigenous divinities, Mahrem, Beher and Medr." He also suggests that Aksum culture was
significantly influenced by Judaism, saying that "The first carriers of Judaism reached
Ethiopia between the reign of Queen of Sheba BC and conversion to Christianity of King
Ezana in the fourth century AC." He believes that although Ethiopian tradition suggests that
these were present in large numbers, that "A relatively small number of texts and individuals
dwelling in the cultural, economic, and political center could have had a considerable
impact." and that "their influence was diffused throughout Ethiopian culture in its formative
period. By the time Christianity took hold in the fourth century, many of the originally
Hebraic-Jewish elements had been adopted by much of the indigenous population and were
no longer viewed as foreign characteristics. Nor were they perceived as in conflict with the
acceptance of Christianity."
Before converting to Christianity King Ezana II's coins and inscriptions show that he might
have worshiped the gods Astar, Beher, Meder/Medr, and Mahrem. Another of Ezana's
inscriptions is clearly Christian and refers to "the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit".
Around 324 AD the King Ezana II was converted to Christianity by his teacher Frumentius,

13
the founder of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Frumentius taught the emperor while he was
young, and it is believed that at some point staged the conversion of the empire. [37][38] We
know that the Aksumites converted to Christianity because in their coins they replaced the
disc and crescent with the cross, the Axumite Jews, however, rejected the new religion and
rebelled by creating the Kingdom of Semien. Frumentius was in contact with the Church of
Alexandria, and was appointed Bishop of Ethiopia around the year 330. The Church of
Alexandria never closely managed the affairs of the churches in Aksum, allowing them to
develop their own unique form of Christianity. However, the Church of Alexandria probably
did retain some influence considering that the churches of Aksum followed the Church of
Alexandria into Oriental Orthodoxy by rejecting the Fourth Ecumenical Council of
Chalcedon. Aksum is also the alleged home of the holy relic the Ark of the Covenant. The
Ark is said to have been placed in the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion by Menelik I for
safekeeping.
Islam came in the 7th century at the reign of Ashama ibn-Abjar when the followers of the
Prophet Muhammed were persecuted by the ruling tribe and begun migrating after the first
followers got asylum from the King many begun to migrate. All of them returned
to Medina in 622.
Ethiopian sources
Ethiopian sources such as the Kebra Nagast and the Fetha Nagast describe Aksum as a
Jewish Kingdom. The Kebra Nagast contains a narrative of how the Queen of Sheba/Queen
Makeda of Ethiopia met King Solomon and traces Ethiopia's to Menelik I, her son by King
Solomon of Israel. In its existing form, the Kebra Nagast is at least 700 years old and is
considered by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church to be a reliable and historic work.
Coinage

Silver coin of Ezana.

The Empire of Aksum was one of the first African polities to issue its own coins, which bore
legends in Ge'ez and Greek. From the reign of Endubis up to Armah (approximately 270 to
610), gold, silver and bronze coins were minted. Issuing coinage in ancient times was an act
of great importance in itself, for it proclaimed that the Aksumite Empire considered itself
equal to its neighbours. Many of the coins are used as signposts about what was happening
when they were minted. An example being the addition of the cross to the coin after the
conversion of the empire to Christianity. The presence of coins also simplified trade, and was
at once a useful instrument of propaganda and a source of profit to the empire.

14
Architecture
Homely architecture

Ruins of the Dungur palace in Axum. Aksumite architecture flourished in the region from the 4th century BC onward. It
persisted even after the transition from the Aksumite dynasty to the Zagwe dynasty in the 12th century, as attested by
the numerous Aksumite influences in and around the medieval churches of Lalibela.

Like other aspects of the culture of Africa, the architecture of Africa is exceptionally

diverse. Throughout the history of Africa, Africans have developed their own
local architectural traditions. In some cases, broader regional styles can be identified, such as
the Sudano-Sahelian architecture of West Africa. A common theme in traditional African
architecture is the use of fractal scaling: small parts of the structure tend to look similar to
larger parts, such as a circular village made of circular houses.
African architecture in some areas has been influenced by external cultures for centuries,
according to available evidence. Western architecture has influenced coastal areas since the
late 15th century and is now an important source of inspiration for many larger buildings,
particularly in major cities.
African architecture uses a wide range of materials, including thatch, stick/wood,
mud, mudbrick, rammed earth, and stone. These material preferences vary by region: North
Africa for stone and rammed earth, the Horn of Africa for stone and mortar, West Africa for
mud/adobe, Central Africa for thatch/wood and more perishable materials, Southeast and
Southern Africa for stone and thatch/wood.
Aksumite architecture flourished in the region from the 4th century BC onward. It
persisted even after the transition from the Aksumite dynasty to the Zagwe dynasty in the
12th century, as attested by the numerous Aksumite influences in and around the medieval
churches of Lalibela. Stelae (hawilts) and later entire churches were carved out of single
blocks of rock. This was later emulated at Lalibela and throughout the Tigray Province,
especially during the early-mid medieval period (c. 10th and 11th centuries in Tigray, mainly
12th century around Lalibela). Other monumental structures include massive underground
tombs, often located beneath stelae. Among the most spectacular survivals are the giant
stelae, one of which, now fallen (scholars think that it may have fallen during or immediately
after erection), is the single largest monolithic structure ever erected (or attempted to be
erected). Other well-known structures employing the use of monoliths include tombs such as
the "Tomb of the False Door" and the tombs of Kaleb and Gebre Mesqel in Axum.
Most structures, however, like palaces, villas, commoner's houses, and other churches and
monasteries, were built of alternating layers of stone and wood. The protruding wooden
support beams in these structures have been named "monkey heads" and are a staple of
Aksumite architecture and a mark of Aksumite influence in later structures. Some examples
of this style had whitewashed exteriors and/or interiors, such as the medieval 12th-century
monastery of Yemrehanna Krestos near Lalibela, built during the Zagwe dynasty in Aksumite
style. Contemporary houses were one-room stone structures, or two-storey square houses,
or roundhouses of sandstone with basalt foundations. Villas were generally two to four

15
storeys tall and built on sprawling rectangular plans (cf. Dungur ruins). A good example of
still-standing Aksumite architecture is the monastery of Debre Damo from the 6th century.
In general, elite Aksumite buildings such as palaces were constructed atop podia built of
loose stones held together with mud-mortar, with carefully cut granite corner blocks which
rebated back a few centimeters at regular intervals as the wall got higher, so the walls
narrowed as they rose higher. These podia are often all that survive of Aksumite ruins. Above
the podia, walls were generally built with alternating layers of loose stone (often
whitewashed, like at Yemrehana Krestos Church) and horizontal wooden beams, with smaller
round wooden beams set in the stonework often projecting out of the walls (these are called
'monkey heads') on the exterior and sometimes the interior. Both the podia and the walls
above exhibited no long straight stretches but were indented at regular intervals so that any
long walls consisted of a series of recesses and salients. This helped to strengthen the walls.
Worked granite was used for architectural features including columns, bases, capitals, doors,
windows, paving, water spouts (often shaped like lion heads) and so on, as well as enormous
flights of stairs that often flanked the walls of palace pavilions on several sides. Doors and
windows were usually framed by stone or wooden cross-members, linked at the corners by
square 'monkey heads', though simple lintels were also used. Many of these Aksumite
features are seen carved into the famous stelae as well as in the later rock hewn
churches of Tigray and Lalibela.
Palaces usually consisted of a central pavilion surrounded by subsidiary structures pierced by
doors and gates that provided some privacy (see Dungur for an example). The largest of these
structures now known is the Ta'akha Maryam, which measured 120 × 80m, though as its
pavilion was smaller than others discovered it is likely that others were even larger.
Some clay models of houses survive to give us an idea of what smaller dwellings were like.
One depicts a round hut with a conical roof thatched in layers, while another depicts a
rectangular house with rectangular doors and windows, a roof supported by beams that end in
'monkey heads', and a parapet and water spout on the roof. Both were found in Hawelti.
Another depicts a square house with what appear to be layers of pitched thatch forming the
roof.
Stelae
The stelae (hawilt/hawilti in local languages) are perhaps the most identifiable part of the
Aksumite architectural legacy. These stone towers served to mark graves and represent a
magnificent multi-storied palace. They are decorated with false doors and windows in typical
Aksumite design. The largest of these towering obelisks would measure 33 meters high had it
not fractured. The stelae have most of their mass out of the ground, but are stabilized by
massive underground counter-weights. The stone was often engraved with a pattern or
emblem denoting the king's or the noble's rank.
The Aksumite Empire is portrayed as the main ally of Byzantium in the Belisarius
series by David Drake and Eric Flint published by Baen Books. The series takes place during
the reign of Kaleb, who in the series was assassinated by the Malwa in 532 at the Ta'akha
Maryam and succeeded by his youngest son Eon bisi Dakuen.
In the Elizabeth Wein series The Lion Hunters, Mordred and his family take refuge in Aksum
after the fall of Camelot. Kaleb is the ruler in the first book; he passes his sovereignty onto
his son Gebre Meskal, who rules during the Plague of Justinian.The Book of Enoch, a pre-
Christian work, is written in Ge'ez.

16
Ethiopia has also been home to a sizable Indian diaspora consisting of traders and artisans
who settled down there in the latter half of the nineteenth century. During Emperor Haile
Selassie's reign a large number of Indian teachers went to Ethiopia which has led to the
development of significant goodwill towards India among the Ethiopians.
The Siddi community on India's western coast are thought to be of Ethiopian descent.
Politics: During the Italian invasion of Ethiopia, Jawaharlal Nehru made a stirring call for
solidarity with Abyssinia, noting that "We in India can do nothing to help our brethren in
distress in Ethiopia for we are also victims of imperialism but we stand with them today in
their sorrow as we hope to stand together when better days come". Upon India's
independence in 1947, it sent a goodwill mission to Ethiopia and diplomatic relations were
established the following year. In 1950, the countries formalised their diplomatic ties and
Sardar Sant Singh was appointed India's first Ambassador to Ethiopia. The two countries
have since exchanged several visits at the level of Heads of State with Emperor Haile
Selassie, Col. Mengistu Haile Mariam and former Prime Minister Meles Zenawi paying state
visits to India. Presidents S. Radhakrishnan and V V Giri, Vice President Zakir Hussain and
former Prime Minister Manmohan Singh have led Indian state visits to Ethiopia.
Ethiopia's ties with India were especially strong under Prime Minister Meles Zenawi who
was supportive of India seeing India's growth as beneficial to Ethiopia's own economic
growth. Ethiopia's former Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn and the country's first lady
have both been educated in India. The second India-Africa Forum Summit was held at Addis
Ababa in May 2011 which was attended by as many as 15 Heads of States of various African
nations. This was also the first time India was hosting such an event abroad.
Economic Relations-Bilateral trade and investment
Trade between the two countries amounted to $660 million in 2011-'12 and is expected to
reach $1 billion by 2015. Indian exports to Ethiopia consists of drugs
and pharmaceuticals, steel, machinery, food items, plastic
and linoleum products, paper, textiles, chemicals, transport equipment and steel. India's
imports from Ethiopia include raw hides and skins, pulses, oil seeds, spices, leather and scrap
metal.[
India is Ethiopia's second largest source of Foreign Direct Investments with investments
amounting to $5 billion. Indian investments in Ethiopia are expected to be worth $10 billion
by 2015 with India approving investments worth $4.78 billion in 2011.
Economic cooperation
India and Ethiopia signed a Bilateral Investment Promotion and Protection Agreement in
2007 and a Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement in 2011 to promote mutual trade and
investments.[13][14] At the Second India Africa Forum Summit, the then Indian Prime Minister
Manmohan Singh announced a $300 million line of credit to help revive the Ethiopia-
Djibouti rail route.[7] This project however went to Chinese construction companies following
delays on the Indian side in sanctioning the funds. The Duty Free Tariff Preference scheme
that was announced at the summit allowing for imports from Least developed Countries into
India has however had a positive impact on bilateral trade with the value of Ethiopian exports
to India now reaching $120 million. The balance of trade however remains in India's favour.
[6]
 India has also extended $710 million in lines of credit to help in rural electrification and the
revival of the sugar industry in Ethiopia.[16]
Technical collaboration of present times-dairy sectors.  To build human resource capacity,
India trains Ethiopian diplomats and trade negotiators under its Indian Technical and
Economic Cooperation Programme. The Indian Army is involved in training and developing

