Indo Nordic Author’s Collective

Aesthetics Vs. Meaning: The

Importance of Hindu Architecture
Dr Uday Dokras
https://www.indictoday.com/long-reads/aesthetics-meaning-importance-hindu-
architecture/

The Perspective Heaven

Any student of architecture with reasonable skills in photography knows by instinct upon
entering the precincts of an Islamic monument like the Taj Mahal, Agra, or the Bibi Ka Maqbara,
Aurangabad that he has landed into perspective heaven.
The perspective here is easily coaxed out of almost any angle. Point the camera in the right
direction and the perspective lines are ready-made. The beautiful gardens with many layers of
fountains, water passages, shrub lines, and footpaths straddle throughout the monument.
The parallel and perpendicular lines that run across the precincts provide the third dimension to
the photograph by creating depth in space. The geometrical designs crisscross in perfect
symmetry in and around the monument framing it in a ready-made perspective from many
angles.

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Taj Mahal, Agra

Most of the Islamic monuments in India and abroad, much like their Renaissance counterparts
were built from this aesthetic perspective. They were created to dazzle and impress the visitor
with grandeur and power. They were built for beauty and beauty alone. Aesthetics is what drove
them. Much thought went into creating them so that they would look perfect from every angle.
This is not just true of the Indo-Saracenic or the Mughal monuments in India. Taj Mahal is not
the only one with the beautiful perspective lines. Humayun’s Tomb in Delhi, Buland Darwaza in
Sikri, the tombs of the Barid Shahi Kings at Bidar, and the Bibi ka Maqbara in Aurangabad are
all built on the concept of perfect geometrical symmetry built to please the eye.
And this is where the Hindu temple differs from them.
In Search of Meaning

Of course, the Hindu temple is also built to please the eye. There is no art in India which violates
the basic principles of aesthetics. Indian craftsmen were always well-versed in the universal
principles which went into creating a piece of art that pleased the senses.
But this is not where they stopped. Beauty or aesthetics was the means, but it was not the goal of
Indian art. The goal of Indian art was to transcend the beautiful, transcend what merely looked
good to the eye. The goal of Indian art was to transport the viewer to the higher planes of
consciousness. Coomaraswamy says:
‘Just as Professor Masson-Oursel has pointed out, ‘Indian art is aiming at something quite other
than the copying of Nature. What we assume, quite superficially, to be the inspiration of art for
art’s sake, really proceeds from religious scholasticism that implies a traditional classification
of types established by convention. If here or there a relief or painting exhibits some feature

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drawn from life, it is only accidentally that the artist has, in spite of himself, transcribed
something from actual Nature: and this is certainly, from the indigenous point of view, the least
meritorious part of his work.’ Those who wish to study the ‘development’ of Indian art must
emancipate themselves entirely for the innate European tendency to use a supposedly greater or
less degree of the observation of Nature as a measuring rod by which to trace stylistic sequences
or recognize aesthetic merit. Indian art can only be studied as showing at different times a
greater or less degree of consciousness, greater or less energy; the criteria are degrees of
vitality, unity, grace, and the like, never of illusion. (Transformation of Nature… 117)
He makes it clear that aesthetics is incidental to Indian art; it is never its primary goal. The
primary goal is to guide the devotee towards the Ultimate Truth.
The Hindu temple is most certainly beautiful. Anyone who has ever laid his eyes upon the
majesty that is the Kailashnath, Ellora; or looked upon the stupendous achievement that is the
Brihadeeswar, Thanjavur; mused about the sheer will power and beauty personified that is the
Kandariya Mahadeva, Khajuraho; or wondered about the caves of Elephanta, will swear that
there is seldom anything in the Hindu temple that is not beautiful.

Shikhara of Kandariya Mahadeva with Miniature Shikharas creating the Main Shikhara
But the Hindu temple does not stop there. Beauty is a side product, but not the end goal of the
Hindu temple.
One will find perspective lines in the Hindu temple too. Not as many and not as readily available
to the camera as they do in an Islamic monument, but they are available. They are not the entire
point thought. Ritual symbolism is always more important to Hindu architecture than symmetry.
And thus you will find the temple pond always on the Ishana Kona of any temple which is
absolutely not mirrored on the Agneya or the Nairittya side.
Symmetry is not the point here. Similarly, the Hindu temple grows organically, and different
parts of the temple mirror different needs and symbolize different meanings.

