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Gymnopsperm Male
Gymnopsperm Male
Gymnopsperm Male
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two microsporangia, sac-like
structures filled with many diploid Sperm cells + eggs Spores
microspore mother cells, which
undergo meiosis to produce Mitosis
haploid microspores. The Gametophyte (1n)
megasporophyll has two ovules,
each containing a single
Current Biology
megaspore mother cell which
produces four meiotic products,
Figure 1. The life cycle and phylogenetic tree of land plants.
one of which becomes the (A) The life cycle. From the diploid (2n; red) sporophyte generation, sporocytes undergo
functional megaspore. The meiosis and produce haploid spores (1n; green). Mitoses then form gametophytes,
microspore and megaspore then which produce gametes, sperm cells and eggs. The fertilization of an egg with a sperm
develop into male and female cell produces a zygote. (B) A phylogenetic tree of major land plants, showing the rela-
gametophytes, respectively. tionships of the groups of plants discussed here.
In the west white pine Pinus
monticola, male gametophyte Male gametophyte development in completely envelopes the
development involves a series of angiosperms generative cells. In contrast, the
asymmetric cell divisions. First, Angiosperms are defined by generative nucleus is more tightly
the microspore divides to produce having seeds in the enclosing fruit organized and less active in
a large central cell and a small derived from the ovary of a flower. transcription. The generative cell
first primary prothallial cell. The The flower consists of primarily later undergoes a second mitosis
central cell divides to produce a sporophytic tissues, with both to produce two sperm cells.
second primary prothallial cell and male and female gametophytes Pollen development depends on
an antheridial initial. Another which are highly reduced in size in the function of a surrounding
unequal division of the antheridial comparison to all other land sporophytic tissue called tapetum.
initial results in a large tube cell plants. Angiosperms also have the The pollen dehydrates during
and a small antheridial cell. The unique property of double maturation; after pollination, the
small antheridial cell divides to fertilization, producing a usually pollen grain rehydrates and
form a sterile cell and a generative triploid endosperm in addition to germinates to produce a pollen
cell, which divides later to form the embryo. The male tube. This tube grows towards the
two sperm cells. gametophyte is formed in the ovule, providing a passageway for
In the female cone of P. anthers of the stamens, and the the sperm cells to reach the
monticola, the megaspore female gametophyte is located in female gametophyte. Because the
undergoes multiple mitoses, the ovules within the pistil. female gametophyte is within the
followed by cellularization, to In the anther, four pollen sacs female reproductive organ of the
produce about 2000 primary (locules) contain numerous sporophyte, the pollen tube must
prothallial cells. Three to five microspore mother cells, each of extend considerable distances —
primary prothallial cells near the which undergoes meiosis to many times the size of the pollen
micropyle, an opening of the produce four microspores in a grains — to reach the egg.
ovule, enlarge and develop into tetrad (Figure 2A). The male
archegonial initial cells. Each gametophyte generation begins Female gametophyte development
initial cell divides and develops with the microspore. Initially, the in angiosperms
into an archegonium containing microspore has a uniformly The female reproductive organ,
an egg and other supportive distributed cytoplasm with a the ovary, completely encloses
cells. centrally located haploid nucleus. one or more ovules, the location
After pollen lands on the A large vacuole later forms at the of the female gametophyte,
female cone, it germinates to center, displacing the nucleus to commonly called the embryo sac.
produce a pollen tube that grows the side. In many flowering plants, The ovule is attached to the inner
towards the female gametophyte, including the model species surface of the ovary, with a
often over two consecutive Arabidopsis and maize, two micropyle at the distal end. Each
growth seasons. One sperm cell mitotic divisions occur during ovule contains a single
from each pollen grain fertilizes a pollen development. The first megaspore mother cell which is
single egg, while the other division produces a large surrounded by integuments, the
degenerates. Typically, the egg vegetative cell and a much smaller protective and nutritive layers of
cells of all archegonia of a female generative cell. The vegetative cell sporophytic cells. The megaspore
gametophyte are fertilized and inherits most of the cytoplasm mother cell undergoes meiosis to
begin embryo development, but from the microspore cell, has a generate four haploid products.