17
a manual for the Ethiopian Army. The Pan-African e-Network project that India has
undertaken to link African nations with each other and to India was launched on a pilot basis
first in Ethiopia in 2007.
Aksumite currency was coinage produced and used within the Kingdom of Aksum (or
Axum) centered in present-day Eritrea and Ethiopia. Its mintages were issued and circulated
from the reign of King Endubis around AD 270 until it began its decline in the first half of
the 7th century. During the succeeding medieval period, Mogadishu currency, minted by
the Sultanate of Mogadishu, was the most widely circulated currency in the Horn of Africa.
Aksum's currency served as a vessel of propaganda demonstrating the kingdom's wealth and
promoting the national religion (first polytheistic and later Oriental Christianity). It also
facilitated the Red Sea trade on which it thrived The coinage has also proved invaluable in
providing a reliable chronology of Aksumite kings due to the lack of extensive archaeological
work in the area.[
Though the issuing of minted coins didn't begin until around 270, metal coins may have been
used in Aksum centuries prior to centralized minting. The Periplus of the Erythraean
Sea mentions that the Aksumite state imported brass, "which they use[d] for ornaments and
for cutting as money", and they imported "a little money (denarion) for [use by] foreigners
who live there." It can be inferred, therefore, that early Aksumite kings, located on the
international trading waters of the Red Sea, recognized the utility of a standardized currency
for facilitating both domestic and international trade.
Influences
Though Aksumite coins are indigenous in design and creation, some outside influences
encouraging the use of coins is undeniable. By the time coins were first minted in Aksum,
there was widespread trade with Romans on the Red Sea; Kushana or Persian influence also
cannot be ruled out. Roman, Himyarite, and Kushana coins have all been found in major
Aksumite cities, however, only very small quantities have been attested and the circulation of
foreign currency seems to have been limited.[5] Though South Arabian kingdoms had also
minted coins, they had already gone out of use by the time of certain Aksumite involvement
in South Arabia under GDRT, and only very rarely produced electrum or gold denominations
(silver mainly in Saba' and Himyar, while bronze in Hadhramaut), making influence unlikely.
The major impetus, however, was not emulation but economical; the Red Sea and its coasts
had always been an international trade area and coins would greatly facilitate trade and
wealth in the now "world power." Despite these influences, the coins were of genuinely
indigenous design, and foreign influences were relatively weak and few in number.
Pre Christian Period: Aksumite currency were first minted in the later stages of the growth of
the empire, when its Golden Age had already begun. The minting of coins began around 270,
beginning with the reign of Endubis.
Gold

18
Gold coin of Endubis.
Gold seems to have been acquired from a number of sources. Gold probably came
from Sasu (southern Sudan), as well as more nearby Ethiopian sources, though the latter isn't
well documented for the north. A gold trade from the southern areas of Ethiopia such as the
medieval province/kingdom of Innarya has been attested from the 6th century (i.e. from the
writings of Cosmas Indicopleustes) and continued through James Bruce's day (18th century).
Ethiopian Trade with modern Zimbabwe for gold was also a source.Gold also came from
more northerly sources such as Gojjam, Beja lands, and what is now Eritrea, though the latter
two are less certain. However, a recent gold exploration assay in Eritrea has found significant
gold deposits at Emba Derho, and deposits are also attested at Zara in central-western Eritrea.
Silver and others

While local sources of gold are attested during the Aksumite era, silver seems to have been
rarer in Aksum. No mention of silver mines in the region exist until the 15th and 16th
centuries. Though silver was imported as attested by the Periplus of the Erythraean
Sea, given the preponderance of silver coins, it could not have been the only source of silver
in Aksum. Furthermore, a significant number of the silver coins contain gold inlays
(presumably to increase the value), which would have been unnecessary if silver were so rare
that it had to be mainly imported. [7] Silver may have been obtained from the refinement of
gold, which sometimes occurs naturally with silver in an alloy called electrum.
Copper and bronze do not seem to have existed locally in the Aksumite empire, though they
were noted as imports in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.
Value: Though the gold coins were certainly the most valuable issue, followed by the silver
one, the exact relationship between the three issues (gold, silver, and bronze) is not known.
The supply of gold was closely controlled by the Aksumite state, as noted by Cosmas
Indicopleustes, and other precious metals were undoubtedly also closely controlled, allowing
the Aksumite state to ensure the usage of its currency.
The quality of the Aksumite coins were also closely controlled, usually of high purity. For
example, the lowest purity of gold recorded thus far for Aphilas is 90 percent. Early issues
were often very close to their theoretical weights, and some were even over) However, the
weight of the coins tended to decrease over time (though not continuously or uniformly). This
may have reflected a desire to conform to the Diocletian monetary reform of 301, when

19
the aureus was decreased from 1/60 of a pound to 1/72. Despite decreases in weight, the
purity of the gold was largely maintained, even by later kings. The relative abundance of
Aksumite coins as well as the many that have yet to be found [13] indicate that Aksum must
have had access to large quantities of gold.

Sketch of gold coin of Wazeba using the Ge'ez script and language.

The coins were often inscribed in Greek, as much of its trade was with the "Graecised
Orient." Later inscriptions made more use of Ge'ez, the language of the Aksumites, perhaps
indicating a decline in its use for more international trade (i.e. with Rome and India). The
obverse of the coins would always feature an image of the king (almost always in profile)
wearing either a crown or helmet/regnal headcloth. The headcloth had some image perhaps
representing pleats, rays, or sunburst in the front, as well as the tied end of a cloth or fillet to
hold the helmet or headcloth in place. Most coins also included an inscription (usually in
Greek) meaning "King of Aksum" or King of the Aksumites" (Basileus AXWMITW).
However, many coins were also minted anonymously (or even posthumously), especially
during the 5th century. Inscriptions on the coins could include a bisi name ("man of," Ge'ez:
bə'əsyä ብእስየ) or an epithet (beginning with Əllä, Ge'ez: እለ "he who") in addition to the
king's personal name. Bisi names were used more often in conjuncture with personal names
on earlier coins, while the epithets were more common in later years, being the only inscribed
name in a few sources.[3] Greek text was used in conjunction with Ge'ez script inscriptions,
but was the only language used on the gold coins, with the exception of the Ge'ez language
coins of Wazeba and MHDYS. Over time, the Greek used on the coins (gold, silver and
bronze) deteriorated, indicative of Aksum's decline. Moreover, beginning with MHDYS for
bronze coins and Wazeba for silver coins, Ge'ez gradually replaced Greek on the legends.
Mottoes
Aksumite coins used a number of mottoes throughout the period in which they were minted,
beginning in the early 4th century. Around this time, numerous anonymous bronze coins with
simply Βασιλεύς (Basileus, "King") on the obverse were minted by either King Ezana or one
of his successors. The coins bore the first example of an Aksumite motto on the reverse,
"May this please the people" (Greek: ΤΟΥΤΟΑΡΕΣΗΤΗΧΩΡΑ). It was later written in
unvocalized Ge'ez as "ለሐዘበ ፡ ዘየደአ" LʾḤZB ZYDʾ and under King Kaleb also "ለሀገረ ፡
ዘየደአ" LHGR ZYDʾ, "may this please the city [country]." Similar mottoes were used by other
kings. Coins of the early 7th-century Emperor Armah had inscribed on the back "ፈሰሐ ፡ ለየከነ
፡ ለአዘሐበ" FŚḤ LYKN LʾḤZB (vocalization: ፍሥሓ ፡ ለይኲን ፡ ለአሕዛብ ፡ fiśśiḥā la-yikʷin
la-'aḥzāb, "Let the people be glad," lit. "Gladness let there be to the peoples").
Coins were struck in the name of eighteen Aksumite kings from c. 295 until c.
620: Endybis, Aphilas, Ousanas
I, WZB, Ezana, Ouazebas, Eon, MHDYS, Ebana, Nezana, Ousanas II, Kaleb, Armah, Ella
[17]
Gabaz, Israel, Gersem, Joel, and Hethasas.

20
Endybis

Coins of king Endybis, 227-235CE. British Museum. The left one reads in Greek

"BACIΛEYC AΧWMITW", "Emperor of Axum". The right one reads in Greek: ΕΝΔΥΒΙϹ
ΒΑCΙΛΕΥϹ, "King Endybis".
Endubis, the first known Aksumite king to mint coins, focused almost entirely on his
image on both the obverse and reverse. The images were of his head and upper half of his
chest in profile, wearing a regnal headcloth or helmet and abundant jewelry. In addition to
inscribing his regnal name, Endybis also noted his "bisi name, a practice continued by his
early successors, but often missing in later coins. The bisi name was a sort of tribal affiliation
or "ethnikon" (i.e. a reference to the king's lineage) that was different for every king.
[10]
 Endybis also emphasized his religion through the pre-Christian symbol of the disk and
crescent as a propaganda method (a purpose which the coins already served). A second motif
used by Enybis and continued by following coins was that of two (though sometimes one in
later years) ears of barley or wheat around the image of his head in profile. Though no
inscriptional evidence exists, given its prominent position around the image of the king, the
two ears of barley (or wheat) may have been representative symbols of the Aksumite state.
Though later coins would be smaller, Endybis chose the Roman aureus to standardize
Aksumite coin weights against, with gold issues at half-aureus around 2.70 grams (more
precisely, the theoretical weight may have been 2.725g).
Aphilas

Silver coin of Aphilas with gold inlay.

Whereas all of Endubis's coins feature the king with a headcloth or helmet, Aphilas's coins
show the king wearing an impressive high crown on top of the headcloth. The crown featured
colonnades of arches supporting high spikes, on top of which rested large discs of
unidentified composition. In addition to the crown and headcloth, Aphilas's coins included
further images of regalia, such as a spear, a branch with berries, the depiction of the arms, the
addition of tassels with fringes to the imperial robe, and more jewelry, such as amulets and
bracelets. Despite this innovation, Aphilas continued to use the image of himself in the regnal
headcloth in some coins, sometimes as the reverse, while his crowned image is only found on
the obverse

21
One of his issues included his frontal image on the obverse, which ended with his reign and
was only revived by the late kings. Two other minting features of Aphilas were also
abandoned by later rulers. One of these was the use of just the inscription "King Aphilas" as
the reverse of a coin, the only purely epigraphical side ever used on an Aksumite coin. The
other was his use of a single ear of barley or wheat as a reverse, though his use of two ears
circling around the king's image continued.
Aphilas introduced a number of different standards for all three metals, some of which lasted
through to the 7th century, while the use of others ended with his reign. His new gold coins
(issued in conjunction with the older) of a quarter aureus and eighth aureus were soon
abandoned (each are known from only one specimen), and 1/16 aureus coins have been
found, though these are more likely to be deliberate debasements to increase profit (Aksumite
gold was generally very pure, however). Aphilas's silver coin, however, issued at half the
weight of the former, became the new Aksumite standard for silver up until the end of
coinage. The older coin was presumably more valuable than needed, and the new coin
remedied the problem. Aphilas's bronze issue, however, was instead doubled to 4.83 grams.
The coin's rarity may attest to its quick withdrawal from the market, as is assumed with his
quarter-aureus. These two issues are the only one of Aphilas's issues to portray him frontally,
rather than in profile
Ezana

Silver coin of Ezana.

