RS3809 - Grade - 11 Geo-Technical Engineering

11
Civil Engineering
Geo-Technical Engineering
Government of Nepal
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
Curriculum Development Centre
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Phone : 5639122/6634373/6635046/6630088
Website : www.moecdc.gov.np
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Technical and Vocational Stream
Learning Resource Material
Geo-Technical Engineering
(Grade 11)
Secondary Level
Civil Engineering
Government of Nepal
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Preface
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developed in line with the Secondary Level Civil Engineering Curriculum with an aim
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In bringing out the learning resource material in this form, the contribution of the
Director General of CDC Dr. Lekhnath Poudel, Dr. Jagat Kumar Shrestha, Dr. Kamal
Thapa, Dr. Bharat Mandal, Purushotam Chapagai, Pusparam Suwal, Anil Phuyal, Gita
Lamichhane and Kedarnath Dahal is highly acknowledged. The book is written by
Jagadish Chandra Karki and the subject matter of the book was edited by Badrinath
Timalsina and Khilanath Dhamala. CDC extends sincere thanks to all those who have
contributed in developing this book.
This book is a supplimentary learning resource material for students and teachers. In
addition they have to make use of other relevnt materials to ensure all the learning
outcomes set in the curriculum. The teachers, students and all other stakeholders are
expected to make constructive comments and suggestions to make it a more useful
learning resource material.
2076 BS Ministry of Education, Science and Technology

Table of Contents
Unit-1-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
Overview Geotechnical Engineering -------------------------------------------------------- 1
Unit-2-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4
Physical Properties of Soil -------------------------------------------------------------------- 4
Unit-3------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 24
Permeability of Soil and Seepage Analysis ----------------------------------------------- 24
Chapter-4 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 34
Shear Strength of Soil ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 34
Unit-5------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 40
Bearing Capacity of Soils -------------------------------------------------------------------- 40
Unit-6------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 53
Site Investigation and Sub Soil Exploration----------------------------------------------- 53
Unit-7------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 64
Design of Retaining Wall -------------------------------------------------------------------- 64
Unit-8------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 71
Survey Information and Design Consideration for check dam ------------------------- 71
Unit-9------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 82
Unit-10 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 87
Bio Engineering ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 87
Unit-11 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 91
Foundation ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 91
Unit-12 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 117
Geo-Synthetics ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 117
Unit-1
Overview Geotechnical Engineering
1. Content
1.1 Engineering definition of soil
Soil is derived from a Latin word 'solummeaning' the substratum in which the plant
grows. According to Websters the word 'solum' means the upper layer of earth which
can be dug or plough specially to loose surface material of the earth which the
vegetation grow is called soil.
In engineering, the term 'soil' is defined as an un-consolidation material i.e. composed
of solid particle, produced by disintegration of rock and geo-technical engineering is
the branch of civil engineering which deals with earth materials.
1.2 Importance of soil in civil Engineering as construction material in Civil
Engineering structures, as foundation bed for structures.
Soil is very important construction material for constructing any kind of structures. It
is important to choose a suitable construction material because if we make a mistake
in choosing appropriate construction material then it will directly affect the cost and
quality of the structure. Soil is that kind of construction material which acts as a
foundation or base for every civil engineering structure because all of them ultimately
rest or soil.
Various type of soil has various property like permeability, strength, bearing capacity,
etc. So while choosing, we must be aware that we should select the soil that matches
our property.
Soil acts as a foundation or base for all the structures so we should choose the hard
soil, i.e. having sufficient strength, to support the structure constructed over it.
1.3 Field application of geotechnical engineering
Foundation designs, pavement design, design of earth retaining structures, slope
stability.
Geo-technical engineering has a vast application in construction of various civil
Geo-Technical Engineering Revised : Grade 11 1

engineering structures. Some of the application are mentioned below;
i. Foundation: Every civil engineering structure whether it is a building a bridge
ora dam is founded on or below the surface of the earth. Foundation on or below
the surface of the earth is required to transmit the load of the structure to soil
safely and efficiently.
ii. Pavement Design: A pavement is a hard crust placed on soil i.e. subgrade for
providing a smooth and strong surface on which vehicles can move. The
pavement consists of surface such as a bitumen layer, base and sub base.
iii. Retaining structures: When sufficient space is not available for a mass of soil
to spread and form a safe slope, a structure is required to retain the soil. An earth
retaining structure is also required to keep the soil at different level on its either
side. There are different kinds of retaining wall, geo technical engineering given
basic idea for construction of suitable retaining wall.
iv. Stability of slopes: If soil surface is not horizontal there is a component of
weight of the soil which tends to move it downward and thus causes instability
of slope. The slope may be natural or artificial. Soil engineering provides the
method for checking the stability of slopes.
2. Learning process and support materials.
Following are the learning process of this unit:
 Group discussion
 Drawing presentation
 Site visit nearby school
3. Assessment
A. Very short questions answer
1. Define Geo- Technical engineering.
2. Define soil.
B. Short questions answer
1. What are the filed applications of geo engineering?
2. Explain soil engineering in brief.
2 Geo-Technical Engineering Revised : Grade 11

C. Long questions answer
1. Explain about the important of geo engineering in foundation?
4. Glossary
1. Geo technical: Its deals with soil and rock behavior and slope stability
and its mechanic
2. Slope Stability: Condition of slope
Reference Books
Dr. B. C. Punmia, Soil Mechanics & Foundation Engineering, Standard Book house,
New Delhi
Murthi, Soil Mechanics & Foundation Engineering, Tata McGraw Hill , New Delhi
B. J. Kasmalkar, Soil Mechanics, Pune VidhyartiGriha, Pune
Gulhati& Dutta, Geo-technical Engineering ,Tata McGraw Hill , New Delhi
Department of soil and conservation, Swiss Association for Technical Assistance,
Manual Calculation of Check Dams.
Department of Roads, Nepal, Roadside Bio-engineering
http://www.enviromeshgabions.co.uk/, Volume I, A Reference Guide for the
Designing of Mass Gravity Gabion Walls.
http://www.sheltercentre.org/, Spur and dyke for flood water protection
Hand book for flood protection, anti-erosion and river training works, Central Water
Commission, New Delhi.

Unit-2
Physical Properties of Soil
1. Content
1.1 Soil as a three phase system
Soil is a complex material which consists of solid particle and void. The void may
contain only air, only water or water and air both. Thus, it can be said that the soil is a
multiphase material. The property of soil is very much dependent on the percentage of
component on it.
Phase diagram
Phase diagram of soil is a type of diagram which represents the components of soil.
Soil contains either two of three materials. A diagram containing only two materials is
called two phase diagram and the diagram which contains three materials is called
three phase diagram.
Vv= Volume of voids Wv= Weight of voids
Va= Volume of air Wa= Weighr of air
Vw= Volume of water Ws= Weight of solid
V= Total volume W= Wa + Ww + Ws
V= Va+Vw+Vs Wv=Wa+Wv
Vv= Va+Vw W=Wv+Ws
V=Vv+Vs But Wa=o(weight of air is negligible)
Then, Wv=wv
1.2 Water Content
Water content is denoted by 'w'. It is defined as the ratio of weight of water to the
weight of dry soil, i.e. w
The dry weight used in the above expression is weight of the soil when water contained
on it is lost. The water is lost when the soil is heated to a temperature of 105oto 110o

for 24 hours. This is a test for water content in soil done in the laboratory. It is called
oven dry test.
Determination of water content by oven drying method
Water content of a soil mass controls its strength and stability. In most of the soil, it is
important to know water content. To determine the water content in laboratory
following steps are carried out;
i. A sample of wet soil is placed into a container and was weighted; lets it's weight
be w.
ii. Now, the weight of empty container is taken; lets it's weight be W2.
iii. Now, the wet soil mass with the container is kept into oven and the temperature
is set to 105oc to 110oc.
iv. The soil is left there for 24 hours.
v. The dry soil with the container is taken out and weighted; lets it's weight be W3.
The following calculations are made to determine the water content.
a. Weight of empty container = W2.
b. Weight of the container with wet soil = W1.
c. Weight of the container with dry soil = W3.
d. Weight of wet soil = W1-W2.
e. Weight of dry soil = W3- W2.
f. Weight of water = (W1- W2) – (W3- W2)
1.3 There are different kinds of physical proportion of soil. Some of them are
as follows;
i. Void Ratio
Void ratio is denoted by a symbol 'e'. It is defined as the ratio of volume of void
to the volume of soild i.e. e= Vv/Vs = (Va+Vw)/Vs
ii. Porosity
Porosity is denoted by a symbol n. It is denoted in percentages. It is defined as
the ratio of volume of void to the total volume i.e. η=Vv/V*100%.
iii. Degree of saturation

It is denoted by symbol 'Sr'. It is also expressed in percentages. It is defined as
the ratio of volume of water to the volume of void i.e. Sr= Vw/Vv*100%.
iv. Density Index
It is denoted by 'I' It is also called relative density or degree of density. It is
defined as the ratio of the difference between the void ratio of the soil in its
loosest state emase and its natural void to the difference between the void ratios
in the loosest and densest states.
ID
Where,
emax= voids ratio in the loosest state
emin = voids ratio in the loosest state
e = natural voids ratio of the deposit
1.4 Unit weight of soil mass
i. Bulk unit weight
It is denoted by γb. It is defined as the ratio of total weight of soil mass to the
volume therefore 𝛾
Where,
w= Total weight of soil
V= Total volume of soil.
ii. Dry unit weight
iii. Dry unit weight is denoted by 8d and is defined as the ratio of weight of soil solid
to the total volume of soil mass. 𝛾
Where,
Ws= Weight of solid soil
V= Volume of soil.
iv. Unit weight of solid
It is denoted by γs and is defined as the ratio of weight of soil solid to the volume
of solid. 𝛾

Where,
Ws= Weight of solid soil
Vs= Total volume of solid soil.
v. Saturated unit weight

It is denoted by 'γsat'. and is defined as the bulk unit weight of fully saturated soil
mass.
i.e. γsat = wsat/Vsat
where,
wsat= weight og saturated soil
Vsat= Volume of saturated soil.
vi. Submerged Unit weight

It is denoted by 'γsub' and is defined as the ratio of weight of solid when it is
submerged in water to the total volume of soil. 𝛾
2.5 Determination of bulk unit weight and dry unit weight by :-

a) Core cutter method
b) Sand replacement method
a) Core cutter method
In this method a cylindrical core cutter with a dolly of known dimension is

placed over the core cutter to prevent the damages to the edges of the cutter. The
cylinder is embedded in the ground for its full height and is taken out. The
surplus soil at both ends of cutter is trimmed out and the weight of the cylinder
is found out. From the known dimension of cutter its volume is calculated and a
small amount of sample is taken to determine the water content of the soil.
The dry density of soil is then computed as follows:-
Calculation table

i. Weight of cutter = W1
ii. Weight of soil + cutter = w2
iii. Weight of soil = w2– w1
iv. Volume of cutter = V
v. Bulk density = 8
vi. Water content = w
vii. Dry unit weight 8
b) Sand replacement method
The detail arrangement of the sand replacement method is shown in the figure
below. In this method, a square tray with a circular hole is taken. The tray is
placed in a level ground. A small quantity of soil is excavated from the hole and
is weighted. The water content of the excavated soil is determined. The hole is
filled by sand of known density. The weight of the sand filling the hole is
determined and recorded.
The weight of sand filling the hole is determined with those data and the dry
density is computed as follows:-
i. Weight of soil in the hole = w1
ii. Weight of sand bottle before pouring= w2
iii. Weight of sand bottle after pouring = w3
iv. Weight of sand filing cone=w4
v. Weight of sand filling the hole = w2- w3- w4
vi. Unit weight of sand = 𝛾𝑠
vii. Unit weight of sand =
viii. Volume of hole = v

ix. Bulk density (γd) =
x. Dry density (γd) =
1.6 Specific gravity

i. Specific gravity of solid (G)
It is denoted by the letter "G" and is defined as the ratio of unit weight of soil to
the unit weight of water at 4o c.
i.e. G = γs/γo
Where,
γs = unit weight of soil solid
γo = unit weight of water at 4o c.
The specific gravity of soil lies within the range of 2.65 to 2.8.
ii. Specific gravity of water (Gr)
It is denoted by the letter 'Gr' and is defined as the ratio of unit weight of water
at any temperature to the unit of water at 4o c.
i.e. Gr = γw/γo
Where,
γw = unit weight of water at any temperature
γo = unit weight of water at 4o c
Determination of specific gravity by pycnometer
Pycnometer test
A pycnometer is a glam bottle used to determine the specific gravity of soil.
Sometimes, the pycnometer can also be used to determine the water content.
Procedures
Following are the procedures which are adopted while performing the pycnometer test.
i. A known weight of dry soil is placed into the pycnometer.
ii. Some amount of water is added to it such that the pycnometer is half full.
iii. The air in the soil sample is completely expelled either by heating or by suction.
iv. Now, the water is added to the pycnometer to its full capacity and weighted.
v. Now, the pycnometer is emptied and filled only with water and weighted.
Observation
i. Weight of dry soil = ws

ii. Weight of pycnometer + soil + water upto its full capacity = w1
iii. Weight of pycnometer + water =w2
Numerical Problems
i. A 50 cc volume of moist soil weight 95 gms. It's dry weight is 75gms and the
specific gravity of solid is 2.68 compute the water content, void ratio, porosity
and unit weight.
ii. The wet density of soil is 2gms/cc. The specific gravity of solids is 2.70 and the
moisture content of the soil is 15% calculate.
a) Dry density
b) Porosity
c) Void ratio
d) Degree of saturation
iii. A soil sample in its natural state has a volume of 310cc and a weight of 528gms.
On oven drying its weight was 490 gms. Determine its volume ratio porosity,
water content and degree of saturation. Assume the specific gravity of soil grains
to be 2.67.
iv. A borrow material of 200,000 m3 has a void ratio of 0.81. How many cubic
meters of fill can be constructed when the soil is to be compacted at a void ratio
of 0.59 ?
1.7 Consistency of soil
The consistency of soil is defined as the degree of hardness or softness of soil.
Consistency is the most important property of soil. Consistency can also be defined as
the physical state of soil at particular water content. The term also denotes firmness of
soil. The consistency of soil is greatly influenced by the presence of clay minerals or
organic materials or fine grained soil. If the soil is very fine when the soil is coarse
grained then the soil is hard. The soil consistency can be expressed by the term very
soft, soft , firm, hard and very hard.
Depending upon the water content a soil can have a various state of consistency;they
are liquid state, plastic state, semi solid state and solid state. The limiting water content

at which a soil passes from one state to another is called consistency limit. The
consistency limit was first determined by scientist called Atterberg’s in 1911.
Therefore, the consistency limits are known as Atterberg’s limit.
There are three types of Atterberg’s limits. They are:
i. Plastic limit
ii. Liquid limit
iii. Shrinkage limit
If a large quantity of water is mixed in a soil, the soil will be a liquid state on gradual
reduction of water and through kneading of the soil the soil start to change to plastic
state. At moisture content lower than the liquid limit, the soil will be in plastic limit.
At plastic state, the soil can be put into any desired shape. On further deduction of
water content, the soil loses its plasticity. The limiting water content above which the
soil will be in plastic state is called plastic limit. Below the plastic limit, the soil is in
semi-solid state. If the water content is further reduced, a state is reached where further
reduction in water content doesn’t reduce the volume of soil. The water content
corresponding to this state is called shrinkage limit. Below shrinkage limit, the volume
of soil remains constant. Further reduction representation of different state and limits
of consistency is shown in figure.
Determination of index properties
Index properties are the properties of soil which determine the physical state of soil.
Some of the index properties are liquid limit, plastic limit, shrinkage limit. plasticity
index, liquidity index and consistency index.
 Plastic limit (Wp)
 Liquid limit (WL)
 Shrinkage limit (SL)
 Plasticity index (Ip) = WL
 Liquidity index (IL) = ∗ 100
 Where, Wn = natural water content
 Consistency Index (Ic) =