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A Temple Pond, Kerala

So the perspective lines do exist in the Hindu temple but as soon as you approach the structure
your eyes start deciphering structures within the structure, temples within temples, rathas within
rathas, gavaksha within gavaksha, shikharas upon shikharas, motifs decorated with miniature
motifs.
There is action everywhere. You become mesmerized with a war scene and just then your eye
flits to another scene nearby in which a couple is in an amorous embrace. Then your eye catches
the beauty and the relaxed poise of the Vishnu in tribhanga just nearby.
Once again your eye flits across and you see a Shiva Dakshinamurthy. In between, there are
swans, elephants, horses, makaras, and other animals. There are doorways within doorways.
Monoliths with a thousand individual sculptures carved in it. Look away and you discern a
Puranic story being portrayed, an aspect of Rama’s or Krishna’s life portrayed.
You soon become overwhelmed. The Hindu temple is all action and yet it leads towards ultimate
inaction inside the garbha-griha. But the outer walls are all action. It is designed to not let your
eyes rest at one place. It is designed to make the disciple view the samsara in all its
ephemeral avataras; to realize that all that is worldly will disappear and is impermanent.

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Outer Walls of Laxman Temple, Khajuraho – Samsara in all its Complexity

The Hindu temple is not passive. It actively tells stories. It imparts meaning to every part of its
structure; it tells stories and teaches deep truths with every figure of its sculptures.
There is no icon, no niche, no part of the Hindu temple which does not exude meaning and this
meaning always leads to the realization of the Ultimate Truth, represented in its fullest by the
deity in the garbha-griha.
While a mosque or a tomb is nothing more than beautiful, with its beauty lying in its social use
and its historical details, the Hindu temple lends itself to many purposes, but most of all it readily
and passionately lends itself to meaning, meaning which is not directionless but which guides the
devotee towards the Ultimate Truth.
The intention of the creators of these great temples was never missed upon the audience that
visited them. The rules that governed the concept and creation of the temple also went to
condition the mind and the behavior of the devotee too.
Everyone who visited the temple had a certain expectation from it, and this expectation was
neither aesthetic nor intellectual. The devotee came to the temple for having ‘darshana’ of the
deity, for finding meaning in life and in the temple, as Coomaraswamy once again stresses:
“…whereas we make an aesthetic emotion the first and final end of art, medieval man was
moved far more by the meaning that illuminated the forms than by these forms themselves…”
(Christian and Oriental… 111)

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The meaning is not just confined to the sculpture that adorns its walls or to the vigraha in the
garbha-griha. The structural parts of the architecture also convey meaning. There is nothing
purely decorative in the Hindu temple. Every piece of sculpture and every structure of the
building conveys some meaning, tells some story. To a Hindu architect the adjective ‘decorative’
sounds pejorative, as Coomaraswamy explains:
“The product was not called “art”, but an “artifact,” a thing “made by art”; the art remains in
the artist. Nor was there any distinction of “fine” from “applied” or “pure” form “decorative”
art. All art was for “good use” and “adapted to condition”. Art could be applied either too
noble or to common uses but was no more or less art in the one case than in the other. Our use
of the word “decorative” would have been abusive as if we spoke of a mere millinery or
upholstery: for all the words purporting decoration in many languages, referred originally not
to anything that could be added to an already finished and effective product merely to please the
eye or ear, but to the completion of anything with whatever might be necessary to its functioning,
whether with respect to the mind or the body: a sword, for example, would “ornament” a knight,
as virtue “ornaments” the soul or knowledge the mind.” (Christian and Oriental… 111-112)
The meaning in a Hindu temple exudes from the plan of the elevation, from the material that is
used in the walls, and which is used to fashion the vigraha. The meaning is there in the Utsava
Murti of the temple, but also in the rituals that are being followed. The meaning is in how the
deity is worshipped; how the priests worship; and how the devotee has darshan.
The Hindu temple is beautiful, but it also transcends beauty. The Hindu temple is aesthetic, but it
goes beyond it. The Hindu temple is a representation of the cosmos, but its meaning goes beyond
even the cosmos and leads towards the timeless and the eternal; the Ultimate Consciousness.
The goal of the Hindu temple is not to impress its visitor by its architectural magnitude or even
by its sculptural beauty. Its goal is to elevate the consciousness of the devotee, to transport him
to higher planes of consciousness. The Hindu temple, like all other Hindu sciences, is a means to
reach higher stages of consciousness. It is a means for self-realization.
At first look, it seems surprising that something as concrete as architecture can transport
someone to sublime heights of philosophy, but the Hindu temple does just that. And it has
developed special techniques to achieve that.
The Aedicule in the Hindu Temple

In order to understand that we need to first understand the meaning of the term aedicule, this is
frequently used about the Hindu temple. In the context of the Hindu temple, the term aedicule
refers to the miniature shrine or a mini replica of the entire temple, temple shikhara or vimana,
which is to be found most prominently on its shikhara and outer walls of the garbha-griha.
It is found in all three major varieties of Nagara, Vesara, and Dravida and is so profusely used in
some architectural styles such as that of the Kalyani Chalukyas and Hoysalas of Karnataka that
Gerard Foekema calls the very style as ‘architecture decorated by architecture’.