During Ezana's reign a major change in both the Aksumite kingdom and its coinage took
place as a result of the change of the official religion to Christianity, one of the first states
ever to do so. While Ezana's coins in the first half of his reign are almost identical to those of
Aphilas, barring minimal weight reductions, those of his second half employ revolutionary
designs. With his conversion to Christianity, Ezana began to feature the Cross on his coins,
the first time the Christian cross had ever been featured in coinage in the world. Some of his
gold Christian coins are of the weight before Constantine I's weight reform in 324, indicating
a conversion before this date or perhaps a few years after, as the Aksumite coinage may not
have changed weights immediately. Along with the adoption of the Cross on his coins came,
of course, the abandonment of the star and crescent symbol on the coins. Later Christian
coins reflect the adoptment of the 4.54 g standard by Constantine, with theoretical weights in
Aksumite coins likewise dropping to 1.70 g for the gold coins.
Coins of Ezana without any symbol at all have also been found, along with similar symboless
coins of his father, Ousanas. These may reflect a transition in the religion in Aksum
when Frumentius was influencing Ezana's father and gathering Christians in the country,
giving weight to the writings of Rufinus. The lack of symbol altogether may reflect an
uncertainty as how best to exhibit the change in religion of the Aksumite state.
Weight Standards: Gold The gold coin weighed on average 2.5-2.8 grams and was 15–
21 mm in diameter at the start of issue, in 270-300. This would make it half an Aureus which

22
weighed 4.62-6.51 grams at the time of Probus. The issue of Israel (570-600) weighed
1.5 grams and was 17 mm in diameter. The Roman solidus of Maurice Tiberius was 4.36-
4.47 grams. A majority of these coins were found in South Arabia and not Aksum. The name
is unknown so it is referred to as an AU Unit.
Silver coinage
Also starting with Endubis these coins were 2.11-2.5 grams in weight which is half the
weight of a Roman antoninianus of 3.5-4.5 grams. A Denarius in the early 3rd century was
2.5-3.00 grams of 52 percent or less of silver, but the Aksum coins were almost pure silver at
first later debased. The name is unknown so it is referred to as an AR Unit.
Base coinage
Most bronze and silver coins have mainly been found in Aksum territory, with very few
pieces found in Judea, Meroë and Egypt. They are based roughly on the size of older
Roman As and Sestertius in shape and thickness. The design also developed like Roman
coins in first being good but then the pictures turn archaic and non recognisable. The name is
unknown so it is referred to as an Æ diameter in mm Unit, like Æ17 for a coin of 17 mm.
At the time of Aksum's minting of currency, the state already had a long trade history with
Greece, Rome, the Persian Empire, and India. That coinage began so late is in fact a little
surprising. The late use of coinage may be attributed to the lack of a developed economy,
required for coinage to be accepted. Most Aksumite coins were found in the large trade
centres with very few in remote villages, where trade would be more through barter and not
coinage based.[5] In fact, the motivation for Aksum's initial minting of coins was for foreign
trade and markets, as evidenced by the use of Greek on most of its coins. [10] Moreover, gold
coins seem to have been intended primarily for external trade, while copper and silver coins
probably mainly circulated within the Aksumite empire, as the gold issues generally specified
"king of the Aksumites" as title of the Aksumite king, whereas the title of silver and copper
issues generally only read "king.
Decline: During the 7th century, Aksumite power began to fail, and Ethiopian society began
to withdraw further into the highland hinterlands, with the coastal areas becoming peripheral
areas (whereas Adulis on the coast was once the second city of Aksum). The coins continued
circulation, but were restricted to more local areas such as Nubia, South Arabia and the Horn
of Africa.
Due to the nature of the coins (e.g. providing kings' names), they have proved essential in
constructing a chronology of the Kings of Aksum. An estimated 98 percent of the city
of Aksumremains unexcavated, and other areas even more so. Through analysis of the
number of coins produced and the style of coins, archaeologists have been able to construct a
rough chronology, generally agreed upon until the late 6th- and 7th-century kings. Of the 20
Aksumite Kings attested by their coins, inscriptions corroborate the existence of only two,
who happen to be the most famous kings: Ezana and Kaleb, both of whose reigns were
periods of exceptional prosperity during the height of the Aksumite kingdom.
Many coins have been found in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea, the central region of Aksum,
though Aksumite coins are reported to have been found in Arato and Lalibela. Many coins
have been also found further afield. Numerous hoards of coins (always gold save one silver
coin) have been found in Southern Arabia, much more than in Aksum itself, attesting perhaps
to an Aksumite presence in parts of the region (perhaps supporting the use of titles claiming
control over parts of South Arabia from GDRT's time). The hoards may be the remnants of
hoards left in Kaleb's time (perhaps used to pay soldiers), when it was under an Aksumite
governor. Outside of the Horn of Africa and Arabian Peninsula, coins have been found as far

23
as Israel, Meroe, Egypt, and India. Silver and copper coins are mainly found in Aksum,
though some can be traced to Palestinian pilgrim centers.
In addition to historical evidence, the coins' use of Ge'ez provides valuable linguistic
information. Though rarely used, the vocalization of Ge'ez sometimes employed on Aksumite
coins allows linguists to analyze vowel changes and shifts that cannot be represented in the
older Semitic abjads such as Hebrew, Arabic, South Arabian, and earlier, unvocalized Ge'ez.

Ethiopians in India, Connect with the Aksum Empire and the

Mysterious Kingdom of Murud Janjira ?
Dr Uday Dokras, PhD Stockholm,SWEDEN
Prof. Dr. Ms Laurence Buzenot
Docteure en géographie, Professeure d'histoire et géographie, University of La Reunion
Architect Srishti Dokras
Assistant Miss Kinjal Shah

PART II

The Mystery of the African Ruled fort-Janjira

In Murad District -Present day Maharashtra State in India

24
The origin of this state of Janjira is shrouded in mystery. The antecedents of the builder of
Janjira are just as romantic to say the least. These are several of the Players in this mysterious
journey.
1. The Maya- an extinct ethnic tribe from Ethiopia.
2. Oromo Tribe that battled the Maya
3. Pieter van den Broecke 
4. Malik Ambar
5. Creation of Aurangabad
6. Ottoman Trade links with Janjira?
7. Ottoman Wars with Janjira Neighbours but not Janjira
The Maya are an extinct ethnic group native to the old Wej province in Ethiopia. They were
renowned for their skilled archers, the services of which were available as mercenaries. The
Maya were primarily pastoralists and their livelihood was with their cattle.
Maya archers initially formed the core of the southern armies of Abyssinian Emperor Lebna
Dengel in resisting the Conquest of Abyssinia (Futuh al-Habash) by the forces of Ahmad ibn
Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Gurey or Gran), Imam of the Adal Sultanate. However, after the fall of
their homeland to Ahmed Gurey's armies, in true mercenary fashion, the Maya bowmen
switched sides.
Oromo Migrations: Maya bowmen were armed with spears. They tipped their arrows
with ouabain, a poison which caused death by cardiac arrest or respiratory failure.The Maya
homeland of Wej was one of the first lands to be invaded by the Oromo migrations. The
Maya repelled the weight of the Oromo for years due to their skill with the bow, until the
Oromo armies changed tactics and used thick oxhide shields and fixed shield formations.
Slavery: Between the 14th and 17th centuries, the Christian Abyssinian Kingdom (led by
the Solomonic dynasty) and adjacent Muslim states gathered much of their slaves from non-
Abrahamic communities inhabiting regions like Kambata, Damot and Hadya, which were
located on the southern flanks of their territory. Malik Ambar was among the people who
were converted to Islam, and later dispatched abroad to serve as a warrior. Both
the Solomonic dynasty and the Adal Sultanate were devastated after two decades of war with
each other. According to the Futuhat-i `Adil Shahi, Malik Ambar was sold into slavery by his
parents. He ended up in al-Mukha in Yemen, where he was sold again for 20 ducats and was
taken to the slave market in Baghdad, where he was sold a third time to the Qadi al-
Qudat of Mecca and again in Baghdad to Mir Qasim al-Baghdadi, who eventually took him
to Deccan Plateau. He was described by the Dutch merchant Pieter van den Broecke as, "a
black kafir from Abyssinia with a stern Roman face."
Pieter van den Broecke (25 February 1585, Antwerp – 1 December 1640, Strait of Malacca)
was a Dutch cloth merchant in the service of the Dutch East India Company (VOC), and one
of the first Dutchmen to taste coffee. He also went to Angola three times. He was one of the
first Europeans to describe societies in West and Central Africa and in detail trade strategies
along the African coast. That he described the Ethiopian slave soldier Malik Ambar points to
the fact that Malik Ambar was no ordinary man to capture the eye of Broecke. In 1611 he
brought in a cargo of 29 tonnes (65,000 pounds) of ivory to Amsterdam from a captured
Portuguese ship. In 1614 he visited the port of Aden in Yemen. He was the first Dutch
merchant to make a journey to the Arabian Peninsula. He went on to the port of al-
Shihr in Hadramawt and left several Dutch merchants at the port to engage in trade and learn
the Arabic language. He returned to the Arabian Peninsula in 1616 and visited the port
of Mocha, where he attempted, unsuccessfully to establish a permanent Dutch trading

25
establishment. It was there that he drank "something hot and black, a coffee".He was made
the VOC's manager in Dutch Suratte in 1620.
He operated in Maritime Southeast Asia beside Jan Pieterszoon Coen and was present at
the battle of Jakarta in 1619. Pieter van den Broecke took over from Coen as head of
the Banda Islands. The islands were held to be important to trade due to their
superior cloves and nutmeg, and so the Dutch were at that time enforcing a trade monopoly
on the unwilling local population through drastic measures. So many inhabitants were killed
on Banda that the island had to be deliberately repopulated.

Pieter van den Broecke's 1617 drawing of a dodo, sheep, and red rail on Mauritius. RIGHT Pieter van den Broecke,
by Frans Hals (Kenwood House)

On his retirement he was honoured with a gold chain, which he wears in the portrait by his
friend Frans Hals (now hanging in Kenwood House). ABOVE RIGHT, His son was
a perkenier (plantation owner) on the Banda Islands. Descendants of the Van den Broecke
family continue to live on.
Malik Ambar (1548 – 1626) was born as a Maya under the birth name Chapu. As a child he
was sold into slavery by his parents and was brought to India as a slave. Malik Ambar was
born in 1548 as Chapu, a birth-name in Harar, Adal Sultanate. Mir Qasim Al Baghdadi, one
of his slave owners eventually converted Chapu to Islam and gave him the name Ambar, after
recognizing his superior intellectual qualities. He was from the now extinct Maya ethnic
group – a group renowned in their homeland as skilled warriors, habitually serving as
mercenaries in the region's frequent wars.
Malik Ambar was then purchased by Chengiz Khan, a former Habshi slave who served as
the peshwa or chief minister of the Sultanate of Ahmadnagar.
Career: Once his master died, Malik Ambar was freed by his master’s wife. He got married,
and after getting freed, Ambar briefly served the Sultan of Bijapur and gained the title
“Malik” during this time. But Ambar quit this service after citing insufficient support before
entering service in the Nizam Shahi Army.
Malik Ambar was the regent of the Nizamshahi dynasty of Ahmednagar from 1607 to 1627.
During this period he increased the strength and power of Murtaza Nizam Shah II and raised
a large army. He raised a cavalry which grew from 150 to 7000 in a short period of time and
revitalized the Ahmadnagar sultanate by appointing puppet sultans to repel Mughal attacks

26
from the North. By 1610, his army grew to include 10,000 Habshis and 40,000
Deccanis. Over the course of the next decade, Malik Ambar would fight and defeat Mughal
emperor Jahangir's attempts to take over the kingdom.
Malik Ambar changed the capital from Paranda to Junnar and founded a new city, Khadki
which was later on changed to Aurangabad by the Emperor Aurangzeb when he invaded
Deccan around 1658 to 1707.
Malik Ambar is said to be one of the proponents of guerrilla warfare in the Deccan region.
Malik Ambar assisted Shah Jahan wrestle power in Delhi from his stepmother, Nur Jahan,
who had ambitions of seating her son-in-law on the throne. Malik Ambar had also restored
some credibility to the Sultans of Ahmadnagar, who had been subdued by the earlier Mughals
(Akbar had annexed Ahmadnagar). However, he was defeated later when Shah Jahan led a
massive army against the dwindling Ahmednagar. Later Malik Ambar offered full control of
Berar and Ahmadnagar to the Mughal as a sign of surrender.[16]
Second conflict with Mughals
Malik Ambar defeated the Mughal General Khan Khanan many times and often attacked
Ahmadnagar. Lakhuji Jadhavrao, Maloji Bhosale, Shahaji Bhosale and other Maratha chiefs
had gained great prominence during this period. With the help of these Maratha chiefs, Malik
Ambar had captured Ahmednagar Fort and town from the Mughals. But in one of the battles
Malik Ambar was defeated by the Mughals and had to surrender the fort of Ahmadnagar.
Many Maratha Chiefs and especially Lakhuji Jadhavrao and Ranoji Wable joined the
Mughals after this. Shah Jahan once again laid a crushing blow to Malik Ambar in one of the
battles and further decreased his power.