Procedure to determine liquid limit
The device used to determine the liquid limit of any soil is termed as Casagrande tool.
This device contains a brass cup which could be raised and allowed to fall on a hard
rubber base by turning the handle.
1.8 The procedure to find out liquid limit are as follows:
1. About 120 gm of soil is taken. It is mixed with distilled water.
2. A portion of this paste is kept on the brass cup and the top surface is made
smooth. The depth of soil in the brass up should be 12mm.
3. A grooving tool of dimension 2 mm * 11mm* 8mm is used to cut the soil paste.
4. The handle of the device is turned at a rate of 2 revolution per second.
5. The number of blow necessary to close the groove is calculated.
6. When the blow reaches 25 and the soil groove is just closed, the soil sample is
taken for water content determination. The water content of soil at this point is
termed as liquid limit.
7. If the groove doesn’t close at 25, then repeat the cost at least far three or four
times with different water content. The number of blow is kept in the range of
10-50. A graph is then plotted between water content and log of the number of
blow and the best straight line fitting the plotted point are drawn. The straight
line so drawn is called flow curve from the graph the corresponding water
content at 25 blows is determined which is liquid limit of soil.
Producer to determine plastic limit
The following procedures are adopted to determine the plastic limit:
1. Take about 120 gm of soil and mixed it with distilled water.
2. Take about 10gm of paste into a separate place.
3. Now, roll the soil to form a ball and then take glass pane.
4. Now, roll the soil on the glass pane by your hand until the soil turns into a thread
like structure of diameter 3 mm.
5. If the soil breaks, then take it into lab for the determination of water content. The
water content at this point is plastic limit.

6. If the soil rolled into thread doesn't break, then remold it into ball shape and
again roll it into thread shape of 3mm diameter till it doesn't break.
Procedure to determine the shrinkage limit
1. A soil sample having saturated unit weight is taken and weighted say W1.
2. It is allowed to dry gradually. Its volume goes on reduction to a certain limit.
After that, there will not be any reduction in volume.
3. The weight of dry soil mass is taken as WD.
4. The dried soil mass is tested for finding its total volume which is constant after
a certain stage for this.
5. The dry sample of soil is placed on a mercury which is placed in a container.
6. Since the density of soil is less than mercury, it floats on the top with the help of
pointer the soil sample is placed inside the mercury due to which the volume of
mercury equal to volume of soil mass comes out.
7. The displaced mercury is weighted and then its volume is calculated by dividing
the weight of mercury by its unit wt. displaced mercury is equal to volume of
dry soil sample.
Producere to determine the shrinkage limit
1. The soil sample is fully saturated up to shrinkage limit. It's volume in this state
is V1and its corresponding weight is W1 out of which Ws is the weight of soil
solid. The volume V1 of the soil can be found out from the known volume of
shrinkage dish.
2. The soil in the shrinkage dish is dried slowly as not to form out as Ws. The dry
weight of the soil is found out as Ws. The volume V2 of the dry soil pat is found
by immersing the pat in a known volume of mercury. The mercury displaced and
spilled out of the shrinkage dish is weighed and divided by the unit wt of
mercury, which gives volume V2 of the soil pat at the shrinkage limit. It is
required to find out weight of water Ww at the shrinkage limit.
wt of evaporated = W1–Ws
wt of water evaporated above shrinkage limit = (V1 – V2) * 8w
wt of water Ww at shrinkage limit = (w1– ws) – (V1 – Vs) 8w

Shrinkage limit, w = ∗ 100
– – –
=
1.9 Grain size analysis

The soil grain can be larger or smaller as per the size. The grain size of soil can be
measured by various experiments. Among them, the most popular one is grain size
analysis which is done by sieve. Sieves are made by waving two sets of wires at right
angle to one another. The shape of the whole square. According to IS, the sieve number
is expressed in mm or micron where 1 micron (m) = 10-3 mm. According to Indian
code, IS 460 – 1962 following size of sieve are recommended, 80mm, 40mm, 20mm,
10mm, 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600 micron, 300 micron, 150 micron, 125 micron,
75 micron.
Producere
1. A number of sieve sizes are arranged in descending order from top to bottom.
2. A dry soil mass of about 500 gm is placed on the top.
3. The whole set of sieve is given a horizontal shaking for 10 min.
4. The amount of soil retained on each sieve is found out.
5. Now, we can calculate the size of soil in the mixture.
Then, the result of grain size analysis is presented in the form of a curve plotted in
semi log scale. The percentage finer then is plotted as ordinate to a natural scale while
sieve size is plotted as abscissa to a logarithmic scale. A plot of this type has the
advantage that the materials of equal uniformity are represented by curves of identical
shape whether the soil is coarse grained or fine grained. Further, a logarithmic scale is
more convenient to plot where grain sizes vary over a wide range.
A grain size distribution curve is also a measure of the uniformity of soils. In a grain
size distribution plot, uniform soils are represented by nearly vertical curves. While 'S'
shaped curves are the characteristics of well graded soils. Typical grain sizes soil
distribution curves are:
Soil gradation

Soil gradation is classification of soil. Coarse grained soil mainly gravel or sand are
graded either as well graded or poorly graded. Poorly grade soil are further clarified as
uniformly graded or gap graded. Fine grain soil mainly silt are classified according to
their Atterberg’s limit.
Well graded
A well graded soil is a soil that contains particles of a wide range of sizes and has a
good representation of all the sizes from higher to lower. A well graded gravel is
termed as GW and a well graded sand is termed as SW.
Poorly graded
A poorly graded soil is a type of soil that does not have good representation of all the
sizes. It doesn't contain wide range of sizes. A poorly graded gravel is termed as GP
and a poorly graded sand is termed as SP.
Uniformly graded soil
A uniformly graded soil is a soil whose particles are of same size.
Gap graded soil
A gap graded soil is a soil that has an excess or deficiency of certain particle size or a
soil that has at least 1 particle size missing.
Effective diameter of soil
Effective diameter of soil is defined as that size of sieve through which only 10% of
particle pass and 90% is retained on the sieve. It is denoted by D10.
DSO
It is the size of sieve through which 60% of particle pass and 40% of the materials are
retained on the sieve.
D30
It is the size of sieve through which 30% of particles pass and 70% of the materials are
retained on the sieve.
Co-efficient of uniformity (Cu)
The degree of uniformity of a soil is expressed by the number called co-efficient of
uniformity. This is defined as the raito of the D60 and D10.
i.e. Cu =
Co-efficient of curvature (Cc)

This term is also used to identify whether a soil is uniformly graded or well graded. It
is expressed as Cc =
∗
In a well graded gravel, Cu is greater than 4 and Cc is in between 1 and 3. In a well

graded sand Cu is greater than 6 and Cc is in between 1 and 3.
A sieve analysis was conducted on a sample of weight 1000 gm. The result was as
follow:
Sieve Size (mm) Soil retained (g)

10 83
4.75 100
2 163
1 160
0.6 145
425 123
200 67
150 38
75 41
pan 80
Draw the particle size distribution curve and determine the co-efficient of uniformity
and co-efficient of curvature. Also determine the effective size.
Sieve Soil Percentage Cum% %
Size Retained Retained% retained passing
10 83 8.3 8.3 91.7
4.75 100 10 18.3 81.7

2 163 16.3 34.6 65.4
1 160 16 50.6 49.4
0.6 145 14.5 65.1 34.9
425 123 12.3 77.4 22.6
200 67 6.7 84.1 15.9
150 38 3.8 87.9 12.1
75 41 4.1 92 8
As more than 50% is retained on 0.075mm sieve, the coarse grained. Coarse fraction
= 90%, Gravel fraction =10%, sand fraction=80%. As more than half of the coarse
fraction is smaller than 4.7mm size the soil is sand.
1.10 Soil classification
Soil classification is an arrangement of soil into different group such that the soils in a
particular group have some behavior. The main purpose of soil classification is to
divide the soil into different groups such that the soil in a particular group has similar
behavior. A classification system also provides a common language to engineers and
scientists.
The major classification system of soil is given below:.
i. Massachusetts Institute of Technology System
ii. Textural soil classification system
iii. Unified soil classification system (USCS)
iv. Indian soil classification system (ISCS)
v. British soil classification System
vi. AASTHO soil classification system.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology System
MIT system of classification of soils was developed by professor G.Gill Bay at
Massachusetts Institute of Technology in USA. In that classification system, the

soil is divided into 4 groups.
1. Gravel, particle size greater than 2mm
2. sand, particle size between 0.06mm to 2mm
3. Silt, particle size between 0.002mm to 0.06mm
4. Clay, particle size smaller than 0.002mm
Clay Silt Sand Gravel
(Size) F M C F M C
Where,
F= fine
M= medium
c= coarse
Textural classification of soil
A triangular classification developed by US bureau gives different names to soil.
On the basis of % of solid, slit and clay, the soil is classified in this system. To use this
classification chart first of all a sample of soil having known % of sand, slit and clay
is taken. With this percentage the soil is located on the triangular chart. For example,
if a sample of soil has 50% clay, 20% silt and 30% sand, then the soil is found to be
clay.
Unified soil classification system (USCS)
The unified soil classification system was first developed log a Casagrande and
adopted in 1942 by the corps of engineers of USA. This system of classification is the
most popular one. The system uses both particle size and plasticity characteristics of
soil. Furthermore, the system includes the field identification of soils as well. In this
classification system, the group symbol consists of a primary and secondary
descriptive letters. The letters and their meaning are given below.
Primary Letter Secondary Level
G: gravel W: well graded
S: sand P: poorly graded
M: Silt M: non- plastic fines
C: Clay C: Plastic fines
O: organic L: low plasticity
Pt: peat H: high plasticity
The soils are classified into three categories namely coarse grained soils, fine grained
soils, and organic soils.
Coarse grained soil
The soil is coarse grained if more than 50% of the soil retained on 0.075mm sieve. It
is further divided into gravel (G) and Sand (S). If more than 50% of the coarse particles
are retained in 4.75mm sieve, the soil is gravel otherwise it is sand. Gravel and sand
are further divided into finer classes depending on the amount of fine particles in the
soil.
Less than 5% fines
Clean grave clean sand
 GW – Well graded gravel
 Gp- Poorly graded gravel
 Sw- Well graded sand
 Sp – Poorly graded sand
More than 12% fines
Gravel or sand containing fines
 GM – silty gravel
 sm - silty sand
 GC – clayey gravel
 sc – clayed sand
Fines between 5% and 12%
 (GW – GM) – between well graded gravel and silty gravel
 (SP – SC) – between poorly graded sand and clayey sand

Fine grained soil
The soil is fine grained if more than 50% of the soil passes through 0.075mm sieve.
The fine grain soils are further divided into two groups namely; low plasticity (L) and
high plasticity (H) on the basis of their plasticity characteristics. If the liquid limit of
the soil is less than 50, the soil is classified as the soil having low plasticity. They are
designated by symbol ML, CL and OL. On the other hand, if the liquid limit of the soil
is greater than 50, the soil is classified as the soil having high plasticity. They are
designated by symbol MH, CH and OH. The exact classification of a chart developed
by A Casagrande in 1948 as shown in Fig
The plasticity chart is prepared on the basis of the data on liquid limit and plasticity
index. A line known as A – Line is shown in the chart if data on LL and PI plot above
A- Line the soil clay. On the other hand, if they plot below A-line, the soil is either
inorganic silt or organic silt and organic silt is done by oven drying. If the drying
process reduces the liquid limit by 30% or more than soil is organic, (OL or OH)
otherwise the soil is inorganic (ML or MH). If data on the LH and PL position the
hatched location of the plasticity chart they are given dual symbol CL – ML
Highly organic soil
Organic soils are fine grained soils with organic characteristics such as strong order,
dark color, highly compressible and visible presence of organic substance. Depending
on the liquid limit the soil can be organic soil of low plasticity LL (smaller than 50%)
denoted on OL or organic soil of high plasticity denoted as OH. Highly organic soils
are put into the category of peat (Pt).
A sieve analysis of given sample of soil gave information that 57% particle passes
through 75 micron sieve. The liquid limit and plastic limit of the soils are 62 and 28,
respectively classify the soil as per USCS.
Since more than 50% of materials are passing through 75 sieve, the soil is fine grain.
PI = LL – PL
= 62 – 28 =34%
From A line,
PI = 0.73 (LL-20)