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Kalleshvara Temple, Hire Hadagalli, Karnataka – Architecture decorated by Architecture

The aedicule is so universally present that it overwhelms the visitor, forcing him to constantly
keep shifting his attention from one miniature shrine to another, making it hard for him to
distinguish where one aedicule ends and another begins. It is this feature which led James
Fergusson to observe that “everywhere…in India, architectural decoration is made up of small
models of large buildings.” (Ferguson 285) Adam Hardy who considers the idiom of aedicule as
the fundamental concept behind Indian architectural thinking, says:
“…it was some time after my first trip to India that it gradually became clear to me that
aedicules are not just ornaments, but the basic units from which most Indian temple architecture
is composed. Temple design is conceived as containing numerous smaller temples or shrines,
arranged hierarchically at various scales, embedded within the whole or within one another.
Once this simple concept is understood, other things fall into place.” (Hardy 10)
The Hindu philosophy imagines macrocosm in microcosm (Yatha pinde, tatha brahmande

 and this thinking is reflected in all art in India. It is also the basic idea behind the idiom
of the aedicule. The entire temple is reflected in its parts. Sometimes the aedicules are
themselves made up of smaller aedicules and this series continues up to the point where
architecture allows it to. It conveys the idea of an endlessly regressing series of aedicules,
something like the fractal geometry.

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Kashi Vishwanatha Temple, Lakkundi – Fractal Geometry at Display

As the temple is a representation of the universe, hence the entire universe is reflected again and
again in the smallest parts of the temple. The idiom of aedicule is most prominently used in the
shikhara of the temple. In some styles, like the Shekhari mode of the Nagara style, the shikhara is
made of its smaller versions, called urushringas (half shikharas). These urushringas crowd
together and rise to meet at the top beneath the amalaka.
Hindu Temple as Mount Meru

The Hindu temple architecture elevates the devotee to higher planes of consciousness by using
spiritual symbols. In one symbolism, the Hindu temple is built and perceived in the image of
Mount Meru, the sacred mountain.
Mount Meru represents ultimate knowledge and climbing it symbolizes attaining self-realization.
As a devotee enters a Hindu temple, such as the Kandariya Mahadev temple of Khajuraho, and
as he proceeds through the various parts of the temple, from mukh mandapam, to mandapam,
to mahamandapam, and then finally to garbha-griha, he symbolically climbs the Mount Meru,
leaving the world, its multiplicity and ignorance behind and proceeds towards the pinnacle of
knowledge, that is self-realization; he proceeds to have darshan of the deity in the garbha-griha,
where he realizes his oneness with the deity or the Supreme consciousness.

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Kandariya Mahadeva as Mount Meru

This process is mirrored in the symbolism. The outermost walls of the temple are full of every
kind of sculpture but as one goes inside the sculpture becomes more divine in nature and
gradually disappears in the garbha-griha except the main deity.
The garbha-griha is so named because it is literally the womb of the temple. It is the geometrical
centre of the temple site, with its centre, the brahmasthana, occupied by the primary deity. It is
called the womb because, under the deity, the ‘seed’ of the temple is inseminated in
a kalasha (pitcher) and buried. It is directly above this that the image of the deity is installed.

Hindu Temple as a Fire Altar

The temple vimana is imagined as the fire of a fire altar, of a Yajna vedi or Vedic fire altar. The
shape of the vimana which tapers, recedes, and coalesces into one point at the top with many of
half-vimanas, or half-shikharas or miniature aedicular vimanas decorating the ascent of
the vimana resembles the sacrificial fire of a fire altar.

The Temple as the Divine Tree

The symbolism of the seed is taken further. This seed is believed to have sprouted upwards in the
form of the temple vimana and branching out in various shoots, leaves, and branches, it again
coalesces at the top in one  kalash, bearing fruit which again contains the seed from which it
came, and thus directly above this, outside the temple, over the vimana, another kalash is
installed which has the same ‘seed’ which is deposited in the kalash underground. Here the
temple vimana is imagined as a tree. As S. K. Ramachandra Rao puts it:
“The spot where the ‘womb’ is hidden would be the seat of the icon. The icon represents the sap
of the temple-tree, the four walls would indicate the spreading branches all around. The roof
resting over the wall is technically called ‘row of doves’ (kapota-pali or simply kapota), after the
birds that perch on tree-tops. The sanctum is thus a neat model of the growing tree.” (Rao
74)
The seed in the underground holds the seed of supreme consciousness. When this consciousness
sprouts, it takes the form of the deity in the garbha-griha. On the other hand, the consciousness
from above also descends and meets the consciousness that is rising from below. The ascent of
individual consciousness is complemented by the descent of the universal consciousness. It is a

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symbolic way of showing the individual consciousness rising up to meet the universal or
supreme consciousness.