Malik Ambar's Tomb 1860s Khuldabad

He died in 1626 at the age of 77. Malik Ambar had by his Siddi wife, Bibi Karima two sons;
Fateh Khan and Changiz Khan and two daughters. Fateh Khan succeeded his father as the
regent of the Nizam Shahs. However, he did not possess his predecessor's political and
military prowess. Through a series of internal struggles within the nobility (which included
Fateh Khan assassinating his nephew, Sultan Burhan Nizam Shah III), the sultanate fell to
the Mughal Empire within ten years of Ambar's death.
One of his daughters was married to a prince of the Ahmednagar royal family who was later,
through Malik Ambar's aid crowned as Sultan Murtaza Nizam Shah II. The eldest and
youngest daughters respectively were called Shahir Bano and Azija Bano, the latter of whom
married a nobleman named Siddi Abdullah.
The final daughter was married to the Circassian Commander of the Ahmednagar army,
Muqarrab Khan, who later became a general under the Mughal Emperor and received the title
Rustam Khan Bahadur Firauz Jang. He became famous for his involvement in several

27
important military campaigns, such as the Kandahar Wars against Shah Abbas of Persia. He
was killed by Prince Murad Baksh in the Battle of Samugarh during the Mughal War of
succession in 1658.
Malik Ambar's tomb lies in Khuldabad, near the shrine of the famous sufi saint Zar Zari
Baksh.
Legacy: Scholars subscribe to Harris's point of view to credit the former slave with creating a
long-lasting legacy of Africans rising to power in the eastern regions of the world, namely
India. Others agree more with historians like Richard Eaton. He cites Ambar's military
prowess as the reason he rose to such influence during his life, but claims that a string of
decisive defeats at the end of his career instigated distrust and resentment amongst those in
his close administration. Eaton and his proponents claim Ambar's journey is an impressive
story of success, and gave African's representation in India for a short while, but also believe
his lack of positive leadership in the final years of his tenure prevented him from solidifying
his influence, as his successors quickly worked to reverse many of Ambar's policies.
Regardless of his posthumous impact on the Deccan, and Indian states generally, it cannot be
disputed Ambar was an avid supporter of education and a patron of the arts. Historians
Joseph E. Harris and Chand cite Ambar's patron ship of the arts and learning as a shining
achievement of his tenure as Malik of Deccan.
Malik Ambar cherished strong love and ability for architecture. Aurangabad was Ambar's
architectural achievement and creation. Malik Ambar the founder of the city was always
referred to by harsh names by Sultan Jahangir. In his memoirs, he never mentions his name
without prefixing epithets like wretch, cursed fellow, Habshi, Ambar Siyari, black Ambar,
and Ambar Badakhtur. Some historians believe that those words came out of frustration as
Malik Ambar had resisted the powerful Mughals and kept them away from Deccan."
Foundation of Aurangabad
He founded/inhabited the city of Khirki in 1610. After his death in 1626, the name was
changed to Fatehpur by his son and heir Fateh Khan. When Aurangzeb, the Mughal Emperor
invaded Deccan in the year 1653, he made Fatehpur his capital and renamed it
as Aurangabad. Since then it is known as Aurangabad. Two imperial capitals Viz.
‘Pratisthana’ (Paithan) i.e. the capital of Satavahanas (2nd BC to 3rd AD) and Devagiri
– Daulatabad the capital of Yadavas and Muhammad bin Tughluq are located within the
limits of Aurangabad District.
Aurangabad canal system
"Malik Ambar is especially famous for the Nahr or "Neher", the canal water supply system of
the city called Khadki now known as Aurangabad. Malik Ambar completed the Neher within
fifteen months, spending a nominal sum of two and a half lakh Rupiyahs. This city is situated
on the banks of Kham, a small perennial stream which takes its rise in the neighbouring
hills."
Water was supplied to the city of Khadki from the famous Panchakki (Pan from
Hindi paani means water and Chakki means a treadmill) which drove the water down
the Nahr e Ambari (Ambar's canal) from the stream called Kham referred earlier here, to the
city. The blades of the Panchakki used to rotate by the water falling on them from that stream
and with the aid of a wooden valve turn the flow into that canal, the Nahr, for the city.
The Canal was an impressive engineering feat as it consisted of a 7 feet deep tunnel large
enough for a man to walk through. The Canal had 140 manholes and it worked efficiently

28
without the need for any maintenance or cleaning for 321 years until it finally needed
cleaning in 1931.

The Ahmadnagar Sultanate was a late medieval Indian kingdom, located in the

northwestern Deccan, between the sultanates of Gujarat and Bijapur. Malik Ahmad,
the Bahmani governor of Junnar after defeating the Bahmani army led by general Jahangir
Khan on 28 May 1490 declared independence and established the Nizam Shahi dynasty rule
over the sultanate of Ahmednagar. Initially his capital was in the town of Junnar with its fort,
later renamed Shivneri. In 1494, the foundation was laid for the new capital Ahmadnagar. In
1636 Aurangzeb, then Mugal viceroy of Deccan, finally annexed the sultanate to the Mughal
Empire.
History and Establishment: Malik Ahmad Nizam Shah I was the son of Nizam-ul-Mulk
Malik Hasan Bahri, originally a Hindu Brahmin from Beejanuggar (or Bijanagar) originally
named Timapa. After the death of his father, he assumed the appellation of his father and
from this the dynasty found by him is known as the Nizam Shahi dynasty. He founded the
new capital Ahmadnagar on the bank of the river Sina. After several attempts, he secured the
great fortress of Daulatabad in 1499.
Reigns of the successors of Malik Ahmad

29
Battle of Talikota. Map showing MURUD where Fort of janjira lies
After the death of Malik Ahmad in 1510, his son Burhan Nizam Shah I, a boy of seven was,
installed in his place. In the initial days of his reign, the control of the kingdom was in the
hands of Mukammal Khan, an Ahmadnagar official and his son. Burhan converted to Shi'i
Islam under the tutelage of Shah Tahir Husaini.Sohoni, Pushkar (2014). "Patterns of Faith:
Mosque Typologies and sectarian affiliation in the kingdom of Ahmadnagar". In Roxburgh,
David J. (ed.). Seeing the Past - Envisioning Islamic Art and Architecture: Essays in Honor
of Renata Holod. Brill, Leiden. pp. 110–127. ISBN 9789004264021. Burhan died in
Ahmadnagar in 1553. He left six sons, of whom Hussain Nizam Shah I succeeded him.
Hussain was a leading figurehead of the Deccan Sultanates during the Battle of Talikota.
After the death of Hussain in 1565, his minor son Murtaza Nizam Shah I ascended the throne.
During his minority, his mother Khanzada Humayun Sultana ruled as a regent for several
years. Murtaza Shah annexed Berar in 1572. On his death in 1588, his son Miran Hussain
ascended the throne. But his reign could last only a little more than ten months as he was
poisoned to death. Ismail, a cousin of Miran Hussain was raised to the throne, but the actual
power was in the hands of Jamal Khan, the leader of the Deccani/Habshi group in the court.
Jamal Khan was killed in the battle of Rohankhed in 1591 and soon Ismail Shah was also
captured and confined by his father Burhan, who ascended the throne as Burhan Nizam Shah
II. But his sister Chand Bibi fought him. Winning the kingdom, Chand Bibi ascended the
throne as regent for the new infant sultan, Bahadur Nizam Shah. She repulsed an invasion by
the Mughal Empire with the reinforcements from the Bijapur and Golconda Sultanates. After
the death of Chand Bibi in July 1600, Ahmadnagar was conquered by the Mughals and the
Sultan was imprisoned.

JANJIRA
Malik Ambar is credited with the construction of the Janjira Fort in the Murud Area of
present day Maharashtra India. After its construction in 1567 AD, the fort was key to the
Sidis withstanding various invasion attempts by the Marathas, Mughals, and Portuguese to
capture Janjira.
There he became a Siddi military leader of great renown in the Deccan region and later a
capable administrator.He rose to become a Siddi military leader and prime minister of

30
the Ahmadnagar Sultanate in the Deccan region of India. Born in the Adal Sultunate, in
present-day Ethiopia, Malik a Maya, was sold as a child by his parents and brought to India
as a slave, so it is said. However I do not agree with this theorey. If a slave he could never
become a military commander.
While in India he created a mercenary force numbering up to 1500 men. It was based in the
Deccan region and was hired by local kings. Malik became a popular Prime Minister of
the Ahmadnagar Sultanate, showing administrative acumen. He is also regarded as a pioneer
in guerilla warfare in the region. He is credited with carrying out a revenue settlement of
much of the Deccan, which formed the basis for subsequent settlements. He is a figure of
veneration to the Siddis of Gujarat. He humbled the might of the Mughals and Adil Shah of
Bijapur and raised the low status of the Nizam Shah
Malik Ambar and the demise of the sultanate

Murtaza Nizam Shah II with an Malik Ambar

Although, Ahmadnagar city and its adjoining areas were occupied by the Mughals, an
extensive part of the kingdom still remained in possession of the influential officials of the
Nizam Shahi dynasty. Malik Ambar and other Ahmadnagar officials defied the Mughals and
declared Murtaza Nizam Shah II as sultan in 1600 at a new capital Paranda. Malik Ambar
became prime minister and Vakil-us-Saltanat of Ahmadnagar. Later, the capital was shifted
first to Junnar and then to a new city Khadki (later Aurangabad).
After the death of Malik Ambar in May 1626, his son Fath Khan surrendered to the Mughals
in 1633 and handed over the young Nizam Shahi ruler Hussain Shah, who was sent as a
prisoner to the fort of Gwalior. But soon, Shahaji with the assistance of Bijapur, placed an
infant scion of the Nizam Shahi dynasty, Murtaza Nizam Shah III on the throne and he
became the regent. In 1636 Aurangzeb, then Mughal viceroy of Deccan finally annexed the
sultanate to the Mughal empire after defeating Shahaji.
Revenue System of Malik Ambar
The revenue system introduced by Malik Ambar was based on the revenue system introduced
in Northern India and some parts of Gujarat and Khandesh subahs by Raja Todarmal. Lands
were classified as good or bad according to their fertility and he took a number of years to
ascertain accurately the average yield of lands. He abolished the revenue farming. At first,
revenue was fixed as two-fifths of the actual produce in kind, but later the cultivators were
allowed to pay in cash equivalent to approximately one-third of the yield. Although an
average rent was fixed for each plot of land but actual collections depended on the conditions
of crops and they varied from year to year.

31
Under the reigns of successive rulers of the dynasty, architecture and art flourished in the
kingdom. The earliest extant school of painting in the Deccan sultanates is from
Ahmadnagar. Several palaces, such as the Farah Bakhsh Bagh, the Hasht Bihisht Bagh,
Lakkad Mahal were built, as were tombs, mosques and other buildings. Many forts of the
Deccan, such as the fort of Junnar (later renamed Shivneri), Paranda, Ausa, Dharur, Lohagad,
etc. were greatly improved under their reign. Daulatabad, which was their secondary capital,
was also heavily fortified and constructed in their reign. Literature was heavily patronised in
the kingdom, as seen through manuscripts such as the Tarif-i Husain Shah Badshah-i Dakan.
Sanskrit scholarship was also given a boost under their rule, as demonstrated by the works of
Sabaji Pratap and Bhanudatta. The city of Ahmadnagar, founded by the Nizam Shahs, was
described as being comparable to Cairo and Baghdad, within a few years of its
construction. It was modelled along the great cities of the Persianate world, given the Shi'i
leanings of the dynasty.
Attack on Janjira: Coming to Janjira fort it is said that once the order was given to attack
the fort, owing to the castle's fortifications, the Admiral could not attack conventionally. He
and his team disguised themselves as merchants and asked Ram Patil to safeguard their three
hundred large boxes containing silks and wines from Surat. As thanks, Piram Khan threw a
party with wine. Once Ram Patil and his soldiers were intoxicated, Piram Khan opened the
boxes, which contained his soldiers, and used the opportunity to capture the castle and the
island on which it stands.
In the century that followed the rulers put themselves under the overlordship of the Sultanate
of Bijapur. During the seventeenth and eighteenth century Janjira successfully resisted the
repeated attacks of the Maratha Empire.