= 0.73 (62-20)
= 0.73 *42 = 30.66%
Since the value of PI obtained from A- Line is less that the actual value of PI. The
point lies above the A Line. Now as the liquid limit greater than 50% the soil in CH
zone.
Indian soil classification system (ISCS)
The Indian soil classification system is adopted by bureau of Indian standard which is
very much similar to USCS system. However, there is one basic difference. In USCS
system, soils were classified only in high and low plasticity but in this ISCS there are
three classification. They are :.
a) Low plasticity
b) Medium Plasticity
c) High plasticity
The plasticity chart of ISCS system is shown in the figure below.
British Standard Classification system.
This system is based on grain size. This system is similar to Indian standard
classification except for minimum gravel size and minimum sand size. In BSCS,
minimum size of gravel is taken as the particle size greater than 2mm instead of
4.75mm and minimum particle size of sand is 0.0j6mm instead of 0.075mm in Indian
standard.
Soil classification
Based on particle size
Types of soil Particle Size (mm)
 clay 0.002
 silt 0.0002-0.06
a. fine 0.002-0.006
b. medium silt 0.006-0.02
c. coarse silt 0.02-0.06
d. Sand 0.06-4.75
e. Fine sand 0.06-0.2
f. Medium sand 0.2-2.0
g. Coarse sand 2.0-4.75
h. Gravel 4.75-60
i. Pebbles 4.75-80
j. Cobbles 80-200
k. Boulders >200
The following observation was obtained from a liquid limit test of a soil.
No.of blows (N) 10 20 31 40
Water content (w)% 82 74.3 68 65
Two tests for plastic limit were also performed which gave values of 28.0 and 29.0,
respectively.
a. plot the flow curve and determine the liquid limit
b. Plasticity index
c. flow index of the soil
1. Learning process and support materials
Following are the learning processes of this unit:
2. Assessment
1. Define liquid limit and plastic limit.
2. Define liquidity index.
1. How are soils classified?

1. Why grain size analysis is important?
Glossary
Atter berg limits :The range of moisture contents over which the soil's plastic is used
as a measure of the plasticity index. The points at which a soil changes from one state
to another are arbitrarily defined by simple tests called the liquid limit test and plastic
limit test.
Reference Books:
New Delhi

Unit-3
Permeability of Soil and Seepage Analysis
3.1 Permeability of soil

Definition
The permeability of soil is defined as the property of soil due to which the fluid or
water can sleep or pass through soil via the voids present in soil. Mr. Darcy in year
1856 derived a formula to understand the permeability of soil. This property is useful
in designing various engineering structure. For example;
a. Earthen dam
b. Earthen canal
c. Deep tube well
d. Pile foundation
e. Settlement of foundation
f. Ground water reservation
3.2 Darcy law
According to Darcy law, "The flow in soil (its rate) is directly proportional to the
hydraulic gradient and cross sectional area of soil mass".
Range of permeability for different types of soil
S.N. Types of soil Range of permeability (K) cm/sec

1. Clean gravel 102 – 10
2. Clean sand, sand gravel mixture 1 – 10-4
3. Fine sands, sandy slit, silts 10-5 – 10-6
4. Homogeneous intact clay 10-7 – 10-9
1.3 Factors affecting permeability of soil
1. grain size of soil – K =100*D102

2. properties of fluid – k =
3. Void ratio k𝑘 ∝ 𝑒 𝐾 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐾

𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
4. Structural arrangement of soil K < dispersed structure
5. Entrapped air – decrease permeability due to entrapped air, other organic
impurities
3.4 Determination of Coefficient of Permeability by constant head and falling head
method, permeability tests, simple problems to determine coefficient of
permeability.
a. Constant head method
It is the laboratory method to determine the coefficient of permeability of soil. It is
suitable for coarse grained soil. If the value of 'k' is more than 10-4, than we use
constant head method.
Steps of constant head method
1. The soil to be tested is first kept inside a cylinder of cross sectional area A.
2. A porous stone and rubber stopper close the cylinder from both sides.
3. Water is allowed to pass through the soil maintaining the water head constant.
4. The volume of water flowing out of the parameter per unit time is measured say
E.
5. The distance from head water level and tail water level given the constant head
H
Now from Dray’s Law
Q= KiA
Where,
Q= Rate of Flow
K= Coefficient of permeability
i= hydraulic gradient (h/l)
A= Cross Sectional Area

Then,
Q= K . 𝐴
or, 𝐾
or, K=
Also, we know that,
Q=
So, K=
Eqn (i) given the value of coefficient of permeability (k) by constant head
method.
Falling head method
It is the laboratory method to determine the coefficient of permeability of soil. It is
suitable for fine grained soil. If the value of 'K' is between 10-9 to 10-4, we use this
method.
Steps of falling head method
1. The soil sample is kept in a cylinder of cross section area A and the length of
sample is L.
2. The cylinder is covered by rubber stopper and a porous stone on both sides.
3. A burette of cross section areas 'a' is connected to the top of the cylinder.
4. The time taken for falling the height of water (head) from h, to h2 is noted by a
stop watch and taken as t.
Fig. Variable head permeameter

Calculation
At any intermediate time, the water levels in the standpipe burette be 'h'. So, the rate
of change of head is .
Where,
dh = infinitesimal drop of head in time dt.Applying Darcy's Law.
Q= KiA
or, a.v=KiA [a=area of burette]
or, -a 𝑘. . 𝐴 [A=area where soil is kept]
[i= ]
Integrating, we have,
or, 𝑎 𝑑𝑡

or, 𝑎 𝑑ℎ 1. 𝑑𝑡
or, 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ℎ 𝑡
or, 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ℎ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒ℎ 𝑡
Note
If in a question it may not give the name like constant head method or failing head
method then how do you know which method should it determine?
In a question, if sand and gravel are given then use constant head method because in
constant head method, k>10-5
If silt and clay are given in question, then use falling head method.
10-9<k<10-4
and range of permeability for silt and clay is 10-9- 10-5
Numerical
1. A sample of coarse sand is 15cm high and 5.5cm diameter. It was tested in a
constant head permeameter. Water permeated through the soil under a
hydrostatic head of 50cm for 6 seconds. The water was collected and it was
found to weight 500gms. Find the co-efficient of permeability in cm/sec.
Length of sample (L) = 15cm
Diameter of sample (d) = 5.5cm
Time (t) = 6 sec
Weight of water = 500gm
Height of head (h) = 50cm
coefficient of permeability(k)=?
We have,
K=
or, Q = = = =83.33cm3/sec
∗ ∗

. ∗ ∗
∴𝑘 1.052 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
∗ . ∗
2. To find out the co-efficient of permeability of clay the permeability test was
carried out in variable head permeameter having the diameter of 10cm. The
initial head of water in the standpipe was found to be 45cm and it was observed
to drop to 30 cm in 3.5 minutes. If the height of the sample was 15cm and the
diameter of the stand pipe was 1.9 cm, determine the co-efficient of permeability.
(2073 BS)
Diameter of permeameter (D) = 10cm
Length of sample (L) = 1.5cm
Diameter of stand pipe (d) = 1.9cm
Initial height (h1) =45cm
Final height (h2) = 30cm
Time (t) = 3.5min =210sec
Now,
∗ .
∴ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑎 2.83𝑐𝑚
We have,
k= 𝐼𝑛
. ∗ ∗
or, k = 𝐼𝑛
∗ ∗
k = 0.00105cm/sec
0.907m/day
3. A constant head permeability test was carried out on a cylindrical sample of sand
of 10cm diameter and 15cm in height 160cm3 of water was collected in
1.75mins. Under a head of 30cm. Compute the coefficient of permeability.
Diameter (d) = 10cm
Length of sample = l = 15cm

∗
Area of the sample (A) = 78.54𝑐𝑚
Discharge (g) = 1.52𝑐𝑚 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

. ∗
Constant head (h) = 30cm

Now,
For constant head permeability test;
. ∗
k=
. ∗
k = 9.68*10-3cm/sec
4. In a falling head permeability test, the initial head of 1m dropped to 0.25m in 3
hours. The internal diameter of the standpipe is 5mm. The soil specimen was
200mm long and 100mm in diameter. Calculate the co-efficient of permeability
of soil.
Initial head (h1) = 1m = 100cm
Final head (h2) = 0.25m =25cm
Time (t) = 3hrs = 10800sec
Diameter of stand pipe (d) = 5mm
Area (a)
Seepage through earthen structures
Earthen structure: foundation,earthen dam, etc.
Seepage
The flow of water through the inter connecting voids of any porous materials like soil
with a small velocity is called seepage.
Seepage velocity
The velocity of water seeping through the voids of soil or another porous material is
called seepage velocity.
Seepage pressure\seepage force
It is the pressure force exerted by water on the soil through which it percolates.

Phreatic line
The top surface of freely moving ground water is called phreatic line or ground water
table(G.W.T)
Flow line
A flow line is a path, a water would follow in moving from upstream (4\s) to
downstream (d/s)
Equipotential line
A equipotential line is the line along which the total head "h" is a constant. It is similar
to contour line.
Flow net
A flow net is a combination of flow line and equipotential lines.
Characteristics of flow net
a. The flow lines and equipotential line meet at right angle with each other.
b. The fields are approximately squares so that a circle can be drawn touching all
the sides of square.
c. The quantity of water flowing through each flow line is same. Similarly, the
potential flow line is same. Similarly, the potential drop occurs between two
successive equipotential lines.
d. Smaller the dimension of field, greater the hydraulic gradient and velocity of
flow through it.
e. In a homogeneous soil, every transition in the shape of curve is smooth being
either elliptical or parabolic in shape.
Application of flow net
A flow net can be utilized for the following conditions:
a. Determination of seepage discharge
b. Determination of hydrostatic pressure
c. Determination ofseepage force
d. Determination of hydraulic gradient

2. Assessment
1. Define seepage.
2. Define hydraulic gradient.
1. Define permeability of soil with examples
1. How do you find permeability of soil from constant head fall
method?
3. Glossary
 Permeability: The state or quality of being permeable
Reference Books
New Delhi


Chapter-4
Shear Strength of Soil
1. Content
1.1 Shear failure of soil
When the applied stress is more than the shear strength of soil then failure takes place.
The failure may be in the form of sinking of footing, movement of wedge of the soil
behind a retaining wall, forcing it to move off or slide up.
Types of shear failure
Depending upon the stiffness of foundation soil and depth of foundation, the following
are the modes of shear failure experienced by foundation soil.
a. General Shear Failure
b. Local Shear Failure
c. Punching Shear Failure
1.2 Concept of Shear Strength of soil
Shear strength is a material ability to resist the forces that can cause the internal
structure of the material to slide against itself. The shear strength of a soil is maximum
resistance to shear stress just before the failure. It is one of the most important soil
engineering properties. When applied shear stress exceeds the shear strength of soil
then failure takes place. The failure may be in the form of sinking of a footing or
movement of soil wedge of soil behind a retaining wall forcing it to move or slide off.
The shear strength of a soil is basically made up of following components.
a. The friction between soil grains
b. The interlocking between soil particles
c. Cohesive between the surfaces of soil particles
1.3 Components of shearing resistance of soil cohesion and internal friction
Cohesion means sticking together. Cohesion is the shear strength or the force that binds
the particles together. These forces exist without any compressive stress. Cohesion is

the component of shear strength of soil that is independent of inter particle friction. In
soil, true cohesion is caused by electrostatic force and cementing.
It is denoted by 'C' and usually determined in laboratory from direct shear test.
Internal friction
It is the primary source of shear strength in most of soils. Internal friction is the friction
between two soil particles against shear failure. The angle of friction between soil
particles which try to slide on each other is called angle of internal friction.
Purely cohesive and cohesion less soil
Classification based on shear strength
a. Cohesion less soil
b. Purely cohesive soil
c. cohesive- frictional soil
a. Cohesion less soil
These soils derive shear strength from inter-granular friction. It has no
cohesion i.e. c=o. These are also called frictional soil. eg. Sand and gravel.
b. Purely cohesive soil
These are the soils which exhibit cohesion but the angle of shearing
resistance( =0)
e.g. saturated clays and silt.
c. Cohesive frictional soil
These are the transitional soils which have both value of ‘c’ and ‘ ’.
1.4 Mohr coulomb failure theory, strength envelope, strength equation
Mohr – coulomb failure theory
Coulomb in 1776 for the first time gave a failure theory. Otto Mohr in 1990 extended
coulomb failure theory and provided a general form. The theory states that:
1. Materials essentially fail in shear. The critical shear stress causing shear failure
depends upon the properties of material as well as normal stress on failure plane.
2. The shear strength is equal to shear stress on a potential plane.

3. In a material subjected to three dimensional principal stresses ( c1, c2, and c3) the
intermediate principal stress c2 and doesn't have any influence on the strength of
material.
Mathematically the theory can be expressed as;
Ʈ= f(σ)
Where,
Ʈ = shear stress
σ= normal stess
Derivation
Unconfined compression test
It is a limiting case of triaxle compression test. In this case the lateral pressure is absent.
This test is suitable only for clayed soil since sand can’t stand to a height on its own.
Also there is no drainage from sample, so this test is a quick test.
Procedure
 Obtain an undisturbed sample
 Extrude a cylindrical sample from sample extruder.
 Raise the lower plate of the machine where the sample lies till the sample just
touches upper plate.
 Adjust dial guage reading at zero.
 Apply load at a constant rate.
 Measure the dial reading at certain infails.
Observation
A curve is shown in the figure below.