usually only one of the embryos relatively loose nucleus that is Three of the haploid products
develops to maturity. active in transcription, and degenerate and only the one near
Current Biology Vol 12 No 21
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A
Generative Vegetative
Nucleus cell cell
Sperm Vegetative
cells nucleus
Antipodal Antipodal
B Functional cells cells
megaspore
Central
Nuclei nuclei
Central
nuclei
Degenerated
megaspores Synergid Synergid
cells cells
Egg cell Egg cell
the proximal end becomes the Angiosperms exhibit double flowers and protective fruit are all
functional megaspore. fertilization. When the pollen tube thought to have contributed to the
Depending on the pattern of reaches the distal end of the success of angiosperms.
subsequent cell divisions, four ovule, it grows into the micropyle
types of female gametophyte and penetrates into one of the two Genetic studies of gametophyte
development have been synergids. The two sperm cells development in angiosperms
described. In most flowering are released: one fuses with the Because the angiosperm
plant species, including egg cell to produce the zygote; gametophytes are microscopic
Arabidopsis and maize, the the other fuses with the central and dependent on the
megaspore undergoes a cell, giving rise to the precursor of sporophyte, genetic studies
polygonum-type pathway that the endosperm. In a polygonun- usually involve mutagenesis of the
results in a seven-celled female type embryo sac, the endosperm sporophyte generation. Mutations
gametophyte (Figure 2B). During is a triploid organ. But in the water that cause defects in sporophytic
this type of embryo sac lily Nuphar polysepalum, and tissues resulting in sterility or
development, three rounds of several other basal angiosperms, reduced fertility are described by
mitotic divisions occur without the embryo sac is produced by several reviews cited in the
cytokinesis. The resulting eight two rounds of mitosis following references and will not be
nuclei are separated by a large meiosis, and contains four haploid discussed here. Examples of
central vacuole into two groups, cells, including the egg and gametophytic mutations that
each of which contains four central cells. Consequently, both affect gametophyte development
nuclei and is located near one products of the double are discussed below. Because the
end of an elongated embryo sac. fertilization, the zygote and the gametophyte is haploid, even
The embryo sac then undergoes endosperm, are diploid. recessive mutations in essential
cellularization, producing three Regardless of ploidy, the genes will not be transmitted to
antipodal cells at the proximal endosperm is a unique the next generation. Thus, a
end and two synergid cells and angiosperm organ which is an heterozygous sporophyte with a
one egg cell at the distal end. important nutritional structure that female gametophytic mutation is
The remaining two nuclei, and supports embryo and/or seedling semi-sterile, because half of the
much of the cytoplasm at the development. The presence of embryo sacs will carry the mutant
center, form a large central cell. endosperm, animal-attracting allele and fail to develop. A similar
Magazine
R721
heterozygous plant with a male the two-nucleate stage seems to dimorphism of reproductive
gametophytic mutation is still be lost; in addition, the second structures may represent an
fertile, because half of the pollen and third rounds of mitosis are not evolutionary trend that might have
is normal and can successfully synchronized, and sometimes provided increasing fitness to land
pollinate the pistil. Such mutations only the distal nucleus undergoes plants.
can be detected by their failure to the second mitosis. Furthermore, Molecular and genetic studies
transmit via the pollen. after cellularization, some distal have begun to reveal genes that
Several mutations in cells undergo extra divisions, control several aspects of
Arabidopsis and maize have been resulting in an indeterminate gametophyte development,
identified that affect different number of eggs and polar nuclei. including sexual determination,
stages of male gametophytic In Arabidopsis gf and fem cell polarity establishment, cell
development. Arabidopsis gemini mutants, female development is fate determination and the control
pollen1 pollen grains show an arrested at different stages. of cell division. We can look
incompletely penetrant These studies suggest that forward to a rapid expansion in
phenotype; the mutant pollen many genes may be involved in the knowledge of gametophyte
grains exhibit equal, unequal or regulating rounds of mitoses, cell development, with the use of
partial division for the first mitosis, polarity, and nuclear position genetic, genomic, and
possibly because of an inability to during gametophyte development. evolutionary approaches to
establish a polar nuclear position. Cell-cycle control and identify both conserved and
So GEMINI POLLEN1 may be cytoskeleton function are likely specialized components of
required for proper nuclear important for these processes. regulatory networks.