Pen sketch 1885 Unknown artist( Ahmadnagar)

Cooperation with the Ottomans

32
Little is known of the contacts established between the ottoman empire and the janjira rulers.
Trade and sea logistics could be one track to go on. According to Ottoman records, a
combined force from the Ottomans and Janjira routed a Portuguese fleet in 1587 at Yemen.
From this moment onwards Janjira played an important role in resisting Portuguese influence
in the region.
There's further record of Cooperation with the Ottoman Empire when the Ottoman fleet first
arrived in Aceh prior to Ottoman expedition to Aceh has included 200 Malabar sailors from
Janjira State to aid the region Batak and the Maritime Southeast Asia in 1539.
According to one records at one time Mughal emperor Aurangzeb supplied the Siddis of
Janjira state with 2,000 men, provisions, ammunitions along with two Frigates and two
large Man-of-war battleships. The ship arrived at Bombay harbor under the commands of
Siddi Kasim and Siddi Sambal in 1677. The largest Mughal ship named Ganj-I-Sawai which
was equipped with 800 guns and 400 musketeer type soldiers also stationed in the port of
Surat.
Another record from East India Company factory which written 1673 has reported the Siddis
fleet which wintered from Bombay has five Frigates and two Man-of-wars beside of
fifteen grabs vessels. It is because the formidable naval warfare skills of Siddis in Janjira that
Aurangzeb granting annual payment of 400.000 Rupee for the maintenance of their fleet.

Damadi Masjid of the Ahmadnagar

Relations with the Marathas-Rivalry with the Marathas

The main competitor of the Sidis was the Angrias, a Maratha Koli family with sea forts and
ships, based in southern Konkan.
Treaty with Marathas
In 1733, Peshwa Bajirao of the Maratha Empire launched a campaign against the Siddis of
Janjira. Bajirao's forces, however, did not take Janjira fort, though they captured much of the
surrounding area; a favorable treaty gave the Marathas indirect control over virtually all of
the Sidi's lands.
Post Maratha-rule
When the British came to the Konkan area, the repeated attacks of the Marathas against
Janjira ceased. Janjira State was administered as part of the Deccan States Agency of
the Bombay Presidency, founded in 1799. In the nineteenth century the rulers maintained a

33
military force of 123 men. Following the independence of India in 1947, the state was
merged with India.

Ahmadnagar Fort

Janjira State ( map above) was a princely state in India during the British Raj. Its rulers
were a Sidi dynasty of Habesha descent and the state was under the suzerainty of the Bombay
Presidency. Janjira State was located on the Konkan coast in the present-day Raigad district
of Maharashtra. The state included the towns of Murud and Shrivardhan, as well as the
fortified island of Murud-Janjira, just off the coastal village of Murud, which was the capital
and the residence of the rulers. The state had an area of 839 km 2, not counting Jafrabad, and
a population of 110.389 inhabitants in 1931. Jafrabad, or Jafarabad state was a dependency of
the Nawab of Janjira State located 320 km to the NNW.

34
History Cooperation with the Ottomans
According to Ottoman records, a combined force from the Ottomans and Janjira routed a
Portuguese fleet in 1587 at Yemen. From this moment onwards Janjira played an important
role in resisting Portuguese influence in the region. 

Theres further record of Cooperation with the Ottoman Empire when the Ottoman fleet first
arrived in Aceh prior to Ottoman expedition to Aceh has included 200 Malabar sailors from
Janjira State to aid the region Batak and the Maritime Southeast Asia in 1539. 
According to one records at one time Sultan Aurangzeb supplied the Siddis of Janjira state
with 2.000 men, provisions, ammunitions along with two Frigates and two large Man-of-war
battleships. The ship arrived at Bombay harbor under the commands of Siddi Kasim and
Siddi Sambal at 1677. The largest Mughal ship named Ganj-I-Sawai Which equipped with
800 guns and 400 musketeer type soldiers also stationed in the port of Surat. 
Another record from East India Company factory which written 1673 has reported the Siddis
fleet which wintered from Bombay has five Frigates and two Man-of-wars beside of fifteen
grabs vessels. It is because the formidable naval warfare skills of Siddis in Janjira that
Aurangzeb granting annual payment of 400.000 Rupee for the maintenance of their fleet.
                                     
History Rivalry with the Marathas
The main competitor of the Sidis was the Angrias, a Maratha Koli family with sea forts and
ships, based in southern Konkan.
                                     
History Treaty with Marathas
In 1733, Peshwa Bajirao of the Maratha Empire launched a campaign against the Siddis of
Janjira. Bajiraos forces, however, did not take Janjira fort, though they captured much of the
surrounding area; a favorable treaty gave the Marathas indirect control over virtually all of
the Sidis lands.

35
            
  Maratha Ruler Sambhaji attempted to unsuccessfully storn Janjira     
                    
History Post Maratha-rule
When the British came to the Konkan area, the repeated attacks of the Marathas against
Janjira ceased. Janjira State was administered as part of the Deccan States Agency of the
Bombay Presidency, founded in 1799. In the nineteenth century the rulers maintained a
military force of 123 men. Following the independence of India in 1947, the state was
merged with India.
                                     
The royal family of Janjira were Sidis, also known as Habshi, assumed to be from
Abyssinia. Initially the rulers of the state held the title of Wazir, but after 1803 the title of
Nawab was officially recognized by the British Raj. They were entitled to an 11 gun salute by
the British authorities.
                                     
2.1. Rulers Wazirs of Janjira
 1707 - 1732 Surur Yakut Khan II d. 1732
 1740 - 1745 Hasan Khan 2nd time s.a.
 1745 - 1757 Ibrahim Khan I 1st time d. 1761
 1732 - 1734 Hasan Khan 1st time d. 1746
 1676 - 1703 Kasim Yaqut Khan II d. 1703
 1757 - 1759 Ibrahim Khan I 2nd time s.a.
 1734 - 1737 Sumbul Khan
 1757 Mohammad Khan I d. 1757
 1737 - 1740 `Abd al-Rahman Khan
 1703 - 1707 Amabat Yaqut Khan II

2.2. Rulers Thanadars of Jafarabad and Wazirs of Janjira

 1761 - 1772 Yaqut Khan usurper to 6 Jun 1772 d. 1772
 1759 - 1761 Ibrahim Khan I s.a.
 1772 - 1784 `Abd al-Rahim Khan d. 1784
 1784 - 1789 `Abd al-Karim Yaqut Khan
 - in dispute with -
 1784 - 1789 Jauhar Khan d. 1789
 1789 - 1794 Ibrahim Khan II d. 1826
 1794 - 1803 Jumrud Khan d. 1803

36
                                      
2.3. Rulers Nawabs
 28 Jan 1879 - 2 May 1922 Ahmad Khan b. 1862 - d. 1922 from 1 Jan 1895, Sir
Ahmad Khan
 2 May 1922 - 9 Nov 1933 Kulsum Begum f -Regent b. 1897 - d. 1959
 1826 - 31 Aug 1848 Mohammad Khan I d. 1848
 28 Jun 1879 – 11 Oct 1883. -Regent
 31 Aug 1848 – 28 Jan 1879 Ibrahim Khan III b. 1825 - d. 1879
 1803 - 1826 Ibrahim Khan II s.a.
 2 May 1922 – 15 Aug 1947 Mohammad Khan II b. 1914 - d. 1972

African Rulers in Indian History: Janjira, Maharashtra, India (1622-Present)

The princely state of Janjira fluttered its red flag with the crescent moon until India won
independence in 1947 and merged all the princely states with the union by the following year.
The state of Janjira is noted as being among the smallest of the princely States in Menon’s
“The Story of Integration of Indian Princely States.” However, compared to its size, the little
state of Janjira played a disproportionately large role in history. The people manning the fort
came from North Africa (Ethiopia/Somalia) and were followers of Islam. They were known
to be the best sea fighters anywhere among the Muslim races and called themselves Siddis
(a North African term of respect). While they were called Siddis in India’s west coast, they
were known as Habshis in the rest of India.
Janjira was established in 1489. The state Janjira was located in the Konkan of Rangai
District of Maharashtra. The area of Janjira was 981.61 Km². The state was ruled by Africans
who were of a Sidi dynasty. In 1941, the population of Janjira was 110,388.

The African Diaspora were not Slaves but Kings: Janjira state included the towns of
Murud and Shrivardhan, alongside the fortified island of Murud-Janjira. Murud-Janjira was
known as the capital and the residence of its rulers. The head of the state was called Wazir as
at that time. British Raj officially recognized the title “Nawab” in 1803. Mughal Emperor
Aurangzeb conferred the title of Nawab. The siddhis were the royal family of that state. They
are also known as ‘Habshi.’ A majority of the African rulers of this state were Muslim.
Janjira was a Muslim state at that time. Hence the African rulers were
the Wazirs or Nawabs of Janjira. Wazir often refers to Vizier or wazir, a high-ranking
political advisor or minister whereas Nawab is a Royal title indicating a sovereign ruler in
many ways comparable to the western titles of King. The relationship of a Nawab to the
Emperor of India has been compared to that of the Kings of Saxony to the German Emperor.
In earlier times the title was ratified and bestowed by the reigning Mughal emperor to semi-
autonomous Muslim rulers of subdivisions or princely states in the Indian subcontinent loyal
to the Mughal Empire i.e. Nawabs of Bengal. The title is common among Muslim rulers of
South Asia as an equivalent to the title Maharaja, however it is not exclusive to Muslims
only.

"Nawab" usually refers to males and literally means Viceroy; the female equivalent is
"Begum" or "Nawab Begum". The primary duty of a Nawab was to uphold the sovereignty of
the Mughal emperor along with the administration of a certain province.The title of "nawabi"
was also awarded as a personal distinction by the paramount power, similar to a British
peerage, to persons and families who ruled a princely state for various services to the
government of British India. In some cases, the titles were also accompanied by jagir grants,
either in cash revenues and allowances or land-holdings. During the British Raj, some of the

37
chiefs, or sardars, of large or important tribes were also given the title, in addition to
traditional titles already held by virtue of chieftainship.
They have ruled Janjira since 1622 AD. They also played a very important role in the
history of India. This is a history of African rulers of Janjira. The ruling family of Janjira is of
Abyssinian origin. They came across the Arabian Sea to India and took service with their
countrymen under the then Nizam Shahi Kings of Ahmadnagar around the 15th century.
Most of them were appointed as captains of the island fortress after taking possession of
Dandarajpuri and the island of Janjira in 1490. This appointment was done by Malik Ahmad
Shah and in 1618, Sidi Surul Khan I secured the governorship of the island of Janjira.
Another great highlight of the Ahmadnagar Sultanate was the capture of the fort of Janjira
which played a great role in the resistance of the repeated attacks of the Maratha
Empire.Janjira also combined forces with the Ottomans to route a Portuguese fleet in 1587 at
Yemen. After this event, Janjira continued playing a great role in the resistance of the
Portuguese influence in that region. An ironic event happened during this period whereby the
Portuguese, British and Dutch started to label certain Indian mariners as pirate, who were
acting legitimately to defend the trade rights of the polities native to the area of Indian Ocean.

Janjira state had always faced rivalry with the Marathas especially with the Angrias, a
Maratha Koli family with forts and ships. In 1733, the Maratha Empire took aggressive action
and embarked on a campaign against the siddis of Janjira. They couldn’t take the Janjira fort
but captured much of the surrounding area.Most of the attacks on Janjira by the Marathas
ceased with the introduction of the British rule. Janjira became a part of the Bombay
Presidency around 1799.