The peak of curve shows maximum stress which is called unconfined compressive
strength and denoted by 'qu'. Also in the nest figure we can see that a major principal
acts vertically and is equal to compressive load 'P' divided by cross sectional area A.
As the compresses the center part bulges, so the area 'A' increase.
Calculation
Let ho = Initial height of specimen
hf = Final height of specimen
Change in height (∆ℎ ℎ ℎ
In undrained condition volume does not change, so Aoho= Afhf
Af = =
∆
Now, let us have a look at the Mohr's circle;

63 =0 (lateral pressure absent)
so, If = Cu = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒

Vane Shear test
It is the quickest test to determine the shear strength of cohesive soil. Apparatus (tester)
consists of a pair of thin steel blades connected to a vertical shaft a shown in the figure.
The shaft is attached a torque measuring attachment.
Procedure
 The teacher is pushed into the soil sample and a torque is applied to the shaft.
 This action shears the soil specimen.
 The torque "T" is required to shear the specimen.
Calculation
Let T = Shear stress acting along the surface across the top and the bottom of the
sheared cylindrical specimen.
h = height
d= diameter
Consider a small cylindrical ring of width dr at a distance "r" from the center as shown
in figure. Then, shear force across the area of ring is given by;
F1 = 2𝜋 ∗ 𝑑 ∗ ℎ ∗ 𝑡
Now, applied torque is given by:
Following are the learning process of this unit:
2. Assessment
1. Define shear failure.
2. Define cohesion.

1. What are the procedures of unconfined shear test?
C. Long question answer
1. Explain vane shear test.
Reference Books:
New Delhi

Unit-5
Bearing Capacity of Soils
1. Content
1.1. Concept of bearing capacity
Bearing capacity of soil is perhaps the most important of all the topics in soil
engineering. Soil behaves in a complex manner when loaded. So, it is important to
know the bearing capacity of soils. Soil when stressed due to loading tends to deform.
The resistance to deformation of the soils depends upon factor like water content, bulk
density angle of internal function and the manner in which loads is applied on the soil.
The maximum load per unit area which the soil or rock can carryout without yielding
or displacement is known as the bearing capacity of soil.
When excessive load is transmitted to the soil by structure foundation, the settlement
of the foundation takes place which can endanger the stability of the structure. The
settlement due to load is caused basically on account of the factor namely the soil
below footing gets compressed by certain amount and since the foundations cover only
a limited area. There is possibility that the concentrated stresses developed are so high
as to cause actual rupture, i.e. shear failure and displacement of soil below.
1. Ultimate bearing (γult)
It can be defined as the maximum soil pressure at the base of the foundation
which causes shear failure of the supporting soils.
2. Net ultimate bearing capacity (γult) net
It can be defined as maximum soil pressure is excess of over burden at the base
of the foundation which causes shear failure of the supporting soil.
3. Safe bearing capacity of soil(γs)
It can be defined as the safe soil pressure at the base of the foundation which the
soil will resist safely without any risk of shear failure irrespective of any
settlement that may occur.
This is obtained by dividing the ultimate bearing capacity by a certain factor of

safely and it is the value which is used in the design of foundation.
The factor of safety normally varies from 2 to 3.
4. Net bearing capacity (γns)
It can be defined as safe soil pressure at the base of the foundation in excess of over
burden which the soil will resist safely without any risk of shear failure irrespective of
any settlement that may occur.
5. Safe bearing pressure (γn)
The intensity of loading that will cause a permissible settlement specified for a given
structure.
6. Allowable bearing capacity (γa)
It is defined as the maximum safe soil pressure at the base of the foundation which
neither causes shear failure nor produces any settlement in excess of a specified value.
The allowable bearing pressure adopted in the design of foundation is lesser of either
the safe bearing capacity of soil or the maximum allowable bearing pressure that the
soil can take without exceeding the specified limits of permissible settlement.
Terzaghi's analysis and assumption made
Terzaghi in 1943 gave a general bearing capacity theory for a strip foundation. For the
first time, he developed his theory by incorporating weight of failure wedge in the
analysis.
Terzaghi considered a continuous footing of width B placed at a depth of D below the
ground surface as shown in figure below.
In the derivation of the equation, the following assumptions were made.

a. The soil is homogeneous and isotropic.
b. Coulomb's law of shear strength is valid.
i.e. T = c + 6 tan∅.
c. Depth of foundation is less than or equal to its width i.e. shallow foundation.
d. The footing is continuous and has rough base i.e. no sliding occur between
foundation and soil.
e. Failure zone doesn't extend above the base of the foundation.
f. Shear resistance of the soil above the base of the foundation is neglected.
g. The soil above the base of the foundation is replaced by a uniform surcharge.
h. Principal of superposition holds good.
I – Elastic zone
II- Radial shear zone (Pr and fias zone)
III – Rankiness plastic zone
Failure mechanism
1. The soil is assumed to fail along the surface.
The failure I is an elastic zone.
 Zone II comprises wedges afc and bcd are the zone of the radial shear, which is
transmission form elastic to plastic state.
 Zone III which comprises wedges agf and bde are Rankine's plastic zone and
will be in a plastic zone.
2. When the footing is located the wedge abc sins into the ground as an integral
part of the footing and remains in the elastic state due to cohesion and adhesion
between the base of the footing and the soil. The straight boundaries ac and bc
of this zone are included at an angle ∅ with base of footing.
3. In zone II and III shear pattern develops zone II, the zone of radial shear
constitutes a set of radial lines emerging form the outer edges "b" and "a" of the
footing. The outer sets of lines in the zone are curves repressed by lop spiral.
The equation of log spiral is given by:.

𝑟 𝑟∅
Where, r = radius vector of the log spiral inclined of angle 𝜃 to the initial radius vo
which is ac or bc.
The boundaries of Rankine's zone III are inclined at angle (45o- ∅/2) with the
horizontal.
The ultimate bearing γult is obtained by considering the equilibrium of the elastic
wedge in zone I as shown in figure.
Here,
Pp = the resultant passive earth resistance of failure offered by the evedgeacfga or
bcdeb.
c = soil adhesion acting ac and bc. (Cohesion constant)
∅ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 Fuction
γult = ultimate bearing capacity
Here, weight of zone (I) w = 8v
w = ∗𝐵∗ tan ∅ ∗ 1 * 8
= tan ∅
= 𝐵 8 tan ∅[ 8 = unit weight of soil]

Vertical component of cohesion force
= 2 * Ca(bc or ac) * sin∅
= 2 * Ca * ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅
∅
= ca.B.tan∅
At equilibrim
∑𝑣 0
or, - (γult * B * 1)- w + 2Pp+cohesion force = 0
or, - γult * B - 𝐵 8 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ 2𝑃𝑝 𝐶. 𝐵 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ 0

or, γult = 𝐶 tan ∅ 𝐵8 tan ∅
.
∴ γ𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝐶 tan ∅ B 8 tan∅
The force Pp is determined by considering the equilibrium of the passive wedge bcfgb.
This is obtained by carrying out three independent operations.
The operations comprise
a. Soil is assumed to have weight only and possesses no cohesion and surcharge.
b. Soil is assumed to have surcharge only and possesses no cohesion and weight.
c. Soil is assumed to have cohesion only and possesses no weight and surcharge.
d. With the above assumption, the passive resistance Pp8, Ppγ and Ppc,
respectively due to weight, surcharge and cohesion are determined and the
values are superimposed.
Effect of water table or bearing capacity
Terizaglie has developed the bearing capacity equation on the assumption that water
table is at great depths. If water table is present close to the foundation some
modification is necessary. This is done in the following way.
Case 1 : Water table above footing base
The weight of soil below water table is reduced due to buoyancy. The influence of
water table or bearing capacity is incorporated in general bearing capacity equation
Dw1 = Depth of water table below ground level

a = Height of water table above base of footing
Df = Depth of foundation.
B = Width of foundation
8 sub = Submerged unit wt.of soil
8 = Soil unit weight
Rw1 = Correction factor for depth term

Rw2 = Correction factor for width term
If the water table is at a depth <Dw1<Df, then, bearing capacity equation is written as
γult = CnC + 8𝐷𝑤1 8𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝐷𝑓 𝐷𝑤1 𝑁𝑞 0.58𝑠𝑢𝑠 𝐵𝑁
γult = C.Nc + 8DfNγRw1 + 0.5𝛼sub B N𝛼
Where,
R𝑤 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦
𝛼𝐷𝑊 𝐷𝑓 𝐷𝑤 𝛼𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝛼 𝐷𝑓 𝑅𝑤
𝑅𝑤 0.5 1 )= 1
Case 2 Water table below footing base

In this case, soil above the base of the footing is moist and below base may be fully or
partially submerged.
If the water table is at a depth B below the base of the footing, then bearing capacity
is not affected and no correction is required.
If the water table is at an intermediate depth say Dw2 below the base of the footing
where 0 <Dw2< B, then bearing capacity equation is written as:
γult = c.Nc + 𝛼𝐷𝐹. 𝑁𝑞 0.5 𝛼𝐷𝑤 𝛼𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝐵 𝐷𝑤 𝑁𝛼
𝑞𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑁𝑐 𝛼𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 0.5𝐵 𝑁𝑟 𝑅𝑤
Where,
𝑅𝑤 0.5 1 1 𝐷𝑤 𝛼 𝛼𝛼𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝐵 𝐷𝑤 𝐵𝛼𝑅𝑤
Where, Dw2= Distance from base to G.W.I.

Dw1 = Distance from G.L. to G.W.T.
A strip footing 2m wide carless a safe load intensity of 400KN/m2 at a depth of 1.2m
in sand. The saturated unit weight of sand is 19.5KN/m3and unit weight of above the
water table is 16.8KN/m3. The shear strength parameters are c=0 and ∅
35. Determine the factor of safety with respect to the shear failure for the following
cases of location of water table.

a. Water table is 4m below G.L.
b. Water table is 2.5m below G.L.
c. Water table is 0.5m below G.L.
d. Water table is at G.L.
5.4. Field methods for determination of bearing capacity
a. Plate load test and standard penetration test
b. Test procedure as per code
Plate load test.
Plate load test is a field test to determine the allowable bearing capacity of soil and the
likely settlement under a given load. The plate load test basically consists of loading a
steel plate. Placed load test basically consists of loading a steel plate placed at the
foundation level and recording the settlements corresponding to each load increment.
The test load is gradually increased till the plate starts to sink at a rapid rate. The total
value of load on the plate in such a stage divided by the area of the steel plate gives
the value of the ultimate bearing capacity of soil is divided by suitable factor of safety
varies from 2 to 3 % to arrive at the value of safe bearing capacity of soil. Then,
allowable bearing capacity is adopted lesser than safe bearing capacity.

For better understanding, plate load test can be subdivided into following heads.
a. Test set up
b. Testing procedure
c. Calculation
d. Limitation of the test
a. Test Setup
A test pit is dug at site upon the depth of which the foundation is proposed to be laid.
The width of pit should be at least 5 times the width of the test plate. At the center of
the pit, a small square depression or hole is made whose size is equal to the size of the
test plate bottom level of which corresponds to the level of actual foundation. The
depth of the hole should be such that ratio of depth to width of the loaded area is
approximate the same as the ratio of the actual depth to width of foundation. The mid
steel plate also known as bearing plate used in the test shouldn't be less than 25 mm is
thickness and its size may vary from 300 to 600 mm. The plate could be square or
circular in shape.
Circular plate is adopted in case of circular footing and square plate is used in all other
types of footings. The plate is machined at the side of edges.
b. Test procedure
The load is applied to the test plate by means of a reaction beam. Sometimes true are
used instead of reaction beam to take up the reaction. Alternatively, a load platform
can be used to provide reaction.
A seating load of KN/m2 is first applied, which is released after sometime. The load is
then applied in incements of about 1/5th of the estimated safe, load or 1/10th of the
ultimate load. The settlement is recorded after 1,5,10,2040,60 minutes and further after
an internal of one hour. These hourly observations are continued for clayey soil until
the state of settlements is less than 0.2 mm/s. The test is conducted until the failure or
at least until the settlement of about 25mm has occurred.
c. Calculation
The ultimate load for the pile γu(p) is indicated by a break on the log-log plot between

the load intensity γ and the settlements. If the break is not well-drained, the ultimate
load taken as corresponding to a settlement of 1/5th of the plate width (Bp).
On the natural plot, the ultimate load is attained from the interaction of the tangents
drawn as shown.
1. The ultimate bearing capacity of the proposed foundation γu (f) can be obtained
from.
i. For clayey soils
γ(f)=γu(p)
For sandy soils
γ(f)=γu(p)* where, Bf= Foundation width
2. The plate load test can also be used to determine the settlement for a given
intensity of loading (γ). The relation between the settlement of the plate load and
that of the foundation (st) for the same load intensity are given by:.
i. For clayey soil
sf= sp *
Where,
Sp is obtained from the load intensity element curve for γo.
3. For steady soils
.
Sf =sp 2
.
Where,
Bf=width of foundation
Bp=width of plate
a. Limitation of plate load test
The plate load test has the following limitations
i. size effect
The results of the plate load test reflect the strength and the settlement characteristics
of the soil within the pressure bulbs. As the pressure bulb depends upon the size of the

loaded area, it is much dipper for actual foliation as compared to that of the plate. The
plate load test doesn't fully represent the actual condition if the soil is not homogeneous
and isotropic to a large depth.
ii. Scale effect
The ultimate bearing capacity of saturated clay is independent of the size of the plate
but for cohesion less soil it increases with the size of the plate. To reduce scale effect,
it is desirable to repeat the plate load test with two or three different sizes and
exploration of the bearing capacity for the actual foundation and take the average of
the value obtained.
iii. Time effect
A plate load test is essentially a test of short duration. For clayey soil, it doesn'tgive
the ultimate settlement. The local settlement curve is not truly representative.
iv. Interpretation of failure load
The failure load is not well-defined except in the case of a general shear failure. An
error or personal interpretation may be involved in other types of failure.
v. Reaction load
It is not practicable to provide a reaction of more than 250KN. Hence, the test on a
plate of size larger than 0.6m width is difficult.
vi. Water tank
The level of the water table affects the bearing capacity of the sandy soils. If the water
table is above the level of the footing, it has to be lowered by pumping before placing
the plate. The test should be performed at the water table if it is within about 1m below
the footing.
5.5. Typically value of bearing capacity from building code
Category Types of rocks and soil Pressure bearing value

Non  Dense gravel or dense sand and >600KN/m2
cohesive gravel <200 to 600 KN/m2
soils  Medium dense gravel or medium

dense sand and gravel <200 KN/m2
 Loose gravel or loose sand gravel >300 KN/m2
 Compact sand 100 to 300 KN/m2
 Medium dense sand <100 KN/m2
 Loose sand
Cohesive  Very Stiff boulder clays and hard 300 to 600KN/m2

Soils clay 150 to 300 KN/m2
 Stiff Clays 75to 150 KN/m2
 Firm Clays <75 KN/m2
 Soft clays and silts
1. Learning processes and support materials

2. Assessment
A. Very short question answer
1. Define bearing capacity
2. Define water table.
B. Short question answer
1. Explain limitations of plate load test
1. Explain Terzagi’s analysis in brief.
Glossary
1. Limitation: Disadvantages
2. Stiff : Not easily bent or changed in shape; rigid

Reference Books:
New Delhi

Unit-6
Site Investigation and Sub Soil Exploration
1. Content
Definition
The process of determining the layers of natural soil deposit that will underlie a
proposal structure and their physical properties is generally referred to as site
investigation.
1.1 Necessity of site investigation and sub-soil exploration
The principle objectives of site investigation are:.
 To determine the ground water condition
 To identify the ground water condition
 To obtain representative soil and sample for identification, classification and if
necessary for use in lab test to determine the relevant soil properties.
 To conduct test to access appropriate soil characteristics.
 To explore the source of construction materials.
1.2 Types of exploration
There are different types of site exploration. Among them, the most used types are:
a. General exploration
The purposed of this investigation is to provide an engineer or rough idea about the
soil condition at a given site. It consists of following steps:.
 Fact finding survey
In this fact finding survey all the available information on the soil condition near
the site and behavior of other structures is investigated. The desired information
can be obtained from technical journals. Published report, geological and
topographic maps, aerial photograph, hydrological and Meteorological records.
Furthermore, a consultation to the local authority would be of much help.