Shikhara of Brihadeeswar Temple – Gangaikondacholapuram – Temple as a Divine Tree

This ascent and descent are taking on the vertical axis of the temple, in the garbha-griha and in
the vimana that tops it. The devotee that stands in the mandapam, in front of the deity lies on the
horizontal axis of the temple. It is his active desire, his deep faith which lets him partake in the
divine ascent and divine descent that is taking place in the garbha-griha.
Through the authority of the shastras; the agency of the temple as a Yantra to bring about desired
goals; through the worship offered by the priest on the behalf of the devotee; and through divine
grace, the devotee partakes in the ascent of consciousness. Deeply meditated upon, the ascent of
the consciousness in the garbha-griha becomes his own ascent.

“The shrine thus demonstrates the constellation of the human and the divine currents; matter
moves up and the spirit flows down. The devotee that stands in front of the icon is expected to
partake in this transaction. The emanations that proceed from the icon must be picked up by the
faith in his heart. Devotion is the transformer. The rituals conducted within the shrine involve
these ideas and attempt to facilitate transformation along the horizontal axis of icon-devotee.
The devotee represents active matter and the icon passive spirit. The two are brought together in
the creative act of worship.” (Rao 80)
This is why darshan holds such importance for a Hindu devotee visiting a temple. More than
prayers, more than signing devotional hymns, it is the act of darshan which is central to a temple
visit and which transforms the individual consciousness of the devotee having darshan to higher
levels.

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The symbolism of the temple vimana as the tree is also understood by its etymology. The very
Sanskrit word ‘vimana’ has two connotations: “that which is without comparison” and “that
which brings about fruit”. Hence the word ‘vimana’ means the one which bears fruit.

Hindu Temple is all about Meaning

To come back to the point where we started, the Hindu temple is not just a monument. It is a
living institution but even more than that it has a meaning and a goal. Through its imagery and
play with sculpture and architecture, it elevates the devotees to higher planes of consciousness.
It is not just there to be seen and to be impressed with. It is not just a geometrical marvel. It is not
just a photographer’s delight. It is more than the perspective that it offers. It is more than the
faith that it commands. It speaks in the language of symbols. It aims to transcend the concrete.
It aims to carry the devotee towards truth through its brilliant imagery and potent symbols. The
Hindu temple is not silent. It speaks. The Hindu temple is not passive. It acts. The Hindu temple
is not just a place. It is a process: the process of self-realization.
The Hindu temple is all about meaning. It is a device which means to decipher the deepest
secrets of life and existence to its devotees, through the most elaborate system of sculptural and
architectural symbols.
This is where it differs from both the church and the mosque. But the philosophy behind the
Hindu temple is also very different from the modern concept of architecture .

Destruction of Hindu Temples: Loss of Physical Spaces for Hindus

It was this enduring, prosperous and robust temple ecosystem that the first wave of alien Muslim
armies encountered when they knocked on the doors of Bharatavarsha. The incisive historian and
scholar, Sita Ram Goel describes[i] this encounter vividly:

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On the eve of Islamic invasions, the cradle of Hindu culture was honeycombed with temples and
monasteries, in many shapes and sizes.  The same sources inform us that many more temples
and monasteries continued to come up in places where the Islamic invasion had yet to reach or
from where it was forced to retire for some time by the rallying of Hindu resistance.  Hindus
were great temple builders because their pantheon was prolific in Gods and Goddesses and their
society rich in schools and sects, each with its own way of worship.  But by the time we come to
the end of the invasion, we find that almost all these Hindu places of worship had either
disappeared or were left in different stages of ruination.  Most of the sacred sites had come to be
occupied by a variety of Muslim monuments-masjids and îdgãhs (mosques), dargãhs and ziãrats
(shrines), mazãrs and maqbaras (tombs), madrasas and maktabs (seminaries), takiyãs and
qabristãns (graveyards).
From the earliest destructions of Hindu temples that roughly began with the Martanda-Surya
Devalaya at Moolasthana (today’s Multan in Pakistan), the subsequent eight hundred years of
India’s history is in many ways just one single, long tale of ceaseless, large-scale temple
destructions. Sita Ram Goel has also meticulously documented this tragic record in his two-
volume “Hindu Temples: What Happened to Them.” These volumes cite seventy primary-source
Muslim histories and estimate that about three thousand temples have been destroyed across the
vast geography of Bharatavarsha including what is today Afghanistan and Pakistan. The volumes
conclude that this number[ii] is just the “tip of the iceberg.” It is estimated that the actual figure
is at least ten times this number.
D es t ro yi ng t he S e ns e of S an ct it y
Of the prominent temples destroyed, only the Shiva Devalaya at Somanath, Gujarat has been
fully rebuilt and restored. And among Kashi, Mathura, and Ayodhya, only Mathura has been
partially recovered and restored notwithstanding the splendid Krishna Janmasthana
Temple that stands on the site today.
The design and intent behind the destruction of these sites most sacred to Hindus was clear: to
shake the foundations of the faith of Hindus in their three most revered deities viz, Shiva (Kashi
and Somanatha), Rama (Ayodhya), and Krishna (Mathura).
This protracted history is also witness to several of these temples being rebuilt. But that is only
by way of an aftermath of sorts. What should also be examined are the associated and ancillary
destructions that occurred as a consequence of this primary destruction of the physical structure
of temples. As also the widespread and permanent erasure of physical and cultural memory. The
immediate examples that come to mind is the present condition of the entire region of the
erstwhile Greater India (Brihadbharata), and in recent memory, of Undivided India.
Both in Afghanistan and Pakistan, little if anything remains of its Dharmic past. The
aforementioned Moolasthana, after it was repeatedly attacked and razed to the ground, lost its
original identity when the Ismaili ruler replaced the Sun Temple with a mosque in the late
10th century. The Persian scholar Al Beruni visited Moolasthana in the 11th century and reported
that it was no longer being visited by Hindu pilgrims because the Sun Temple lay in ruins
without being rebuilt. This loss was accompanied by an irreversible loss of all its unique local
customs, traditions, dialect, texts, art forms, apparel, technical and other skills, cuisine, utsavas
and so on. Needless to say, Moolasthana’s instance played out in exactly the same fashion in
temples destroyed in every single region even in what is known as India today. We can cite a few
representative examples.