migration before the first mitosis. These mutants and others should
In maize mutant gaMS-2 pollen, provide valuable insights into the Acknowledgements
the first mitosis produces two regulation of gametophyte We thank D. Zhao, L. Zahn, H.
similar cells; most pollen grains development. In addition, Kong for helpful comments on this
are blocked after the first mitosis. genomic projects in combination manuscript. The work in our lab is
Maize gaMS-1 mutant with reverse genetic tools should supported by NSF, NIH, and
microspores develop into non- also be very informative. USDA grants to H.M. and by funds
functional pollen grains with from the Biology Department and
reduced sizes, usually arrested Conclusions the Life Sciences Consortium at
after the first mitosis. The genes The gametophyte generation in the Pennsylvania State University.
gaMS-1 and gaMS-2 may be land plants has evolved from a
required for normal progression free-living and relatively complex Key References
through the first mitosis. organism into microscopic Anderson, E.D. and Owens, J.N.
(2000). Microsporogenesis,
In the Arabidopsis mutant structures dependent on the
pollination, pollen germination and
limpet pollen (lip) pollen, the sporophyte. The strong male gametophyte development in
generative cell fails to migrate vasculature, sporophyte- Taxus brevifolia. Ann. Bot.-London
inward after the first mitosis. In supported gametophytes and 86, 1033–1042.
another Arabidopsis mutant, drought-resistant pollen are likely Banks, J.A. (1999). Gametophyte
development in ferns. Annu. Rev.
sidecar pollen (scp), pollen grains to have contributed to the Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 50,
often contain an extra vegetative success of seed plants. The 163–186.
cell. The extra vegetative cell is protective ovary/fruit and the Cove, D. (2000). The moss,
produced before the asymmetric triploid endosperm most likely Physcomitrella patens. J. Plant
Growth Regul. 19, 275–283.
division, suggesting that SCP is further increased the reproductive Grossniklaus, U. and Schneitz, K.
an important negative regulator fitness of flowering plants, making (1998). The molecular and genetic
that prohibits the microspore from them the most successful group basis of ovule and
dividing symmetrically. of plants. megagametophyte development.
Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 9, 227–238.
Several female gametophytic Understanding the evolution of McCormick, S. (1993). Male
mutants exhibit defects at gametophytic sexual dimorphism gametophyte development. Plant
different stages. The maize lethal is an important aspect in the Cell 5, 1265–1275.
ovule2 mutation results in study of gametophytes. Mosses Owens, J.N. and Bruns, D. (2000).
Western white pine (Pinus
gametophytes arrested at one-, generally produce
monticola Dougl.) reproduction: I.
two- and four-nucleate stages, morphologically uniform Gametophyte development. Sex.
suggesting this gene may function gametophytes which differ only in Plant Reprod. 13, 61–74.
in regulating female nuclear sexual organs, whereas ferns Williams, J.H. and Friedman, W.E.
division cycles. Similarly, the produce sexually dimorphic (2002). Identification of diploid
endosperm in an early angiosperm
development of Arabidopsis gametophytes generally from a lineage. Nature 415, 522–526.
hadad mutant embryo sacs single type of spore. The
arrests after one or two mitotic gametophytes in seed plants, Department of Biology and the Life
divisions, and there may be a both gymnosperms and Sciences Consortium, the Intercollege
defect in nuclear migration. In angiosperms, are genetically pre- Graduate Program in Plant Physiology,
another maize mutant, determined and structurally the Pennsylvania State University,
indeterminate gametophyte1 (ig), dimorphic from the first mitosis. University Park, Pennsylvania 16802,
the polarity of the embryo sac at Progressively determined sexual USA.