 Reconnaissance survey/recei
Recci is the actual visit to the site, the information obtain from the fact finding
survey is checked in Reconnaissance survey or recci survey. A close inspection
by working over the site is helpful in obtaining information on sub soil feature.
For example: Random depression in areas indicates the presence of shallow hole.
Leaning tree on the slope indicates creeps of soil.
On the basis of fact finding survey and recci, the further method of preliminary
is divided.
 Trial boring
In this investigation phase, we excavated the soil sample from the site for
different kind of test. From this test, we can identify and classify the soil. So, it
is helpful to prepare the soil reports. In most of the soil deposit, the trial boring
is carried out by Augers, wash boring, percussion drilling, rotary drilling, etc.
b. Detailed Investigation
When the general or preliminary investigation doesn't provide sufficient
information for design and construction further investigation are required. The
preliminary investigation data are used as the basis of locating additional boring
and determining additional sample.
Types of detailed investigation
 Accessible investigation (for Shallow deep)
Accessible methods of soil exploration consist of digging of trial pits and test
trenches. They permit a direct inspection of soil and its stratification in place and
obtaining true representative disturbed as well as undisturbed sample Test pits
and trenches are excavated in such a size that a man can work easily. The usual
size of test pit is about a diameter of 1.5 meter and depth is usually limited to
6m. The investigation by trial pits and test trenches finds wide application in
highway, airports, transmission tower and for small and light structure.
 In accessible investigation
In this method, there is not a direct access to the sub soil and the operation

involved consist of making a hole in the ground by hand or power augers, wash
boring, percussion drilling and diamond drilling and then extracting sample for
identification and lab testing. The various operations involved are:
1. Boring
2. Testing
 Lab testing
 In-situ Testing
1. Sampling
 Disturbed Samples
 Undisturbed Samples
This method has greater advantage over other method. It is particularly helpful. When
deep hole is to be made in the ground and where trial pits and trenches are not possible.
1.3 Methods of exploration
1. Open excavation
Open excavation or trial pits are the cheapest methods of exploration in shallow place,
since these can be used in all types of soil. In this method, pits are excavated at the site
exposing the sub-soil surface thoroughly (continuously). Soil sample are collected at
various level. The biggest advantage of this method is soil; strata (layer) can be
inspected. In their natural condition samples (disturb or undisturbed) can be
conveniently taken. This method is generally suitable for depth up to 3m. A typical
open excavation figure of open excavation is shown above.
2. Boring
Boring is a process of drilling a hole on the earth, tunnel or well by special type of
machine called boring machine. As open excavation is suitable type of machine called
boring machine. Open excavation is suitable only for shallow depth. We use boring
for greater depth and also for excavation below ground water table.
a. Auger's Boring
 This is the most popular among all the methods because of its easy way of
boring.

 Augers are used in cohesive and other sub soil above the water table.
 They may either be operated manually or mechanically.
 Hand augers are used up to depth of 6m (shallow depth) and mechanically
operated augers are used for more greater depth.
 Soil samples obtained from the augers are badly disturbed and are used for
identification only.
b. Wash boring
Wash boring is a fast and simple method for drilling holes in all type of soil
except boulders and hard rocks. This method consists of a driving rod which
drills the soil and chisel or chopping bit at the lower end.
Water is force under the pressure to the drill rod which is alternatively raised and
lowered and is also rotated. This action result in chopping of the soil. The cut
soils are forced to the ground and form soil water paste. This change in soil strata
results in threat of progress of drilling. As in this boring, there is a presence of
water, this process is called wash boring. The sample recovers from wash boring
are the most valueless for identification or correct geo-technical properties.
c. Precaution boring
In this method, drilling can be done even through rocks. The soil and rocks below
the surface are broken by repeated blows of heavy chisel or bit suspended by a
drill road. This method is suitable for drilling holes in all types of soil boulders
and rocks. The samples recovered by percussion boring are disturbed by the
impact.
d. Rotary boring
This type of boring is a very fast method of generating holes in both rock and soil.
A drill bit is fixed at the lower end of drill rod, is rotated and always kept in a firm
contact with the bottom of hole. A drilling mud bentonite with or without
admixture forced down the drill rod. The mud back to the top brings the cut soil
sample to surface.
1.4 Disturbed and undisturbed soil sample for lad testing

1. Soil sampling
It is the process of extraction of soil samples from different equipments like drilling
tools and sampling equipment. Two types of samples are taken during the site
investigation.
a. Disturbed samples
They are types of soil samples which have already lost all the physical properties and
structural configuration of soil during obtaining process of soil.
The moisture content of soil sample also differs from that field.
Sample obtained from the cutting of boring tools or from the barrel in the standard
penetration test are all disturbed.
i. Representative disturb soil sample
If the disturbed samples here the composition as that existing at the location of
sampling the sample is called representative disturbed soil samples.
ii. No-representative disturbed soil sample
If the constituent of soil is lost during soil sampling or mixed with layer, the sample is
called non-representative disturbed soil sample.
Note: The representative samples of soil are suitable for carrying out classification test
whereas non-representative samples give only rough idea about the soil and its
stratification.
a. Undisturbed samples
 These are the types of soil samples which retain its physical properties, structural
configuration and moisture content during the process of obtaining soil samples.
 It is impossible the recover sample of soil in a completely undisturbed condition.
The degree of disturbance depends upon the dimension of samples and method
of recovery.
 The least disturbance is caused if a block of sample is carefully exposed and
trimmed from within a trial pit but this becomes uneconomic at depth for most
purpose.
 Usually undisturbed samples are recovered either by driving or pushing a tube

into the sub-soil.
Note: Disturbed samples are usually used to identify or classify the soil but
undisturbed sample can be used for other various test as well it is because disturbed
sample has lost all its physical properties but an undisturbed samples still possess
physical properties on them.
1.5 Criteria for deciding the location and number of test pits and bores.
The bore hole should be made as close as possible to the proposed location of the
foundation. This is particularly important where soil strata are erratic.
Figure above shows, typical layout for multistory building factory building and the site
where the layout of the structure has not been decided.
Number of base holes
The more are the number of bore holes sunk, the more will be known at the site
condition and greater economy is achieved in foundation design. However, the
decision with regard to number of bore holes to be sunk is a different task. This is tied
up with the cost of investigation and cost of the project.
S.N. Types of job Types of soil spacing Minimum no of boring
1. 1 or 2 storey 60 30 15 3
2. Multistoried Structure 45 30 15 4
3. Bridge, Dire abutment 30 15 1-2 per foundation
4. Transmission 30 15 1-2 per foundation
5. Highway and airports 300 150 100
S.N. Structure type Depth of boring

1. Building D=10m
2. Retaining wall D=(0.5-2) x H
3. Deep cuts D=(0.75-1) x B
4. Earthen dam D=1m
5. Gravity dam D=(1.5 to 2) x H
6. Highway D=1-2m for light load
7. Tunnel D=2-3.5m for heavy load
D=B
Where, D = depth of boring
L,B,H = length, breadth and height
1.6 Field identification of soil
Principal terms used by civil engineer designated soils are gravel sand, silt and clay.
Most of the natural soil which are encountered in field is the mixture of two or more
variety.
They may also contain some organic material in a partial or fully decomposed state.
The mixture is then named after the major component and minor component is added
as an adjective. For example: A mixture of soil in which the major component is sand
and minor component is slit, is named as silty sand. The pure soil in one variety can
be obtained only by manufacturing.
A general thumb rule to describe the soil consistency in the field is presented in table
below.
S.N. Consistency Field identification

1. Very Stiff Brittle or very hard leg. (gravel)
2. Stiff cannot be molded in finger
3. Firm can be molded in fingers by strong pressure
4. Soft easily molded in fingers

5. Very soft excludes between fingers when squeezed.
The method of field identification of soil can be conveniently discussed under the
heading of course grained soil and fine, grained soil. Gravel, sand and coarse silt
possibly fall on coarse grained soil and silt, clay fall under the fine grained soil.
Types of tests
1. Dry strength test
In order to perform dry strength test on soil, following procedure are adopted:
 First of all, take some amount of soil from the side where you are performing
field identification.
 Now, mix this soil with some amount of water and from a ball like shape.
 Now, allow this soil ball to dry completely air or oven or sun.
 After the soil ball has completely dried, take it on your hand and try to crumble.
 The dry strength of soil is said to be low if soil ball will break or crumble easily.
 The dry strength of soil is said to be high if the soil ball will not break or crumble
easily.
Note : Typical in-organic silt have very low dry strength and fine sand have medium
dry strength. By this result, we can identify the soil in the field.
1. Toughness test
To perform the toughness test, following procedures are adopted. They are:
 Take about 5cm3 of moist soil. Add the water to the soil to make it soft but not
sticky.
 Dry the soil in your hand by remolding it.
 Roll the soil on a smooth surface by our palm until the soil changes into a thread
like structure of 3 mm diameter.
 Now, again fold the thread and reroll it again until the soil just crumble.
2. Dilatency test
The procedures adopted while performing dilatency test are as follows:.
 After reaming the soil retaining is sieve 425micron (𝜇 , prepare a soil of size

2cm3.
 Add enough water to make the soil soft but not sticky.
 Place the soil on your palm, of one hand and shake it horizontally striking with
next hand.
 Do this step several times in a fast speed.
 A positive reaction consists of appearance of water on soil surface which become
glossy.
 When the soil is squeezed between the fingers, the water disappears from soil. It
becomes hard and finally cracks and crumbles.
 The rapid appearance of water during shaking and disappearance during
squeezing indicated the finer of soil.
 Very fine and clean sand gives quickest reaction whereas silt shows the moderate
reaction.
1.7 Empirical co-relation between soil properties and SPT values
1. Standard penetration test
The test is conducted by driving a spilt spoon into the soil for a distance of 30cm by a
standard hammer of 65kg weight falling down from a height of 75cm .
The spoon attached to a drill rod is lowered into the bottom of hole. The stanard
hammer usually known as monkey hammer is allowed to fall on the top of drill rod
until the samples get penetrate into the soil through a distance 150mm. This depth of
penetration is seating derive and is not accounted for.
After the seating drive, the actual test is started and blows required for the next two
successive penetrations of 150mm are recorded and added. This value is called N-
value or SPT value. This test is conducted for each 1.5m interval of depth or for special
situation each 75cm depth. If N-value record is so, before the full penetration of
30cm.It is taken as refusals the test is terminated.
The standard penetration test is an empirical test but there are extensive correlation
between N-value with relative density, angle of internal friction, elastic modulus and
unconfined compressive strength.

These relations are shown in table below:
Value Angle of Density Index Moist Density Description

resistance (ID) (t/m3) of soil
4 27-32 15 1.44-1.84 Loose
10 30-35 35 1.76-2.08 Medium
30 35-40 65 1.76-2.24 Dense
50 38-43 85 2.08-2.4 Very Dense

2. Assessment
1. Define boring.
2. What is open excavation.
1. Write about Auger's Boring.
2. How toughness test is done?
1. Explain standard penetration test.
Glossary
Tough : Strong enough to withstand adverse conditions or rough handling
Penetration : The action or process of penetrating something

Reference Books:
New Delhi

Unit-7
Design of Retaining Wall
Retaining wall
It is the structure designated and constructed to resist the lateral pressure.
Lateral pressure
Lateral pressure is the pressure that soil exerts in the horizontal direction. Retaining
wall is introduced when there is desired change in ground elevation that exceed the
angle of response of the soil. Angel or response of soil/ Angle of friction
Minimum angle made by an inclined plane with the horizontal.