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U mm at ur
Ummatur is today a small village about 170 kilometres by road from Bangalore. It was once the
capital of the Ummatur king, a feudatory of the Vijayanagara Empire. Ummatur is also the place
from where Sri Krishnadevaraya began his campaign of Digvijaya or imperial conquest. To
commemorate his trail of victory, Sri Krishnadevaraya later endowed the Bhujangeswara and
the Ranganatha Swamy Temples with land grants and other bounties. The Ranganatha
Swamy temple has his bust engraved on one of its pillars. Both temples face each other and are
now under the state government’s control are in a condition of significant disrepair.
Note: Click on the gallery to view the images
Barring the postmaster of its local post office, hardly anybody in the village is aware of or
interested in the historical significance[iii] of their own place. This official also doubles up as the
Purohita of the Ranganatha Swamy temple.
U ma ri
The next example is a superb eighth or ninth century Surya Temple built by
the Pratihara rulers in Umari in the Tikamgarh district of Madhya Pradesh. In keeping with
tradition, this Nagara-style temple faces east and is built on an elevated platform, and the plan
comprises a Garbha Girha, Antarala and a Maha Mantapa.  It is adorned with fine sculptures
of Ganesha, Kartikeya, Vishnu, Sapta Matrikas, the ten avataras of Vishnu, and various
figures of Surya among others.
When the present author visited it about eight years ago, it was largely inaccessible and its
Moola Murti was reported to be stolen. It was hardly maintained and one is doubtful as to how
much longer it will survive.
A n tr i
Vir Singh Bundela was a powerful, able and valiant Bundela Rajput king who ruled the
kingdom of Orchha between 1605—27 CE. He threw an open challenge to the might
of Akbar who was at the height of his power by attacking and murdering at Antri Abul
Fazl, considered one of the "nine gems" of Akbar's court.
Vir Singh was also a prolific temple builder and commissioned numerous temples in the
Brajmandal region that comprises today’s Mathura and Vrindavan. He was also the patron of
the Bhakti Saint Keshavdas.

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Grave of Abul Fazl at Antri

Although local legends abound about the brave Vir Singh, little if any of the physical spaces that
he created remains today in Antri. However, the tomb of Abul Fazl has been preserved intact.
R aj or ga rh
The badly-ruined Neelakantha Temple in Rajorgarh in the Alwar district
of Rajasthan showcases the prowess of the Pratihara architecture. An inscription dated 961 CE
recovered by the Archaeological Survey of India shows that it was built by Maharajadhiraja
Mathanadeva, a Pratihara feudatory. In its present condition, notes[iv] the ASI record, the
temple is a
…three-shrined complex of which the central one facing west and dedicated to Siva-linga, has
preserved its full elevation including sikhara, while the lateral shrines are now bereft of their
superstructures.  The three shrines are pancharatha and share a common rangamandapa,
supported on four central pillars and preceded by a porch.  The temple has a pitha which
supports a vedibandha with niched figures.  The jangha of the central shrine bears figures of
Narasimha (north), Harihararka (east) and Tripurantaka (south) on the bhadra niches and those
of surasundaris and dikpalas on other projections.  The rangamandapa has a concentric ceiling
of coffered cusps of the padmasila type while all the pillars are laden with figural ornaments of
surasundaris and gandharvas in multiple zones.
However, today it remains largely inaccessible, atop a steep mountain with hardly any directions
to locate it easily. When the present author visited it, it was home to animals and found that
priceless sculptures were carelessly strewn around, and it was hard to clearly make out the details
of the sculptures. Its heritage has all but been permanently lost.
Indeed, one can add any number of such temples of considerable antiquity to this list including
the magnificent Shiva temple at Malwai on the Madhya Pradesh-Gujarat border built by the
Bhils in the 12th Century. These temples are only symbolic and symptomatic of the same
phenomenon which can best be described in an oblique fashion.