Nawab

Wazirs of Janjira( From the list above but with details)

Nawab Sidi Amber Sanak (1612 – 1642)

38
Sidi Amber Sanak was the Nawab of Janjira from 1621 to 1642. He declared independence in
1621. Issue:

 Nawab Sidi Yusuf Khan (Son)

Nawab Sidi Amber Sanak died in 1642.

Nawab Sidi Yusuf Khan (1642 – 1648)

Sidi YUSUF KHAN was the Nawab of Janjira from 1642 to 1648. He was the son of Sidi
Amber Sanak.
 Nawab Sidi Fateh Khan
Nawab Sidi Fateh Khan (1648)
Sidi Fateh Khan was the Nawab of Janjira in 1648.

Nawab Sidi Surul Khan (Rasul Khan) (1706 – 1732)

Surul khan was the Nawab of Janjira from 1706 to 1732. He had eight sons, some including:

 Nawab Sidi Abdurrahman Khan (2nd son)

 Nawab Sidi Abdurrahim Khan (7th son)
 Nawab Sidi Hasan Khan (Little son)
 Nawab Sidi Ibrahim Khan I
 Nawab Sidi Muhammed Khan
 He died in 1733.
Nawab Sidi Qasim Yaqut Khan II (1676 – 1703)
Yakut Khan was the administrator of Janjira. Qasim Yakut Khan was the real name of him,
but Emperor Alamgir was given the title of Yakut Khan.
In 1672 Yakut khan attacked the Marathas and after destroying the towns
of Pen and Nagothane, he returned on 10 October 1673. In 1689, He attacked Bombay for the
third time. Nawab Qasim Yakut Khan died in 1733

Nawab Sidi Hasan Khan (1st time) (1732 – 1734)

He was the Nawab of Janjira from 1732 to 1734 and for the second time from 1740 to 1746.
Nawab Sidi Sumbul Khan (1734 – 1737)
He was the Nawab of Janjira from 1734 to 1737. Sumbul Khan died in 1737.

Nawab Sidi Abdur Rahman Khan (1737 – 1740)

He was the Nawab of Janjira from 1727 to 1740. Abdur Rahman Khan died in 1740.

Nawab Sidi Ibrahim Khan I (1st time) (1745 – 1757)

Sidi Ibrahim Khan I was the Nawab of Janjira from 1746 to 1757 for the 1 st time and from
1757 to 1759 for the 2nd time. 
Nawab Sidi Mohammad Khan I (1757) 
Sidi Muhammed Khan was the Nawab of Janjira in 1757. He died in 1757. He could not
rule Janjira for a long time.
Nawab Sidi Ibrahim Khan I (1762 – 1770) (s.a.)
Sidi Ibrahim Khan I was the Nawab of Janjira from 1762 to 1770. He ruled Janjira for almost
eight years. He died in 1770.

39
Nawab Sidi Yaqut Khan (1761 – 1772)
Nawab Sidi Yaqut Khan was the Nawab of Janjira in 1772. In 1759, on the coast of
Kathiawar, he obtained possession of Jafrabad, and on his behalf, he was appointed officials
to manage its affairs.

 Nawab Sidi Abdur Rahim Khan (1772 – 1784) 

Sidi Abdur Rahim Khan was the Nawab of Janjira from 1772 to 1784. He was forced into a
treaty with the Peshwa around 1776 by which he had to surrender five and a half of
eleven mahals. Issue:
 Nawab zadi (unknown) she was married to Nawab Sidi Jauhar Khan
 He died in 1784.
Nawab Sidi Jauhar Khan (1784 – 1789)
Sidi Jauhar Khan was the Nawab of Janjira from 1784 to 1789, and he died in 1789.

He ruled Janjira for five years.

Nawab Sidi Ibrahim Khan II (1789 – 1794)

 Sidi Ibrahim Khan II was the Nawab of Janjira from 1789 to 1794 and 1803. He died in
1826.
Nawab Sidi Jumrud Khan (1794 – 1803)
Sidi Jamrud Khan was the Nawab of Janjira from 1794 to 1803. He died in 1803.

Nawab Sidi Ibrahim Khan II (1803 – 1826) (s.a.)

 Sidi Ibrahim Khan II was the Nawab of Janjira from 1803 to 1826. Issue:
 Nawab Sidi Muhammed Khan I
 Sidi Hasan Khan
 Sidi Abdurrahman Khan
 Sidi Abdurrahim Khan
He died in 1826.

Nawab Sidi Muhammed Khan I (1826 – 1848)

Sidi Muhammed Khan I was the Nawab of Janjira from 1826 to 1848, he got the title of
Nawab in 1840. Nawab Sidi Ibrahim Khan II was his father. Issue:

 Nawab Sidi Ibrahim Khan III

 Sidi Abdurrahman Khan
 Sidi Yusuf Khan
 Sidi Kasim Khan
 Sidi Muhammed Khan
Nawab Sidi Ibrahim Khan III (1848 – 1879)
Nawab Sidi Ibrahim Khan III was the Nawab of Janjira from 1848 to 1879. In 1870, several
Sidi Sardars of Janjira revolted and deposed him, placing his minor son on the
throne. However, he was reinstated by the Government provided he fulfilled certain
conditions, his Sardars submitted to him in 1873. He died in 1879. Issue:

40
  Nawab Zada Sidi Muhammed Buxi Khan, a son of a Nika wife of inferior rank, he
was selected as Nawab by some nobles of the state, but his younger brother was
selected instead as he was a legitimate son by a lady of equal rank.
 Sahibzada Sidi Dawood Khan was born 21st May 1873, and he also had studied in
Marathi and Urdu.
 Nawab Zada Sidi Abdurrahman Khan.
 Sahib Zada Sidi Ibrahim Khan was born in 1884, and he also had studied in Marathi
and Urdu. He was appointed as a Customs Inspector of Janjira.
HH Nawab Sidi Sir Ahmed Khan Sidi Ibrahim Khan (1879 – 1922)
HH Nawab Sidi Sir Ahmed Khan Sidi Ibrahim Khan G.C.I.E. was the Nawab of Janjira
from 1879 to 1922. He was born in 1862. He was Educated at Rajkumar College, Rajkot.
He succeeded to the Gadi on 28th January 1879, his salute was raised from 9 to 11 guns in
1903, and for his services during WW1 a personal salute of 13 guns was granted on 1st
January 1918, and a local salute of 13 guns was granted on 1st January 1921, Firstly he
married with Ahmedbibi . But Ahmedbibi died in 1885, and then he married Nazli Begum at
1886. In 1913, he got married to HH Nawab Kulsum Begum Sahiba. (Kulsumbibi).
She was appointed Regent of Janjira during her son’s minority. He had one son. He died 2nd
May 1922. Issue:

 HH Nawab Sidi Muhammed Khan II Sidi Ahmad Khan

 HH Nawab Sidi Muhammed Khan II Sidi Ahmad Khan (1922 – 1972)
HH Nawab Sidi Muhammed Khan II Sidi Ahmad Khan was the Nawab Saheb of Janjira
from 1922 to 1972. He was born on 7th March 1914. He was the son of Sidi Sir Ahmed
Khan Sidi Ibrahim Khan
On 2nd May 1922, He succeeded to the Gadi (meaning “throne” in India). He reigned until
the 9th November of 1933, and he was invested with full ruling powers. In 1930, he
completed his diploma education at Rajkumar College, Rajkot and the Deccan College,
Poona.
In Mysore State, he undertook administrative training. He also had a permanent local salute
of 13 guns.He was married to Nawab zadi Rabia Sultan Jaha Begum Sahiba (HH Nawab
Pari Bano Begum Sahiba of Janjira) on 14 November 1933. She was born in Jaora on 23rd
December 1913. Also, Mumtaz Mahal Begum Sahiba was his 2nd wife. He had four
daughters and one son.He died First April 1972. Issue:

 HH Nawab Sidi Shah Mahmood Khan, Nawab of Janjira

 Nawab zadi Fatima Jaha Begum Sahiba, (b 1934.)
 Nawab zadi Ahmadi Jaha Begum Sahiba, (b 1935.)
 Nawab zadi Mumtaz Jaha Begum Sahiba, (b 1939.)
 Nawab zadi Qamar-uz-Zamani Sultan Begum Sahiba,( b 1943.)

Nawab Sidi Shah Mahmood Khan(1972) who was the nawab of Janjira since 1972. He was
born on 1952.

Styles of the ruling prince and ruling family

The ruling prince and his consort were respectively referred to with the styles His Highness
and Her Highness. While the ruling prince held the title Nawab Sidi, his consort held the title
Nawab Begum. Male descendants of the ruling prince were called Khan, while female
descendants of either Begum for daughters or Begum Sahiba for granddaughters and other
female descendants.

41
https://thinkafrica.net/african-rulers-in-indian-history-janjira-maharashtra-india-1622-present/

Commercial relations between India and the Ottoman Empire: In Chapter “5 -

Commercial relations between India and the Ottoman Empire (late fifteenth to late
eighteenth centuries): a few notes and hypotheses” Gilles Veinstein says that these relations
went back to before the establishment of the Mughal Empire and the Ottoman seizure of the
Middle East and its borders with India: the states of Sultan Mehmed II emerged as an outlet
for Indian textiles at least from the end of the fifteenth century, according to documents from
Bursa that are among the oldest Ottoman economic sources. Not only did the Bahmani
sovereign of north Deccan, Shah Mohammed III Lashkari (1463–82), exchange ambassadors
with Mehmed the Conqueror, but his vizir, Ḫoğa Maḥmūd Gawan (1405-81), sent
representatives to trade with the Turks: two of them, Ḫoğa 'Ali and 'Abd ül-'Azīz, were
mentioned in 1476. When the latter arrived at Bursa, the former went off to the Sultan's
European possessions, leaving him with 877 pieces of fabric given to him by the vizir to sell.
From 1479 we have a second reference: in that year the Bahmani vizir entrusted to four
persons ‘all kinds of fabrics and other merchandise’ to sell in the ‘country of Rūm’, the name
for the Ottoman territories. These merchants had gone through Arabia: one had died on the
way, while another died at Bursa. Finally, from 1481 we have a third reference: to a trade
mission sent by the vizir to Bursa. Its members appear as his employees and one of them
seems to be the leader, with the title of re'īs.( Edited by Sushil Chaudhury, University of Calcutta, Michel
Morineau, Université de Paris XII, Publisher: Cambridge University Press)

The Ottoman expeditions in the Indian Ocean (Turkish: Hint seferleri or Hint Deniz

seferleri, lit. "Indian Ocean campaigns") were a series of Ottoman amphibious operations in
the Indian Ocean in the 16th century. There were four expeditions between 1538 and 1554,
during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. It is quite possible that these or at least some of
these had contacted Murad Janjira fort on the west Coast and established gtrade links with the
Siddhi Empire of India.

42
Ottoman fleet in the Indian Ocean in the 16th century.An  Ottoman Xebec with three
lateens and oars.
After the voyages of Vasco da Gama, a powerful Portuguese Navy took control of the Indian
Ocean in the early 16th century. It threatened the coastal cities of the Arabian
Peninsula and India. The headquarters of the Portuguese Navy was in Goa, a city on the west
coast of India, captured in 1510.
Ottoman control of the Red Sea meanwhile began in 1517 when Selim I annexed Egypt to the
Ottoman Empire after the Battle of Ridaniya. Most of the habitable zone of the Arabian
Peninsula (Hejaz and Tihamah) soon fell voluntarily to the Ottomans. Piri Reis, who was
famous for his World Map, presented it to Selim just a few weeks after the sultan arrived in
Egypt. Part of the 1513 map, which covers the Atlantic Ocean and the Americas, is now in
the Topkapı Museum. The portion concerning the Indian Ocean is missing; it is argued that
Selim may have taken it, so that he could make more use of it in planning future military
expeditions in that direction. In fact, after the Ottoman domination in the Red Sea, the Turco-
Portuguese rivalry began. Selim entered into negotiations with Sultan Muzaffar II of Gujarat,
(a sultanate in North West India), about a possible joint strike against the Portuguese in Goa.
[2]
 However Selim died in 1520.