7.1 Functions of retaining wall
 To prevent down slope movement and provide support
 To resist failure from overturning and sliding
 To support bridge and similar structure
 To provide a quality drainage system
Types of retaining wall
a. Gravity retaining wall
It is a type of retaining wall that depends on their huge weight to retain the materials
behind it and achieve stability against failure. It is constructed from concrete, stone or
even big masonry. It is mostly in trapezoidal shape and is constructed where slope of
ground surface is minimum.
It is not economic for large height.
b. Semi-gravity retaining wall
 In this wall reinforcement is also used to reduce the height of retaining wall and
to resist more earth pressure compare to gravity retaining wall.
 They are gravity structure in which stability against overturning is provided by
the weight of wall and reinforcement bar in the wall.
c. Cantilever retaining wall
It is also a reinforcement retaining wall that consists of wall which is connected to
foundation. It holds back a significant amount of soil so it must be well engineered. It
rests in slab foundation. The foundation is also loaded by back fill soil and thus weight
of backfill and surface charge also stabilize the wall against overturning and sliding.
d. Counterfort retaining wall
They are cantilever retaining wall strengthened with counterfort just back side of the
wall. The purpose of providing counterfort is to reduce the bending and sharing stress.
It is economic for height more than (6-8)m.
7.2 Site of retaining wall
1. Site on which slope of road is more steep than rolling gradient.

2. Near bridge structure under pars, overpass element, hill road landslide,
area, etc.
3. Building constructed at hill side.
4. Place where ground level is to be maintained for shallow foundation
7.3 Practical features of retaining wall
1. Retain the soil at back side of wall.
2. Maintain the level of ground when required.
3. Make the soil stable in sloppy area.
4. Prevent from sliding and overturning of wall.
5. Provide proper drainage.
7.4 Special features of dry masonry retaining wall
1. Relatively low cost materials for construction is locally available.
2. Well drained: The masonry remains quite permeable to the flow of water.
This water pressure doesn't buildup normally.
3. Dress all stones (if rounded) into rectangular block.
4. The foundation of dry masonry retaining wall lay back into the slope at 1V
:3H.
5. The stone lay and tied into the slope in such a way that only small side not
long sides are at the face of wall.
6. Use stone as large as possible.
7. Use flatters stone for the top layers cover the top of the retaining wall with
soil, which build bondmasonry along the top layer.
7.5 Special features of dry masonry retaining
1. Use heavily galvanized high grade steel welded on triple twist hexagonal
mesh.
2. Mesh should be mild steel welded on triple twist hexagonal mesh.
3. Insure minimum dimension of stone is larger than the wire mesh size.
4. Stone should be angular.
5. A filter blanket can be placed behind the backfill to improve drainage.

6. Ensure drainage is provided from the lowest point of foundation.
7.6 Front battered or back battered.
 A wall sloping on the front side i.e. opposite to the backfill side is known
as front battered retaining wall.
 A wall sloping on the backfill side is known as back battered retaining
wall.
7.8 Common causes of retaining wall failure
1. Effect of ground water behind the retaining wall, either static or dynamic
pressure through subsoil can have effect on design of retaining wall
2. How quality of materials are used in retaining wall construction.
3. Failure due to low design reinforcement
4. Mistake in calculation of top water level natural condition and also type of
soil
5. Subsoil water movement in the retaining wall
6. Poor workmanship or unskilled labour
7.9 Some construction techniques for increasing stability of masonry retaining
wall
1. Granular soil, gravel, sand, etc. should be used as backup material. If silt
and clay are used as backfill materials, then it must be expressed as bearing
capacity of soil as per design.
2. To prevent a built up of hydrostatic pressure on retaining wall drainage
system is often constructed.
3. Appropriate design of reinforcement is necessary for stability
4. Factor of safety for sliding, overturning and bearing pressure should be
maintained while designed.
Pressure at rest/earth's pressure
 When the wall is at rest and the material is in it's natural state then the pressure
applied by material is known as earth's pressure at rest. It is represented by Po.
Types of earth pressure

Different types of earth pressure that should be considered during design of retaining
wall are:.
1. Active earth pressure
When the wall moves away from the backfill there is a decrease in the pressure
on the wall and decrease continues until as minimum value is reached after which
there is no reduction in the pressure and the volume will become constant. This
kind of pressure is known as active pressure.
2. Passive earth pressure
When the wall moves towards the backfill there is an increase in pressure on the
wall and this increase in pressure continues until a maximum value is reached
after which there is no increase in the pressure and the value will become
constant. This kind of pressure is known as passive earth pressure.
3. Design of retaining wall
In order to calculate the pressure exerted at any point on the wall following points must
be taken into account.
a. Height of the water table
b. Subsoil water movement
c. Nature and types of soil
d. Type of water
e. Materials used for construction retaining wall
While designing retaining wall, following points should be considered.
1. Assessment

1. Define lateral pressure.
2. Define retaining wall.
1. What are the types of retaining wall?
2. Differentiate between active earth pressure and passive active earth
pressure.
1. Explain common causes of retaining wall failures.
Glossary
 Lateral: of, at, towards, or from the side or sides.
 Passive: Without active response or resistance

Reference Books:
 Dr. B. C. Punmia, Soil Mechanics & Foundation Engineering, Standard Book
house, New Delhi
 Murthi, Soil Mechanics & Foundation Engineering, Tata McGraw Hill , New
Delhi
 B. J. Kasmalkar, Soil Mechanics, Pune VidhyartiGriha, Pune
 Gulhati& Dutta, Geo-technical Engineering ,Tata McGraw Hill , New Delhi
 Department of soil and conservation, Swiss Association for Technical
Assistance, Manual Calculation of Check Dams.
 Department of Roads, Nepal, Roadside Bio-engineering
 http://www.enviromeshgabions.co.uk/, Volume I, A Reference Guide for the
 http://www.sheltercentre.org/, Spur and dyke for flood water protection
 Hand book for flood protection, anti-erosion and river training works, Central
Water Commission, New Delhi.

Unit-8
Survey Information and Design Consideration for
check dam
8.1. Introduction
A check dam is a small dam constructed across the drainage ditch, canal, or water to
lower the velocity of flow. Reduced velocity reduces erosion and gulling in the canal
and allow sediment in settle down. A check dams are ancient techniques and are
typically constructed throughout the canal at regular interval on the area of interest.
Check dams can be permanent or temporary structure.
Check dam have been implemented in place of large scale down because the typical
high slope cause increased in flow velocity. Check dams are further used to prevent
rain water, flood and unexpected flood hazard. A check dam may be built from stone,
sand bags etc. field with gravel or logs.
Uses of check dam

 Check dams may be used to reduce flow in small temporary channel that are
presently under going degradation.
 Where permanent stabilization is impractical due to the temporary nature
problems.
 To reduce flow in small eroding channels where construction delay or weather
conditions prevent timely installation of non-erosive liners.
8.2. Practical features
1. Choose location for the check dams so that the maximum effect can be achived
using the minimum possible volume of construction.
2. Excavate function in the gully bed until you found a sound layer to build on. The
base of the dam should be at least 660mm thick if it is 1m high for every one
additional meter of height and for the 330mm thick to the width.
3. Construct the check dam using the best drain and most cost effective materials.
(If possible, use dry masonry or gabion to improve drainage if this will not work,
use concrete bound mortar).
4. If concrete bound mortar is used including weep hole to drain water from behind
the check dam and reduces hydrostatic pressure.
5. The end of the dam should be keyed right into the gully side and should be raised
at least 250mm from central spillway. This ensures that water coming over the
dam will run down the middle and not scour the end.
6. An apron must be provided below the dam to ensure the energy is dissipated and
the continue in the center of the dam below.
7. If there is risk to take large flow of water, the top layer should be prepared with
cement mortar.
8. The dam should be spaced so that the toe of the up stream up is at the same
elevation as the top of downstream dam
9. Ensure that overflow areas along the channel or canal are resistant to erosion
from out of back flow caused dam
10. Once the construction of the check dam is completed backfill behind the wings
and side and compact thoroughly.

8.3. Design consideration of check dam
 Following points are to be considered while check dam is to be designed.
a. Site
Before installation of a check dam, careful inspection of the site must be done for the
drainage are, ground slope, minimum depth of bed rock, etc. The drainage area should
be 10 acres. The water way should be on slope of no more than 50% and should have
minimum depth of bed rock of two feet. Beside these while selecting the site,
accessibility of site and availability of local material is also checked for economic site
construction.
b. Materials
Check dams are made of various materials such as timber, stone, RCC bricks, etc.
Local materials like sand bags are also used for small canals. Wires can be used to
construct check dam in order to hold fine materials in a gully.
c. Size
A check dam should not be more than 2-3ft high and the center of the dam should be
at least 6 inch lower than its edge.
d. Spacing
Normally, the spacing of check dam will be determined by ground conditions. In steep
slope, every interval of 10m the check dam should be such that the toe of the upstream
dams at the same elevation as the top of the downstream dam.
In order to effectively slow down water velocity to prevent the effect of erosion and
protect the channel from damage the following aspects should be considered.
8.4. Hydrologic Aspects.
Hydrological aspect is necessary to evaluate the past flow condition and to predict the
future flow condition and to design an appropriate dam that will be stable on any
hazards which could possibly occur. Following points are to be considered:
1. Length and width of river/ stream
The length and width of river is considered to design the check dam. The check dams
are constructed in length wise at an interval of required length which is determined by

the slope of canal and check dam are also designed on considering it's width. It is
constructed in small section to interrupt the flow of water.
2. Terrain
It includes the geological features of land, natural resources and it's slope condition on
the ground surface. Check dams are constructed mostly in highly mountain region, i.e.
steep slope.
3. Catchment Area
It is an area of land where all surface water from rain, melting snow or ice converges
to a single point at a low elevation. The catchment area determines the flow discharge
of water on the canal so that it will determine the section of canal as well as check
dam.
4. Average bed slope
The bed slope may be of 1:200, 1:1000 etc. which is found in natural ground surface.
Before designing the check dam, it should be calculated or known the slope of ground
surface. The bed slope is directly proportional to the velocity of the of water which
will determine the section of canal as well as check dam.
8.5. Hydraulic element
Hydraulic element should be designed or hydraulic analysis should be done in
circumstance where use of check dam could cause flooding of adjacent properties.
Hydraulic elements of check dams are as follow:.
1. Spillway
Spillway is structure constructed to provide safe release of flood water from a dam to
a downstream when the canal get over flooded during rainy season and sometime
techincal problem in power house, spillway should have to drain out the over flooded
water from the canal safely so that it can pressure other several damages on the canal.
It is showed design that it can drain out the maximum flood from it, when the normal
water level (NWL) is raised up spillway function automatically and spill out all surplus
water.
2. Outlet work

Outlet work facility to permit water to drawn off as operationally necessary. The
provision of outlet on the pipe (tunnel, penstock) is required when the water
accumulates inside the pile get jam or other any obstacle generated on it. It consists of
regulating gate on it so that it can be easily adjusted as per the require flow.
3. Cut off
Cut off is adjusted on the headwork of dam and on the canal. When water flow is
maximum then water can be drained out on the downstream and on the ground surface
simply.
4. River diversion work
River diversion work are necessary to guarantee that river can by- pass the dam site
during the main structure construction. Its primary function of diversion structure is to
protect and ensure the site safety during construction.
5. Internal gallery/ Internal drainage
Seepage is always present within the body of any dam. Seepage flows and their
resultant internal pressure can affect the stability of dam so internal drainage or gallery
is required to drain out water from the dam. It is provided more or less as per section
of dam.
8.6. Spillway section
The spillway is the structure constructed at dam for effective passing of the surplus
water from canal to the downstream. Just after the reservoir gets filled up to the normal
flow level c(NFL) water start flowing over the top of spillway if there is no spillway
the water would have over flow the dam and can damage on the downstream structure.
It may also cause failure of damage hence spillway is a essentially safety value for
dam.

8.7. Scour Holes
Scour holes are areas where removal of under water bed material has taken place and
are caused by current or wave activity have an effect upon a structure face deflecting
wave or current activity upward or downward.
Formation of scour holes is the cause for failure of check dam earth dam. Scour hole
may be formed by erosion check dam earth dam. Scour hole may be formed by erosion
of upsteram face and cracking due to frost action. The waves near to the top surface
due to wind also get scour on the dam when the water gets seepage from the dam it
will scour the fine clay particles with water and it will create the scour hole. This
creates the dam structure weak and may fail in large water pressure.
Therefore, stone patching should be done to avoid failure like cracking due to frost
action also make the scour hole and seepage occurs finally it will scour soil.
8.8. Strain cases for check dam
1. Check dams are only suitable for limited drainage area.
2. May kill grass living in channels if the water level remains high after rains or if
there is significant sedimentation.
3. Reduce the hydraulic capacity of channel
4. May create turbulence whiche rodes the channel bank.

5. Clogging by leaves in the fall may be a problem.
6. Gully erosion which may further lead to failure of check dam.
7. Generally, check dams are temporary and made of local materials. So, changes
of scouring, problems and scour holes.
8. Sediment trapped on upstream site may be a problem.
8.9. Stabilization of fully head
Formation of gully erosion of downstream face also lead to failure of check dam.
Heavy rain falling directly over the downstream faces and the moving may lead to
formation of gully on the downstream face. This can be avoided by proper
maintenance, filling the cut from time to time on during rainy season by grassing the
slope and by providing proper berm at suitable height so that water doesn't flow for
considerable distance and height. The proper drainage arrangements are made for that
removed of rainwater collected before it rise high.
8.10. Scouring problem
Scouring of check dam occurs both in upstream and downstream of the dams of loads
and failure of the check dam.
Scouring of upstream may cause due to:
1. Under estimation of design flood or insufficient capacity of spillway or improper
operation of spillway gate.
2. Effect of wind dust to which waves developed at top surface
3. Frosty action which causes cracking
These can be remedied by:
1. Providing sufficient capacity of spill during design
2. Providing sufficient free board
3. Proper operation or spillway
In downstream, scouring problem is occurred due to:
a. Formation of gully
b. Erosion due to cross-drain current that comes from spillway bucket
c. Erosion due to rain water
These can be prevented by proper maintenance stone pitching providing berms and
other maintenance work.
8.11. Foundation
The foundation of check dam should be made on impervious layer. Seepage in
foundation can be controlled by providing the layer. Seepage in foundation can be
controlled by providing the impervious layer on the both way and factor of
stabilization on the dam should be determined properly. The upstream and downstream
treatment must be conducted to make the foundation stable.
8.12. Maintenance
Check dam required regular maintenance as they are used temporary structure and they
are nit design to with-stand long term used. Dam should be inspected every week,
every month as possible that it functions well or not and it is compulsory to maintain
or check after every large storm. It is important to remove sediment particles from the
4/s side id check dam. This is typically done when the sediments as reached at height
of ½ of original height of dam. Any damaged or destroyed part of dam should be
maintained immediately after heavy storm.
Advantage of check dam
Check dams are highly effective practice to reduce flow velocity in channel section
and in water way. It's main advantage is to check or block high speed velocity of water
to come into rest at zero velocity and again freely flow of water to the d/s. Construction
of check dams reduce the construction of large scale channel where enough quantities
of discharge can flow on it. It will also decrease the maintenance cost due to the high
speed velocity flow of water in case of steep slope channel.
Limitations
 Check dam still requires maintenance and sediment removal particles.
 They become more difficult to implement on steep slope as velocity is higher
and thereby the distance between dams must be shortened.
 Check dam depending on the materials used can have a limited life span but it
complemented completely can be considered as permanent throughout the
design life time.