It is striking that when one visits a Kugrama  (a dilapidated village) far away from “civilisation,”
one suddenly witnesses a temple of immense grandeur or a monument of great antiquity. But
there seems to be no logical explanation as to why all of them still lie in utter ruin and
unforgivable neglect long after the vandals have departed and seventy years after India attained
freedom. When we observe the simple fact that almost no temple of the classical era exists in the
entire Ganga-Yamuna region, it is hard to avoid the inescapable conclusion as we shall see.
But if this is the fate of the aforementioned temples of antiquity, we must also examine the
condition of restored temples at say, Konark, Khajuraho, Ellora and
numerous Chalukya and Hoysala temples. Apart from a handful of Chalukya and Hoysala
temples, none of the others have active worship, which is a sure sign of a lapsed cultural
heritage. They have become mere tourist attractions, accompanied by the familiar detrimental
elements at a typical tourist site in India. The fabled UNESCO World Heritage site, Hampi for
example, has witnessed[v] considerable drug trade, the hippie culture, murders, and other crimes.
This is another form of the same cultural negligence and apathy noted in the examples cited
earlier.This phenomenon is but one more facet of civilizational and cultural persecution that
Hindus have internalized and even normalized.

C o n t in u a l an d C on t in u i n g L os s o f Hi n d u P h y s i ca l S p a ce s

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One can also consider the impact of large scale temple destructions from another
perspective. Dr. J K Bajaj, India’s foremost demographer and scholar, in his researches,
provides some conclusions. In the same Ganga-Yamuna belt—or North India, broadly speaking
—there is not a single village or town that has remained in the same place for more than four
hundred years. In his study tours, Dr Bajaj found[vii] only one village near Hissar, Haryana,
which remained intact for more than six hundred or so years. He also found that it almost exactly
resembled a typical South Indian village in terms of its plan and layout: for example, where and
how the temple, water bodies, burial grounds, fields and farmland, boundary, etc should be
located. This was completely unlike any typical North Indian village falling in the entire stretch
of Punjab to Bihar to Bengal.
To understand the impact of temple destructions, it is important to understand what’s known as
the “rooted” Indian psyche. An honest study of Hindu history and culture shows that this psyche
is one which is deeply rooted to their tradition (Sampradaya) and the intimacy that their
immediate surrounding provides them. Unless violently forced, Indians typically never moved
out of their villages for generations. Until very recently, the term "mera gaon" (or "namma
ooru/halli" in Kannada) was a term connoting attachment and conveying a sense of
belongingness. This has been used in countless books, stories and movies as a recurrent theme.
Indians typically never traced their roots to an urban centre.

Thus, when a Nalanda University which was economically and otherwise supported by over
two hundred villages (apart from royal patronage) is mercilessly destroyed with one body blow,
when Chidambaram, Rameswaram and countless such temples are razed, it automatically
destroys all this substructure including people, traditions, customs, and way of life. Today, the
local populace of even these celebrated temple towns and heritage sites know very little of their
own place.
Or to state the obvious, destruction of temples is the destruction of memory and connections. The
history of every civilisation and culture also lies in its physical spaces which are both the
incubators and resting places of its arts and way of life.

C o n c lu d i n g R em ar k s
Of course, one can rationally explain the religious motives of alien faiths destroying Hindu
temples and everything associated with them. Yet, what explains the fact that in the modern
time, Hindus are themselves stealing their own Deities and selling them to the very people whose
religious tenets ordain them to destroy idols? The enormous wealth accruing from trade in stolen
antiques and idols is one of the major fuels[vi] for the ever-expanding terror activities across the
globe.Dr. S L Bhyrappa explores this phenomenon in his epic Kannada novel, Thantu very
artistically using the theft of the Saraswati Murti (belonging to the Hoysala era) as a motif.
Similarly, the Telugu poet and novelist Viswanatha Satyanarayana also explores this cultural
loss and alienation in a different way in his Veyyi Padagalu. The Devadasi in the novel who
performs the last dance of her life as her regular Seva in the temple of her village dies on the
stage. Her art form dies forever with her death.

In Dr. S L Bhyrappa’s other novel Mandra, the same Mahadeva temple in which the

protagonist learnt classical music in his youth has transformed into a place of debauchery in his
own lifetime. In his youth, the Mahadeva temple epitomized a sacred space of music. In his old

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age, the Atma Linga has morphed into a phallus. He is himself a helpless eyewitness to this
transformation.