43
Route of Piri Reis in 1552./The Ottoman admiral Selman Reis defended Jeddah against a Portuguese attack
in 1517
In 1525, during the reign of Suleiman I (Selim's son), Selman Reis, a former corsair, was
appointed as the admiral of a small Ottoman fleet in the Red Sea which was tasked with
defending Ottoman coastal towns against Portuguese attacks.[3] In 1534, Suleiman annexed
most of Iraq and by 1538 the Ottomans had reached Basra on the Persian Gulf. The Ottoman
Empire still faced the problem of Portuguese controlled coasts. Most coastal towns on the
Arabian Peninsula were either Portuguese ports or Portuguese vassals. Another reason for
Turco-Portugal rivalry was economic. In the 15th century, the main trade routes from the Far
East to Europe, the so-called spice route, was via the Red Sea and Egypt. But after Africa was
circumnavigated the trade income was decreasing. While the Ottoman Empire was a major
sea power in the Mediterranean, it was not possible to transfer the navy to the Red Sea. So a
new fleet was built in Suez and named the "Indian fleet”.  The apparent reason of the
expeditions in the Indian Ocean, nonetheless, was an invitation from India.
Expedition by Hadim Suleiman Pasha 1538: Bahadur Shah, the son of Muzaffer II, the ruler
of Gujarat who had negotiated with Selim, appealed to Constantinople for joint action against
the Portuguese navy. Suleiman I used this opportunity to check Portuguese domination in the
Indian Ocean and appointed Hadim Suleiman Pasha as the admiral of his Indian Ocean fleet.
Hadim Suleiman Pasha's naval force consisted of some 90 galleys. In 1538, he sailed to India
via the Red and Arabian Seas, only to learn that Bahadur Shah had been killed during a clash
with the Portuguese navy and his successor had allied himself with Portugal. After an
unsuccessful siege at Diu, he decided to return. On his way back to Suez, however, he
conquered most of Yemen, including Aden. After the expedition, Hadim Suleiman was
promoted to grand vizier.

44
 The arrival of Portuguese ships in Hormuz

Expedition bycPiri Reis 1548-1552: After the first expedition, the Portuguese navy had
captured Aden and laid siege to Jeddah (in modern Saudi Arabia) and tried to penetrate the
Red Sea. The aim of the second expedition was to restore Ottoman authority in the Red Sea
and Yemen. The new admiral was Piri Reis, who had earlier presented his World Map to
Selim. He recaptured Aden in 1548 from the Portuguese, thus securing the Red Sea.
Three years later he sailed out from Suez again with 30 ships and the goal of
wresting Hormuz Island, the key to the Persian Gulf, from Portugal. Piri Reis
captured Muscat on his way, therefore extending Ottoman authority as far as Oman. He laid
siege to Hormuz but was unsuccessful. He captured the town, but the citadel remained intact.
After capturing Qatar peninsula he faced with reports of an approaching Portuguese fleet, Piri
Reis decided to withdraw the fleet to Basra. He returned to Suez with two galleys which were
his personal property. The sultan sentenced Piri Reis to death for these acts, and had him
executed in 1553.
Expeditions of Murad Reis the Elder: 1553: The elder of the two Reis brothers,the
purpose of this expedition was to bring the fleet back to Suez. The new admiral was Murat
Reis the Elder, the former sanjak-bey (governor) of Qatif. While trying to sail out of the
Persian Gulf, he encountered a large Portuguese fleet commanded by Dom Diogo de
Noronha. the largest open-sea engagement between the two countries, Murat was defeated by
the Portuguese fleet and had return to Basra

The Portuguese attack on the Turkish fleet, in Livro de Lisuarte de Abreu// Map of Diu 1729

45
Expeditions by Seydi Ali Reis  1553 : He was appointed as the admiral after the failure of
the third expedition, in 1553. But what he found in Basra was a group of neglected galleys.
Nevertheless, after some maintenance, he decided to sail. He passed through the Strait of
Hormuz and began sailing along Omani shores where he fought the Portuguese fleet twice.
After the second battle Seydi Ali Reis flead the battle would eventually reach Gujarat, and
was forced into the harbour of Surat by the caravels of Dom Jerónimo, where he was
welcomed by the Gujarati governor. When the Portuguese Viceroy knew in Goa of their
presence in India, he dispatched a two galleons and 30 oarships in October 10 to the city, to
pressure the governor to hand over the Turks. The governor did not surrender them but
proposed to destroy their ships, to which the Portuguese agreed. The remainder of the fleet
was unserviceable, resulting in his return home overland with 50 men. Seydi Ali Reis then
arrived at the royal court of the Mughal Emperor Humayun in Delhi where he met the future
Mughal emperor Akbar who was then 12 years old.
The route from India to Turkey was a very dangerous one because of the war between the
Ottoman Empire and Persia. Seydi Ali Reis returned home after the treaty of Amasya was
signed between the two countries in 1555. He wrote a book named Mirror of
Countries (Mir’at ül Memalik) about this adventurous journey and presented it to Suleiman I
in 1557 . This book is now considered one of the earliest travel books in Ottoman literature.
The naval expeditions in the Indian Ocean were only partially successful. The original goals
of checking Portuguese domination in the ocean and assisting a Muslim Indian lord were not
achieved. This was in spite of what an author has called "overwhelming advantages over
Portugal", as the Ottoman Empire was wealthier and much more populous than Portugal,
professed the same religion as most coastal populations of the Indian Ocean basin and its
naval bases were closer to the theater of operations.
On the other hand, Yemen, as well as the west bank of the Red Sea, roughly corresponding to
a narrow coastal strip of Sudan and Eritrea, were annexed by Özdemir Pasha, the deputy of
Hadım Suleiman Pasha. Three more provinces in East Africa were
established: Massawa, Habesh (Abyssia) and Sawakin (Suakin). The ports around the
Arabian Peninsula were also secured.
Sometimes, Ottoman assistance to Aceh (in Sumatra, Indonesia), in 1569 is also considered
to be a part of these expeditions (see Kurtoğlu Hızır Reis). However, that expedition was not
a military expedition. It is known that Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, the grand vizier of the empire
between 1565–1579, had proposed a canal between the Mediterranean and Red Seas. If that
project could have been realized, it would be possible for the navy to pass through the canal
and eventually into the Indian Ocean. However, this project was beyond the technological
capabilities of the 16th century. The Suez Canal was not opened until some three centuries
later, in 1869, by the largely-autonomous Khedivate of Egypt.
Siege of Indian Ports by Ottomans: The Ottomans never attacked Janjira but fougThe Siege
of Diu occurred when an army of the Sultanate of Gujarat under Khadjar Safar, aided by
forces of the Ottoman Empire, attempted to capture the city of Diu in 1538, then held by
the Portuguese. The Portuguese successfully resisted the four months long siege. It is part of
The Ottoman-Portuguese War. In 1509, the major Battle of Diu (1509) took place between
the Portuguese and a joint fleet of the Sultan of Gujarat, the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt,
the Zamorin of Calicut with support of the Ottoman Empire. Since 1517, the Ottomans had
attempted to combine forces with Gujarat in order to fight the Portuguese away from the Red
Sea and in the area of India.[4] Pro-Ottoman forces under Captain Hoca Sefer had been
installed by Selman Reis in Diu.

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Diu in Gujarat (now a state in western India), was with Surat, one of the main points of
supply of spices to Ottoman Egypt at that time. However, Portuguese intervention thwarted
that trade by controlling the traffic in the Red Sea. In 1530, the Venetians could not obtain
any supply of spices through Egypt.
Under the command of Governor Nuno da Cunha, the Portuguese had attempted to capture
Diu by force in February 1531, unsuccessfully. Thereafter, the Portuguese waged war on
Gujarat, devastating its shores and several cities like Surat.
Soon after however, the Sultan of Gujarat, Bahadur Shah, who was under threat from
the Mughal emperor Humayun, made an agreement with the Portuguese, granting them Diu
in exchange for Portuguese assistance against the Mughals and protection should the realm
fall.[4] The Portuguese seized the stronghold of Gogala (Bender-i Türk) near the city,[4] and
built the Diu Fort. Once the threat from Humayun was removed, Bahadur tried to negotiate
the withdrawal of the Portuguese, but on 13 February 1537 he died drowning during the
negotiations on board of a Portuguese ship in unclear circumstances, both sides blaming the
other for the tragedy.
Bahadur Shah had also appealed to the Ottomans to expel the Portuguese, which led to the
1538 expedition.
Ottoman Fleet: Upon the arrival of Sultan Bahadur's envoy to Egypt with a large tribute in
1536, the Ottoman governor (pasha) of Egypt, 60-year-old eunuch Hadim Suleiman Pasha,
was nominated by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent to organize and personally lead an
expedition to India. Pasha Suleiman forbade any shipping out of the Red Sea to avoid leaking
information to the Portuguese in India. There were delays however due to the Siege of
Coron in the Mediterranean, and the Ottoman-Safavid war of 1533–1535.
According to the Tarikh al-Shihri, Ottoman forces amounted to 80 vessels and 40,000 men.
Gaspar Correia provides a more specific account, claiming that the Turks assembled
at Suez an armada composed of 15 "bastard galleys" , 40 "royal galleys", 6 galliots,
5 galleons "with four masts each" that were "dangerous ships to sail, for they were shallow
with no keel"; five smaller craft, six foists from Gujarat, and two brigs. It carried over 400
artillery pieces in total, over 10,000 sailors and rowers (of which 1,500 were Christian) and
6,000 soldiers, of which 1,500 were janissaries. The Pasha employed a Venetian renegade,
Francisco, as captain of 10 galleys, plus 800 Christian mercenaries. On July 20, 1538, the
armada set sail from Jeddah, stopping by Kamaran Island before proceeding to Aden.
At Aden, Pasha Suleiman captured the city after inviting its ruler, Sheikh Amir bin Dawaud,
favourable towards the Portuguese, aboard his ships, then hanging him. Thus, Aden was
occupied without a siege, and plundered
The expedition left Aden on August 19 and then called at Socotra, thereafter making its way
to the western coast of Gujarat, despite losing some ships that got separated from the fleet
during the passage of the Indian Ocean. It was the largest Ottoman fleet ever sent into
the Indian Ocean.

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Turkish galleys, 17th century/ TO RIGHT Portuguese depiction of a Gujarati foot-soldier (and his wife)

The captain of Diu at the time was the experienced António da Silveira, former captain
of Bassein and Hormuz who had participated in the Portuguese-Gujarati War of 1531–34.
The Portuguese fortress housed about 3,000 people, of which solely 600 were soldiers.
First attacks
Under the command of Khadjar Safar – Coge Sofar in Portuguese, an Albanian renegade
from Otranto and an influential lord in Gujarat – the Gujarati forces began crossing the
channel of Diu onto the western side of the island on June 26, 1538, being held back by the
city's western walls just long enough for the Portuguese to fill their water reserves and burn
their supply storages in the city before finally retreating to the fortress on the eastern end of
the island.
For the following two months the Gujaratis were unable to threaten the besieged with more
than a low-intensity bombardment, while the Portuguese conducted occasional raids on the
Gujarati positions.