Functions
A check dam placed in the channel or canal to interrupt the flow of water and to
minimize the slope velocity of water flow and to reduce the gradient of channel. In the
obstruction, it induces the infiltration of water on its surface and roll the water flow on
the channel. They can be used not only to interrupt the flow velocity but also to
distribute across it on same level or elevation land. Check dams are also functioned as
sedimentation of clay particles but as an engineering concept it is not applicable. Check
dam could be designed to create small reservoir without possibility of split out from
it.
Applications
1. Grade control mechanism
Traditionally dam has been implemented as cross channel or the hilly slope which is
used to control water velocity, conserve soil and to improve well functionable canal.
This mechanism helps to degrade water flow in channel with control manner.
2. Water quality control mechanism
Water may flow either under low flow circumstance or high flow condition due to
which extra unwanted minerals, heavy metals and floating garbage are also entrapped
which will increase the effectiveness of water flow and also control the water quality.
3. Grid region
In the large area, check dam is often built to increase ground water recharge in a
process called aquifer recharge. In winter season run off velocity of aquifier is
decreased so that it can be used to store large amount of water for next season and also
from this aquifer water can be withdrawn for irrigation even in drinking water supply.
This is practicable for small grid area.
4. Mountain region
This type of dam is applicable to stabilize mountainous stream aquifer. Because of the
steep slope in mountainous region it may be difficult to flow water continusoly. So,
this type of dam is applicable to control water flow smoothly.

2. Assessment
1. Define check dam.
2. Define scour holes.
1. Explain about diversion works.
2. Explain the use of spillway section of a dam.
1. What are the design considerations for a dam?
Glossary
1. Spillway : A passage for surplus water from a dam
2. Scour : The action of scouring or the state of being scoured, especially by
swift-flowing water

Reference Books
New Delhi

Unit-9
Gabion Structures
Gabion wall is big cage cylinder or box filled with rocks, concrete or sand/soil military
application and landscaping.
It helps as following :
 For erosion control, caged riprap is used.
 For dams or in foundation, cylindrical metal structure are used.
 For military content, earth or sand filled gabions are used.
Gabion wall is just a retaining wall made of stacked stone filled gabions tied together
with wire.
9.1. Advantage of gabion wall
a. Provides a strong base that provides strength from being drag away by
river
b. Reduces velocity of water as they energy dissipated by rocks thus reduces
erosion.
c. It is flexible thus it is easy to use.
d. In most cases, the voids between rocks of gabion wall gets filled up by
vegetation and as time goes on this will reinforce (enhance, compact or
stability) the structure.
e. It has high permeability thus allows water to flow through it. So, water
level in ground can be maintained to lower heights.
9.2. Constructions of gabion wall
Following steps should be followed for design of gabion wall.
 Determine the force acting on wall.
 Check that resisting moment exceeds the overturning moment or not.
 The active soil pressure acting on the walls may tend to overturn the wall, which
should be properly balanced by resisting move developed from the weight of

wall.
Check bearing pressure
Steps for construction of gabion wall
 First of all, gabion baskets are prepared.
 The place where gabion ages are to be laid should be leveled properly.
 1/3 of height of the gabion basket should be installed inside the ground level.
 Gabion baskets are then stretched to remove any kind of present.
 Then stones are filled in the basket (the stones should be larger in size than the
mesh opening, small stones may be used to fill up the voids inside the bigger
stones).
 The gabion baskets are filled in layers.
 The prepared gabion wall is tilted towards the soil that they are protecting.
 The internal cross tie wires are placed in every 0.5 meters.
9.3. Wires used in gabion baskets
The wires used in gabion wall for wearing gabion baskets is welded mesh wire or
woven mesh wire. The welded mesh wires are faster to erect, stay in proper, shape and
fit easily against wall and it is also possible to cut holes in them if needed to pass pipes.
Mesh wires are made from galfram coated i.e. 95% zinc and 5% aluminum. The
standard of wire is of 3mm, 4mm or 5mm.
9.4. Types of mesh or mesh opening
Mesh wires are of different types. Some of them are:
1. Standard stainless steel wire mesh
2. Stainless welded mesh
3. Stainless Hex mesh
4. Micronics mesh
5. Stainless steel decorative mesh
6. Black Polystainless wire mesh
The size of opening or aperture of wire mesh has a wide range of variations. The

site/diameter of opening starts from 0.12mm, 0.65mm, 0.7mm and ranges into about
75mm. The shape of the wire mesh opening may be hexagonal, square or rectangular.
9.5. Design consideration of gabion wall
a. Soils on which gabion wall should be investigated properly.
b. The total pressure of gabion wall must be less than expected bearing capacity of
soil.
c. Stone filling should be granular and well compacted for the foundation of gabion
wall.
d. The gabion wall should be inclined at (6-10) degree.
e. Foundation soil for the retaining wall should be of enough strength.
f. Backfill material of gabion wall should be well compacted.
g. Geo-textile filter fabric should be used as shown in figure to prevent loss of soil.
h. Provide the maximum resistance to the soil; the gabion basket shall be placed
with length running from back face to front face.
i. Gabion wall should be designed with either font face slipped or front face
smooth.
j. Height of gabion wall should be around 18 -36
k. The ratio of base and height should be 2/3.
9.6. Characteristics of fill materials
As already stated above, the fill material of gabion wall may be stones, rocks, concrete,
earth or sand.
a. The material for fill should be hard and durable.
b. The size of fill materials should not be less than 100mm and not more than
150mm with 90% being and retained in 100mm sieve.
c. The material of fill should be angular rather than straight. This increase
interlocking between the fill material and face deformation is less.
In case of soil, the backfill should have good drainage properly and the soil should be
able to be compacted to a high extent. Mostly the soil must be granular good
compressive strength.

2. Assessment
1. Define fill materials.
2. Define wire mesh.
1. What are the advantages of gabion wall?
2. What are the types of wire mesh ?
1. Explain design considerations of gabion wall.
Glossary
 Backfill : Refill (an excavated hole) with the material dug out of it
 Micronics : Having dimensions measured in microns.

Reference Books:
New Delhi

Unit-10
Bio Engineering
 To be familiar with Bio engineering.

 To gather information of slope failure.
 To know the function of bio engineering.
 To be familiar with vegetation system.
Introduction
Nepal is prone to natural as well as human induced hazards. Each year several
hundreds of life and properties worth of several millions of dollars are lost and the soil
ecosystem is also disturbed. Earthquake, landslide, debits flow, glacier, lake outburst,
flood, avalanche and cloud burst take toll of life and property in mountains and sudden
flooding in the terrain. When such hazard occurs, bridges, roads, and power intake
location in the mountainous region are destroyed. At the same time, landslide and
debris flow not only take the fertile field and houses but also add to the sediment load
in the river which unturned washes away the paddy fields located along the bank of
river on mountain areas. In the terrain area many paddy fields are either eroded or
submerged with flood water.
In this context, it is a big challenge for engineers to solve the problems of erosion and
slope stability. As it is too costly to construct heavy civil engineering structure and use
high technology for solving these problems the experience of past several years have
shown that such types of problems can be solved by using living plants. The use of
living plants either alone or in conjunction with small scale civil engineering structures
or non-living plant material for the purpose of reducing the shallow seated instability
and controlling erosion on slope of any water shed can be named as Bio Engineering.
It is not a new technique for Nepal. The indigenous methods similar to bio-engineering
are in practice for centuries.

Causes and mechanism of slopes
Slope
An exposed ground surface that stands at an angle with the horizontal is called slope.
Slopes are required in the construction of highway and railway embankment, earth
dams, leaves and canal. These are constructed by sloping the lateral faces of the soil
because slopes are generally less expensive than constructing walls.
Slope can be natural or manmade when the ground surface is not horizontal; a
component of gravity will try to move the sloping soil mass downwards. Failure of
natural slopes and manmade slopes has resulted in much death and destruction.
Some failures are sudden catastrophic while others are widespread and some are
localized. Civil engineers are expected to check the safety of natural and slopes of
excavation. Slope stability analysis consists of determining and comparing the shear
stress developed along the potential rupture surface with the shear strength of the soil.
Attention has to be paid to geology, surface drainage, ground water and the shear
strength of soil in assessing slope stability.
Manmade slopes are used in :
 Highway
 Railway
 Earth dam
 River training work
Slope failure triggering mechanism
 Intense rain fall
 Water level change
 Seepage water flow
 Volcanic eruption
 Earthquake
 Human activity

Cause of slope failure:
1. Erosion
The wind and flowing water cause erosion of top surface of slope and make the
slope steep and thereby increase the tangential component of driving force.
2. Steady seepage
Seepage forces in the sloping direction and gravity forces and make the slope
susceptible to instability. The pore water pressure decreases the shear strength.
This condition is critical for the downstream slope.
3. Sudden drawdown
In this case, there is reversal in the direction of flow and result in instability of
side slope. Due to sudden drawdown, the shear stresses and more due to saturated
unit weight while the shearing resistance decreases due to pore water pressure
that doesn’t dissipate quickly.
4. Rainfall
Long periods of rainfall saturate soften and erode soils. Water enters into existing
cracks and may weaken underlying soil layers leading to failure. For example:
mud slides.
5. Earthquakes
They induce dynamic shear forces. In addition, there is sudden buildup of pore
water pressure that available shear strength.
6. External loading
Additional leads placed on the top of the slope increase the gravitational forces
that may cause the slope to fall.
7. Construction activates at the toe of the slope
Excavation at the bottom of the sloping surface will make the slopes steep and
thereby increases the gradational forces which may result in slope failure.

1. Assessment
1. Define Bio- Engineering.
2. Define slope.
1. Where the manmade slope are used in?
1. What are the causes of slope failure? Explain in brief.
Glossary
 Drawdown : A reduction in the size.
 Eruption : Break out suddenly and dramatically.
Reference Books:
New Delhi

Unit-11
Foundation
1. Content
Foundation is lowest part of any structure. Most of the structure consists of two parts;
the upper part lies above the ground surface and the lower part buried under the ground.
The upper part is called super structure while the lower part is called sub-structure of
foundation. The foundation is the interface between the super structure and underline
soil. Hence, the foundation can be considered as a medium which reduces the load
from the super structure and transmit it to the sub-soil underneath.
The branch of engineering science which deals with the design construction and
maintenance of foundation including investigators of the site for foundation purpose
is called foundation engineering.
Types of foundation
Generally, foundations are classified as shallow and deep foundation and further can
be categorized into different types on the basis of load transmission to the ground.
1. Shallow foundation
In shallow foundation, generally the depth at which the foundation is kept less than it's
width, i.e. the ratio of depth of foundation to it's width is less than unity. A shallow
foundation spreads the load of the super structure into the ground laterally. Hence,
shallow foundation is generally known as spread footing. From design point of view,
shallow foundations are classified as follows:
a. Wall foundation
b. Isolated column footing
c. Combined footing
d. Cantilever/Strap footing
e. Mat foundation
2. Deep foundation
If the depth of foundation is greater than its width, the foundation is known as deep

foundation. The depth to width ratio is usually greater than 4 deep foundation as
compare to shallow foundation that distributes the load of the super structure vertically
rather than laterally.
Some examples of deep foundations are:.
a. Pile foundation
b. Pier foundation
c. Wells or caissons foundation
11.1. Construction of spread foundation
A foundation which has enlarged base and support on column or a wall is known as
spread foundation. It is widely used due to it's low cost of construction. For the
construction, least amount of equipment is needed and no heavy machinery is required
spread footing are used in soils of low compressibility such as rocks, sand and gravels.
Depth of foundations
A foundation should be provided with adequate depth so that it functions properly. The
factors that govern the depth foundation are:.
 Depth of top soil
 Local erosion of soil due to flowing water
 Underground defects such as root holes, cavities mine shaft, etc.
 Filled unconsolidated soil
 Adjacent structures, properly lines, excavation and future construction operation
 Ground water level
 Depth of frost penetration
 Depth of volume change
 Desiccation due to heat of boilers of furnaces
 Desiccation due to water drawn by roots of trees.
Loads on foundation
Prior to the design of a foundation, the expected loads to the foundation should be
accessed as accurately as possible. In general, a foundation has to bear the loads as

described below:.
1. Dead load
2. Include weight of all permanently fixed material to the structure, beam, floor,
column, fixed equipment
3. Live load, movable load, people, furniture, equipment,machinery etc.
4. Wind load
5. Snow load
6. Earth load
7. Water pressure
8. Earthquake load
Steps in design of spread foundation
1. Estimate dead load, live load and other loads.
2. Estimate service load, i.e. service load =𝐷𝐿 .
3. Decide on depth of foundation.
4. Assume dimension of the foundation.
5. Find plan area.
6. Find the load bearing capacity.
7. Estimate allowable bearing capacity and ensure it is equal to or greater than the
net load intensity.
8. If not revise the dimension of the footings compute the nestle bearing capacity
9. Determine the expected settlement.
10. Determine the differential settlements and angular distortion.
11. Ensure the settlement within the permissible limits.
12. If not within permissible limits, revise footings, dimensions, depth and make
bearing capacity and settlement computations such that the settlements are
within the permissible limits.
13. Check the stability of footings to ensure safety against sliding, should not be less
than 1.75 and not less than 2 against overturning.