The conception, origin, evolution, and development of temples as physical, architectural

structures is perhaps as old as the dawn of human civilisation as we know it. Temples represent
one of the finest, deepest, grandest, and most profound expressions of the Human Spirit of awe,
wonderment, and a timeless yearning for spirituality, philosophy, art and creativity etched in
stone, wood, and other mediums.
Indeed, when we notice the various forms of temples from the earliest of civilisations—Minoan,
Greek, Roman, Egyptian, Mayan, Chinese, Incan, and most certainly, Bharatiya—we notice
precisely this same spirit of yearning. In fact, the etymology of the word, “temple” can be traced
to the Latin term, “Templum” meaning, a shrine, sacred place, an open area meant for augury,
and so on. However, almost no temple of the non-Bharatiya antiquarian civilisations survives
today thanks largely to their destructive encounter with Christianity and Islam. But it is also
notable that these two Prophetic religions with their zealous abhorrence against and prohibition
of what they call “idol worship,” “but,” etc, nevertheless have countless mosques, dargahs,
churches, cathedrals, shrines, etc. In a way, this represents the triumph of the aforementioned
innate spiritual longing over manmade, prophetic prohibitions.
The role, significance and eminence of Hindu temples becomes abundantly clear when we regard
them in this protracted historical backdrop. As is well known, the words for “temple” in Sanskrit
and Bharatiya Bhasha are variously, “Devalaya,” “Devasthanam,” “Aalya,” “Mandir,”
“Kovela,” “Koil,” and so on. A quick derivation of the etymology of “Devalaya” is as
follows: Devasya (Devaanaam) Alayah. This means, “a place in which resides light, sport,
victory, transaction, prayer (stuti), joy, bliss, dream, beauty, and dynamism.” For an excellent
and more detailed exposition, one can refer Devalayatattva by Shatavadhani Dr. R Ganesh.
While the pre-Christian Western civilisations developed temple culture largely as places for
public congregation, divination, and augury, Bharata elevated it in an all-encompassing sense.
For instance, the English word, “temple” also means the locations spanning the two sides of the
forehead, which is flat, akin to a sacred altar. In the Bharatiya conception, the entire body is itself
a temple suggested by slokas such as Dehah devalayah proktah jivo devah sanatanah, hrudya
tadvijaaneeyaat vishwasyaayatanam mahat,  and so on. Thus, the feet are the main doors, the
reproductive organ the Dhwajasthambha,  the stomach the Balipeeta, the heart
the Navaranga, the neck the Sukanasi, and the head the Garbhagriha. In short, a temple
represents and encompasses all three staras or stages: Adhibhuta, Adhidhaiva, and Adhyatma.
The following quotations elegantly and accurately capture the essence of the philosophy
underlying Devalaya  (Note: I shall use the terms “temple” and “Devalaya” interchangeably in
this essay).

I] The underlying philosophy of temples is rooted in an attempt to experience the Brahmanda—

which is space-time neutral—that is ensconced in the Pindanda, which is subject to the vagaries
of space and time.
II] Temples are built in order to remind the devotee of Parameswara’s creation and the Human
Being’s body and the evolution of his Jiva [life, life-force] by carving sculptures and Murtis.[ii]   
More fundamentally, the earliest conceptions of temples emanated from the Vedic vision of the
heart as a cave—for example, nihitam guhaayaam, hrudayam tadvijaaneeyaat, the
extraordinary Jnana Yagna verses occurring towards the end of the Mahanarayana

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Upanishad. The summary of these conceptions is a visualisation that in our heart resides the
Parameswara (or the highest knowledge) in the form of light and it should be our goal and aim to
realise this light. This conception strikes us when we notice the fact that the Mula-Murti resides
in the Garbha Griha,  which is the heart of any temple.
On the physical plane, it is undeniable that temples as we know them originated[iii] from Yagna
Vedis. For a comprehensive discussion on this topic, one can again refer to Shatavadhani Dr.
Ganesh’s Devalayatattva.

T h e D ev al ay a E cos ys te m
The foregoing introduction serves to illustrate the sort of the firm foundation which in turn paved
the way for the evolution of what can be called as the Devalaya Ecosystem. The Devalaya
Ecosystem is a socio-cultural accomplishment and a civilizational summit that is unparalleled
anywhere in human history. The fact that even today there is a new temple being built, some old
temple being renovated in some corner of Bharata almost everyday testifies not only to the
endurance and longevity of its roots but is also an eminent proof that as long as Sanatana
Dharma survives in the world, it will invariably find its expression in temples.
From the perspective of the Trigunas (basic attributes or qualities of human nature),
namely, Sattva (balance, serenity, etc), Rajas (activity, passion, vigour,
etc,  and Tamas  (laziness, indolence, stupor, etc), a Devalaya is the purest architectural,
sculptural, and artistic embodiment of the Sattva Guna. By itself, it does nothing, it takes no
action. But by its mere existence it inspires, motivates and guides all noble human endeavours in
multiple realms. A Devalaya thus becomes the pillar and the rest house supporting,
accommodating, and enabling the attainment of Dharma and fulfilling the various duties and
activities related to Artha.
H TD - 2- 30 0x 22 5_ 1. jp g