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Lopo de Sousa Coutinho, who would later write his memoirs on the siege, distinguished
himself on August 14 after leading 14 Portuguese in a sortie into the city to capture supplies,
defeating 400 soldiers of Khadjar Safar.
On September 4, the Ottoman fleet arrived in Diu, catching the Portuguese garrison by
surprise and thus blockading the fortress by sea. Captain da Silveira immediately sent a small
craft to run the blockade with a distress call to Goa, while Pasha Suleiman promptly landed
500 janissaries, who proceeded to plunder the city – causing Suleiman to fall out of favour
with the lords of Gujarat but Khadjar Safar. The janissaries then attempted to scale the
fortress' walls but were repelled with 50 dead. On September 7, a strong storm fell upon Diu,
damaging part of the Ottoman fleet (and helping the Portuguese restore their water supplies),
after which the Turks began unloading their artillery and a further 1,000 men, and raising a
number of defensive and siege works around the fort. It seems by then the Gujarati lords
became distrustful of the Ottomans, possibly fearing that they might establish themselves in
Diu after expelling the Portuguese, and the following day refused to provide any further
supplies.
On September 14th, four foists from Goa and Chaul arrived with reinforcements.
A distant eyewitness, the famous Portuguese traveler Fernão Mendes Pinto later recounted
how, passing by the fortress, Turkish galleys came close to seizing the tradeship he traveled
in:
Having decided to stop for news of what was going on there, we began our approach to land,
and by nightfall we were able to distinguish a lot of fires all along the coast as well as the
occasional burst of artillery. Not knowing what to make of it, we shortened sail and hove to
for the rest of the night until daybreak, when we got a clear view of the fortress surrounded
by an enormous number of lateen-rigged vessels. [...] While we were arguing back and forth
and becoming gradually more alarmed by the possibilities confronting us, five ships moved
out from the middle of the fleet. They were huge galleys, with their fore-and-aft sails in a
checkerboard pattern of green and purple, the deck awnings literally covered in flags, and
long banners streaming so far down from the mastheads that the ends brushed the surface of
the water.

— Fernão Mendes Pinto, in Peregrinação

The Ottoman artillery opened fire on the fortress on the 28th, as their galleys bombarded it
from the sea, with the Portuguese replying in suit – the Portuguese sank a galley but lost
several men as two of their basilisks exploded.
Attack on the Village of the Rumes' Redoubt
Across the Diu channel on the mainland shore, the Portuguese kept a redoubt by a village
dubbed Vila dos Rumes – "Village of the Rumes" (Turks) modern day Gogolá – commanded
by Captain Francisco Pacheco and defended by 30–40 Portuguese, which came under attack
by Gujarati forces. On September 10 the army of Khadjar Safar bombarded the fortlet with
Turkish artillery pieces before attempting to assault it with the aid of janissaries, but were
repelled.
Khadjar Safar then ordered a craft be filled with timber, sulphur, and tar, which he hoped to
place by the redoubt and smoke the Portuguese out. Realizing his intentions, António da
Silveira sent Francisco de Gouveia with a small crew on a craft to burn the device with fire
bombs under cover of night, despite coming under enemy fire. Another assault on September
28 with 700 janissaries failed after a prolonged bombardment.

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The Portuguese garrison resisted until its captain Pacheco agreed to surrender to the Pasha on
October 1, who had granted them safe passage to the fortress unharmed. When they
surrendered however, Suleiman promptly had them imprisoned on his galleys.

Janissary, circa 1577/ Portuguese soldiers, 1619. Painting by André Reinoso

The message of Francisco Pacheco and Captain António da Silveiras reply

Thus under the Pashas power, former captain Francisco Pacheco wrote a letter to captain
António da Silveira, advising him to lay down arms; it was delivered by a Portuguese
renegade António Faleyro, who had converted to Islam and dressed in the Turkish fashion,
that he was at first unrecognizable by his former comrades. It read:
I have surrendered to the great captain Çoleymam baxá through an agreement sealed in gold
under his name, in which he granted us our lives, liberties, belongings and slaves, old and
young, except the weapons and artillery: and had us go greet him on his galley, and as we
were led to the city, they divided us by the houses, in groups of two: me and Gonçalo
D'Almeida my cousin, and António Faleyro were taken to Suleiman's bastard galley, who
received us well and gave each of us fine clothes; after which I told him to spare me such
procedure of his and release us (as had been promised) and he responded that we ought not to
wear ourselves out, for he had fulfilled his part. But as he wanted to attack that fortress by
land and sea, he'd entertain us as long as that took; and upon capturing it, he'd send us to
India; otherwise he'd release us, so we might return to the fortress. Then he ordered two very
sound basilisks unloaded, and he'll unload as many as he wishes, which he can very well do.
And allow me to write to you to surrender without further delay, otherwise he'll have you all
by the sword. Now see what you must and be well advised.
Captain António da Silveira, who considered the Pasha's conduct to have been treasonous
(and Pachecos advice outrageous), replied in the following manner:
For such a great and powerful Captain as you claim he is, he ought to better keep his charters,
and yet I'm not as surprised by his lack of truth, which they are born with, as by your writing;
be well advised, tell him to do as much as he can, for over the smallest stone of this fortress
we shall all perish. Be warned not to bring me nor send me more of such messages, for as
enemies I shall have the bombards fire upon you.

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The writer Gaspar Correia provided a different account of the exchange, however it is not in
accordance with that of the veteran Lopo de Sousa Coutinho, who personally participated in
the siege.
Assault on the fortress
By October 5, the Turks had finished their siege works and assembled all their artillery,
which included nine basilisks, five great bombards, fifteen heavy guns, and 80 medium and
smaller cannon[23] that bombarded the fortress for the following 27 days. That night, 5 more
craft from Goa with gunpowder and reinforcements arrived. After seven days of
bombardment, part of the bulwark of Gaspar de Sousa collapsed and the Turks attempted to
scale it "with two banners", but were repelled with heavy losses to bombs and arquebus fire.
Another assault the following morning was met with equally fierce resistance by the
Portuguese. Afterwards, the Turks forced labourers into the moat to undermine the fortress'
walls and, in spite of several losses, managed to open a breach with gunpowder, but already
the Portuguese had raised a barricade around the breach from the inside, which caused many
losses on the assailants once they attempted to break through.  When at night the
bombardment ceased, the Portuguese repaired the fortress' walls under the cover of darkness.
From an artillery battery on the opposite shore, the Turks bombarded the "Sea Fort"
(Baluarte do Mar) that stood in the middle of the river mouth bombarding the flank of
Muslim positions. On October 27, Suleiman Pasha ordered 6 small galleys to attempt to scale
the fortlet, but came under heavy Portuguese cannon fire. The following day, the Turks drew
12 galleys and again attempted to "board" the fortlet, but were repelled with heavy losses due
to fire bombs.
On October 30, Pasha Suleiman attempted a final diversion by faking the withdrawal of his
forces, embarking 1,000 men. Ever cautious, António da Silveira ordered the sentries to be
alert – at daybreak, 14,000 men divided in three "banners" attempted to scale the fortress as it
was bombarded with no regard to friendly fire. A few hundred troops managed to scale the
walls and raise banners but the Portuguese managed to repel the assailants, killing 500 and
wounding a further 1,000 from gunfire and bombs out of the São Tomé bastion.
With his relation with Coja Safar and the Gujaratis degrading and increasingly fearful of
being caught off-hand by the Viceroy's armada, on November 1 the Pasha finally decided to
abandon the siege and began re-embarking his troops. Suspecting another ruse from the
Pasha, Captain Silveira ordered 20 of his last men on a sortie to deceive the enemy of their
dwindling forces. The party managed to capture a Turkish banner.
The Pasha however, intended on departing on November 5, but was unable due to
unfavourable weather. That night, two small galleys reached Diu with reinforcements and
supplies, firing their guns and signal rockets. The following morning, a fleet of 24 small
galleys was sighted and believing it to be the vanguard of the governor's rescue fleet, the
Pasha hurriedly departed, leaving 1,200 dead and 500 wounded behind. Khadjar Safar then
set fire to his encampment and abandoned the island with his forces shortly after. In reality, it
was just a forward fleet under the command of António da Silva Meneses and Dom Luís de
Ataíde, dispatched from Goa with reinforcements, supplies, and news that the governor
would depart soon to their aid. Although they took no part in the fighting, the small force was
triumphantly received within the ruined fortress by its last survivors. The Portuguese were by
then critically low on gunpowder and supplies and with less than 40 valid men; in the final
stages of the siege, the Portuguese record that even the women assisted in its
defence. Catarina Lopes and Isabel Madeira are examples of two female captains who
actively participated during the siege, they led a squad of female soldiers.

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Goa, head of all Portuguese possessions in the East/ Death of Sultan Bahadur in front of Diu during negotiations with
the Portuguese, in 1537Akbarnama, end of the 16th century.
The craft sent by António da Silveira arrived in Goa in mid September, but already
governor Nuno da Cunha was well aware of the presence of the Turks in India: the
Portuguese had intercepted a Turkish galleon in southern India and another galley that got
separated from the fleet and called at Honavar, which the Portuguese destroyed with the aid
of the locals (a fight in which Fernão Mendes Pinto participated). The governor had
assembled a relief force of 14 galleons 8 galleys, several caravels and over 30 smaller oar
ships, but in September 14 the new viceroy appointed by Lisbon arrived, and demanded the
immediate succession in office.

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 Outer walls of Diu TODAY

By the end of 1537, reports on Ottoman preparations in Egypt had reached Lisbon through
Venice, and King John III promptly ordered a reinforcement of 11 naus and 3,000 soldiers, of
which 800 were fidalgos, to be dispatched to India as soon as possible along with the new
viceroy, Dom Garcia de Noronha. At Goa however, Dom Garcia considered the relief force
organized by governor Nuno da Cunha to be insufficient, though the Portuguese veterans in
India argued otherwise. The viceroy remained in Goa for two more months, organizing his
forces until he had gathered an imposing fleet, which according to João de Barros numbered
170 sail and 4500 Portuguese soldiers, and according to a detailed report by Francisco de
Andrade, was composed of 152 vessels, which included 9 heavy carracks, 14 galleons, 13
small carracks, 8 war-caravels, 5 latin caravels, 1 bastard galley, 13 royal galleys, 15 galleots,
11 Mediterranean brigantines, 2 albetoças, 18 light galleys and 44 light vessels and oarcraft,
bearing 5000 Portuguese soldiers, 3000 Indian auxiliaries, 1500 Portuguese sailors,
uncounted number of native sailors, oarsmen and combat slaves and a little under 400 heavy
cannon and 600 light cannon. Just as the expedition was about to set sail to Diu however, a
craft arrived in Goa with the information that the siege had been lifted
The defeat of the combined Turkish and Gujarati forces at Diu represented a critical setback
in Ottoman plans for expanding their influence into the Indian Ocean. Without a suitable base
or allies, failure at Diu meant the Ottomans were unable to proceed with their campaign in
India, leaving the Portuguese uncontested in the western Indian coast. Never again would the
Ottoman Turks ever send so large an armada to India.
After the failed siege, the Ottomans returned to Aden, where they fortified the city with 100
pieces of artillery. One of them is still visible today at the Tower of London, following the
capture of Aden by British forces in 1839. Suleiman Pasha also established

53
Ottoman suzerainty over Shihr and Zabid, and reorganized the territories of Yemen and Aden
as an Ottoman province, or Beylerbeylik.
The veteran Lopo de Sousa Coutinho later recounted that "it was said" that the Portuguese
who had surrendered to Suleiman Pasha were all killed off in the Red Sea, on their way back
to Egypt. Indeed, at As-Salif, by Kamaran Island, the Pasha had all prisoners under his
control massacred, 140 in total, and their heads put on display in Cairo.
Suleiman Pasha intended to launch a second expedition against the Portuguese in Diu, but
this did not happen. In 1540, the Portuguese sent a retaliatory expedition to Suez with a fleet
of 72 ships, sacking Suakin, Kusayr, and spreading panic in Egypt. In 1546, the Ottoman
established a new naval base in Basra, thus threatening the Portuguese in Hormuz. The
Ottomans would suffer a strong naval defeat against the Portuguese in the Persian Gulf in
1554.Further conflict between the Ottomans and the Portuguese would lead to the Ottoman
expedition to Aceh in 1565.
Portugal would remain in possession of the Diu enclave until Operation Vijay in 1961
According to one legend, in the year 1489 the Ahmadnagar Sultanate had sent
its Admiral Piram Khan (of Ethiopian descent) with orders to capture the Murud-
Janjira castle from Ram Patil. Piram Khan’s story is still untold. But points to the fact that
African origin men were great warriors and worked as mercenaries for the Indian
Kingdoms.354 Km away was Janjira Fort which was never in the line of fire of the
Ottoman’s.

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