Image courtesy:- Google Image Search

In the realm of Dharma, it is the place to perform Acaras (customs, ceremonies, rituals,
celebrations) like Namakarana  (naming ceremony), aksharabhyasa (initiation ceremony where
a child learns to write alphabets), vivaha (wedding), and so on. These ceremonies are part of the
individual discharging his/her Dharmic duties. In the realm of the community, the Devalaya is
the place for conducting mass marriages, Utsavas, Jatras, Annadanam, and other such

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celebrations. Indeed, not too long ago, the Devalaya was also the place where justice was
dispensed as seen even today in Dharmasthala.
On the plane of the Adhidaivika (divine, spiritual), we can consider the Deity
of Vastushastra, Viswakarma. His nine sons including Malakara, Darukara, Kuvindaka,
Kumbhakara, Sutradhara and others represent the respective professions of garland-maker,
carpenter, weaver, potter, and sculptor. These apart, we also have the farmer, chef, runner (or
messenger), singer, artisan and accountant among others. In other words, we do not fail to notice
in these instances, how these professions are sanctified by making them the descendants of a
particular Deity. Every profession had its rightful place and every professional could make a
living through honest labour. Needless, it’s equally clear how all of these professions make up an
entire economic system spawned and supported solely by a temple.
It is precisely this that we observe in every temple town across Bharatavarsha: Kashi, Mathura,
Kanchi, Chidambaram, Tirumala-Tirupati, Madurai, Palani, Pandarapura, Badirnath, and Puri.
We can also consider a tangential facet here: any Daana (donation, endowment, gift) given to a
temple became what’s known as Devasva or the property of the Deity over which nobody
(including the donor and the king) had the right. This in a way illustrates how well thought out
the system of checks and balances that were implemented. Dr. S Srikanta Sastri explains[iv] the
various facets of the Devalaya Ecosystem quite picturesquely in a passage that merits quoting at
length:
…temples occupied a prominent place from the perspective of education, fine arts, [reflected
the] economic condition [of the kingdom] and social service.
Thus, people had a firm belief and faith in the pious act of donating to temples. [Donors
included] everybody from the monarch to the most ordinary citizen…temples were governed and
maintained by a duly elected board. They distributed money, food grain, and seeds to farmers
from the Deity’s Treasury…[temples] were also engaged in moneylending…temples conducted
various celebrations like Pakshotsava [fortnightly utsavas], Maasotsava [monthly utsavas],
Brahmotsava, and oversaw the distribution of the harvest derived from temple lands.
Theatre and dance halls organized dramas during Utsava days in both Sanskrit and Desha
Bhashas. Music and dance recitals offered as Seva for the Deity immensely enriched art forms
like classical music, Bharatanatyam, and Vastushilpa [sculpture art]. Moral and spiritual
discourses by learned scholars, Yatis, and such other eminences were drawn from the Vedic and
Puranic lore thereby instilling and reinforcing Dharma among the pilgrims and others who
visited the temple.
There were also lecture halls for imparting higher education in Veda, Vedanga, Medicine and
other subjects by teachers and scholars employed by the temple. Students were given free
scholarship and boarding and lodging…
Massive temples were secure like fortresses and contained an abundance of food grain, water
and other supplies and provided shelter to refugees during wartime…Because Hindu kings
regarded temples as sacred spaces, they deferred harming or despoiling them even slightly even
if this caution meant certain defeat in war….
Temples in island nations like Java, Bali, Sumatra, Burma and Cambodia were built following
the ideals and physical plan of various Indian temples.
As with most facets of our culture and society, temples also show a remarkable sense of
unbroken continuity and cultural unity in that they are still a living memory. The majestic
Somanatha Devalaya that was rebuilt in 1951 is a superb testimony to this inherited knowledge-
heritage, traditions, and rituals which were preserved intact even after hundreds of years of its

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repeated destruction and alien rule of India. Similarly, many of the ancient temple towns that
have also survived brutal shocks but still continue to thrive also echo the same.
Art forms such as Natyamelas, Harikata, Yakshagana, Kudiyattam, and Kathakali are the direct
offshoots of this same, sprawling Devalaya Ecosystem. For centuries, these art forms became the
immensely popular and excellent vehicles for transmitting a towering, beautiful, and sublime
culture. One can refer to Rallapalli Anantakrishna Sarma’s evocative and vividly descriptive
essays to glean valuable details and insights about the contribution of the Devalaya Ecosystems
especially during the Vijayanagara Era.
Notes: 
[i] Devalayatattva: Pg 166: Shatavadhani Dr. R Ganesh
[ii] Bharateeya Samskruti: Pg 171: Dr. S Srikanta Sastri
[iii] Other excellent works include Prof S K Ramachandra Rao’s Indian Temple
Traditions,  Stella Kramrisch’s The Hindu Temple (in two volumes),  and Ananda K
Coomaraswamy’s writings on Indian art and sculpture.        
[iv] Ibid: PP 171-72

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