11.2. Construction of mat foundation
A mat foundation is a thick reinforced concrete slab supporting arrangements of
columns or wall in arrow or rows and transmitting the loads to the soil. It is used to
support storage tanks, industrial equipment, chimneys and various tower structure. A
mat foundation is used when the sub soil is weak and column loads are so heavy that
the conventional spread footings cover more than 50% of the building area. It is
common to use mat foundation or dep basement to transfer the column loads to the
underlying soil as well as provide floor slab for the basement.
Types of mat foundation

The types of mat foundation commonly employed are:
1. Flat plate mat
2. Plate thickened under columns
3. Two-way beam and slab
4. Plate with pedestal
5. Rigid frame mat
6. Piled raft
General consideration
1. A mat supported on strong bed rock transmits the load in a relatively small area

near columns.
2. If the mat rests on stiff or compact soils, the mat distributes the load to the subsoil
in larger area as shown below.
3. If the mat rests on weak soil the pressure distribution on the mat tends to be
uniform as shown in figure.
Types of pressure distribution under mat foundation
In mat foundation, the stresses developed underneath the mat could be different from
the calculated values due to following reasons:
1. If there is a layer of compressible clayey soil extending to a great depth or if
there is compressible soil at lower depth, a greater compression is produced in
the soil under the center of footing causing a disc shaped ground surface.
2. If uniform soil under the mat and contain pockets or lenses with properties
different from average, the mat will be expensive unequal settlements.
3. Spread footing and mat foundation are not subjected to equal pressure over the
entire foundation area. For footing on sands, the sand hear the edge tends to flow
out and reduces it's bearing pressure. On clays which are similar to elastic the
pressure near the edge is greater.
4. Design steps
a. Soil profile
Characterize the soil profile from in site field test, borings, logs and laboratory
test on soil sample Detailed test performed on the probable foundation bearing
stratum, soil parameters for design determined from result of field and laboratory
tests.
b. Structural requirement
Determine preliminary distribution of loads, location and size of walls and
columns based on initial structural design and functional requirements.
Determine maximum allowable total and different movements.
c. Total soil displacement
Total displacement for the given structural loads are estimated from different

empirical relationships and checked against allowable total moments.
d. Initial mat thickness
Determine minimum initial mat thickness by resistance of the end mat to
punching shear.
e. Minimum depth of mat base and bearing capacity
Base of mat should be below soil influenced by frost heavy soil erosion and
excessive soil moisture change. Design loads may require adjustments if the
depth of mat base D is fixed within a limited range and the allowable bearing
capacity exceeded floating or compensated mat be used if settlements would
otherwise be excessive.
f. Differential soil settlements
Estimate of differential displacement may be done using different analysis for
given loads and soil profiles.
g. Final structural design
Final design checked for compliance with shear bending moment and deflection
requirements.
h. Site developments plan
Construction of additional nearby structure and change in environment can affect
performance of pervious construction and must be considered in the site plan.
Conventional method
The basic assumptions in this method are:.
1. Foundation is rigid relative to supporting soil an compressive soil is relatively
shallow.
2. The bearing pressure is assumed to be uniform such that centroid of the bearing
pressure coincides with the line of action of the resultant of all forces acting of
the foundation.
In case of mat foundation, it is difficult to coincide the line of action of resultant force
with the line of action of soil pressure and there always exists some eccentricity.
The processes of design are as follow:
1. The column loads of all columns coming from the superstructure are calculated
as per standard practice. The loads include live load and dead load.
2. Determine the line of action of the resultants of all the loads. However, the
weight of the meat is not included in the structural design of the mat because
every point of the mat is supported by soil under it causing no flexural strength.
3. Calculate the soil pressure at the desired location by the use of equation.
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
v=
where,
ex and ey are the eccentricity along x-axis and y-axis, respectively.
Q is the resultant of all the column loads.
Ixx is the moment of Inertia about y-axis
Iyy is the moment of Inertia about x-axis.
Ixx = & 𝐼𝑦𝑦
x is the distance of the point in x-axis from the neutral axis.

y is the distance of the point in y-axis from the neutral axis.
4. Divide the slab into strips in both x and y direction. Each strip is assumed to act
as independent beam subjected to constant soil pressure and columns loads.
5. Determine the modified column load. Let us consider the strips carrying column
loads Q1, Q2 and Q3. Let B1 is the width of the strip. Let the average soil pressure
on the strip qar. Then the average total load on strip is given by:.
6. Qav = 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑉𝑎𝑟. 𝐵 . 𝐵
The column modification factor, f is given by, F = column load are

multiplied by F to obtain modified column load.
7. The moments and shear force diagram are drawn for the modified columns loads
and modified soil pressure qav = qav
. .

8. Design the individual strips for the bending moments and shear force as obtained
in steps. The raft is designed as an inverted floor supported at columns.
As the resultant column loads and resultant soil pressure are not equals, they don't have
same line of action. The reason is that the strips don't act independgently as assumed
and there is some shear transfer between adjoining strips. The analysis being
approximately the actual reinforcement provided is twice the computed value.
11.3. Construction of pile foundation
A pile is a shear structural member having very small area of cross section relative to
its length. It is deep foundation where depth of greater than the width. It is used when
shallow foundation cannot support the structure.
Types of Pile
A pile may be classified in following ways:.
1. Plie function
2. Pile materials
3. Method of installation
Based on function
1. Points bearing piles
2. Friction piles
3. Combination of friction and point bearing
Based on materials
1. Timer
2. Concrete
3. Steel
Based on method of installation

1. Large displacement piles
 Pre cast
 Driven and cast in-situ

2. Small displacement
 Steel section
 Screw piles
3. Non-displacement piles
 Bored and cast in situs piles
Design criteria
A pile foundation must fulfill the following requirements.
 The material itself must not be over stressed.
 There must be an adequate factor of safety against the shear failure
 The settlement must be within tolerable limits.
 It should not over stress the underlying soft strata.
General steps of design
a. Drawing and calculations
Pile layout drawing also including pile reference mummer’s and the amount of
load each pile will be subjected is to be calculated.
b. Site investigation report
Geo technical site investigation is conducted along and beneath the piles extend
to at least 3 times the pile diameter or mn. of 5m.
c. Factor of safety (FOS)
Factor of safety will be determined based on the design site investigation and
pile load test. It should have FOS rating between 2 and 3.
d. Testing
Various test should be carried out to ensure that the foundation meet the design
requirement.
Design consideration of pile foundation
1. It is understood that the pile is basis for design of deep foundation. The very first
step in the design of pile foundation is the selection of type length and capacity
of pile depends upon following parameters:.

a. Soil condition
b. Magnitude of load
2. The materials itself must not be overstressed
3. There must be an adequate factor of safety against a shear failure
4. The settlement must be within the tolerable limit.
Construction of pile foundation
In actual construction, first pile load test if performed on the soil to verify soil strength
that whether it can take the load of pile or not.
Factorsaffecting selection of pile
1. Length of piles relation to load and soil condition
2. Behaviors of structure
3. Availability of material in locality of construction
4. Type of loading
5. Ease of maintenance
6. Factors causing damage
7. Cost of pile and availability of funds
Pile load test
Pile load test is a method to asses a pile's bearing capacity by applying a load (dynamic)
to the pile head while recording acceleration and strain on the pile head.
Purposes
 To determine settlement under working load
 To determine ultimate bearing capacity
 To ascertain as a proof of acceptability
Types of test
In general two types of pile load tests are conducted. They are:.
1. Initial test
2. Routine test
 Initial test is performed before the start of construction to asses the design

adequacy.
 The routine test is performed on a working pile. This test is also known as
work test.
 In initial test, the test load is 2 ½ times the working load in work test load
is 1 ½ times the design load.
Method of testing
There are two methods of testing piles They are:
1. Maintained test
2. Constant rate of penetration (CRP)
Maintained load
The maintained load test is a better method. This method provides an idea of both shaft
and end resistance. In this method, the contribution of each soil layer can be calculated
but it is time consuming. The failure load is just clearly defined.
Loading
Depending upon the work load, the load is applied by anyone of the following
methods.
1. Directly through a kentledge for smaller loads
2. By taking reaction against a kentledge for loads upto 5000KN.
3. By jacking against a bean or truss connecting adjacent anchor piles or loads
higher than 5000K.N.
Distance of anchor piles from test piles
The distance cannot be less than 1.5m. It should not be less than 4 time the diameter
of test piles for straight pile and not less than 2 times the diameter of the bell for belled
pile.
Load Application
The load is applied in pile in the following sequences.
a. Load applied in increment at the rate of 25% of working load fill working load
is reached.

b. For each load increment maintain the load constant till settlement is 0.1mm for
5min as per IS code, 0.1mm for 20min as B.S. code.
c. Go for next loading.
d. When working load is reached, hold the load for 24 hrs and unload
e. Reload from working load to higher load.
f. Hold load constant till settlement is 0.1mm for 20min as per B.S. code
g. Repeat the process for subsequent load increment.
h. Go either upto 2 ½ times the working bad fro initial or routine test or to a
settlement equal to 10% of pile diameter for straight pile and 7.5% of base
diameter for belled pile.
 Settlement measurement
The settlement is measured either by a dial gauge or by a levelling instrument.
 Ultimate load
The failure load is taken as either of the following: 2/3rd of final load casting
12mm settlement, ½ for pile diameter for straight pile or 7.5% of base diameter
for a belled pile.
 Constant rate of penetration test
This test is most suitable for function pile. In this test, the well-defined failure
load is obtained and the method is very quick. However, this method doesn't
provide elastic settlement at working load.
 Method of testing
In this method, the pile is jacked continuously into soil at a constant rate till
failure takes place. The jacking rate inclay is 0.75mm/min. and a small
movement required for failure. In sands, the jacking rate is 5mm/min of a large
movement required for failure.
Failure
The failure is defined as follows:
Load at which pile continues to move downward without any further loading.
Load at which settlement is 10% of pile diameter.

 Geo-technical design of pile foundation
The total load carried out by the piles and it's ultimate load. It is usually denoted
by Qu/load that can be carried out by piles is due to it's shaft and bearing
resistance.
Qu = As + Qb
Where,
Qs = shaft resistance
Qb = bearing resistance
Two more things which have importance in pile foundation design are:
1. Pile spacing
2. Negative skin friction
1. Pile Spacing
To much close spacing between the piles cause overlapping of pressure bulb. Piles
should be spaced so that the bearing capacity ground is not less than bearing capacities
of individual piles in group. The fill above the original soil in which piles group is
established usually settle down under it's own weight. This will exert drag on the pile
in additional to friction between pile and soil. This adds to the load on the pile instead
of resisting it.
2. Negative skin friction
Negative skin friction on pile occurs when the surrounding soil settles relatives mare
than the pile, causing drag force that increases the load on the pile and resulting in the
reduction of carrying of the pile. Such settlements may be due to the weight of super
imposed fill to ground water lowering or as a result of disturbance of clay caused by
pile driving.
The additional load due to negative skin friction may be so large as to cause over
stressing of the pile material or may lead to large settlement or even failure in the
underlying supporting soil.
11.5. Damage alignment and effect of pile driving
Piles are driven into the ground by means of hammerers or by using a vibratory driver.

Such piles are called driver piles. In some special case, piles are installed by gentling
or partially auguring.
The following methods are commonly used.
a. Hammer driving
It consists of a hoist mechanism, a guiding frame and a hammer device. The
hammer used for pile driving are as follows:.
b. Drop hammer
If a hammer is raised by which and allowed to fall by gravity on the top of a pile,
it is called drop hammer.
c. Single acting hammer
If the hammer is raised by steam, compressed air or internal combustion but it is
allowed to fall by gravity alone, it is called a single hammer. The energy of such
hammer is equal to the weight of the ram times the height of fall.
d. Double acting hammer
The double acting hammer employs steam or air for lifting the ram and for
accelerating the down stroke if operates with succession of rapid blows.
e. Diesel hammer
The diesel is a small, light weight self-contained and self-acting type, ring
gasoline for fuel. The total driving energy is the sum of the impact of the ram
plus the energy delivered by explosion.
f. Vibratory hammer
The driving unit vibrates at high frequency during pile driving head, helmets or
caps are placed on the top of the pile to receive the blows of the hammer and to
prevent the damage to the head of the piles. A cushion consisting of a pad of
resilient materials hard wood or rope is placed between the drive cap and the top
of the pile to protect the pile head.
 Single acting hammer are advantageous while driving heavy pile in compact or
hard soil, while double acting hammer are generally used to drive piles of light
or moderate weight in soil of average resistance against driving.

 Useful only for sandy and gravity of soil.
i. Jilting techniques
When the pile is to penetrate a thin hard layer of sand or gravel overlying a softer
soil layer, the pile can be driven through the hard layer by jetting techniques.
Water pressure is discharged at the pile bottom point by means of pipe to wash
and loosen hard layer.
ii. Partial auguring method
Batter piles inclined piles are usually advanced by partial auguring. In this
method, a power auger is used to drill the hole for a part of the depth. The pile
is then inserted in the hole and driven with hammers to the required depth.
 Effect of pile driving
When piles are driven in cohesive soil, the shear strength is changed radically
due to occurrence of following phenomena.
a. Remolding
Pile driving disturbs soil fabrics. This depends upon sensitivity of soil. With
passage of time, the shear strength is regained due to the properly called
thixotropic. A soft sensitive soil regains their strength fully after 30days of
during about 75% of strength is regained.
b. Ground heave
When a pile is driven in clay pore water pressure is developed substantially
around the perimeter of the pile. This phenomenon is most prominent into stiff
to hard clays soils. The pore water pressure causes the soil to heave and cracks
and develops along radial direction. However, with passage of time the heave
subsides and the soil consolidates.
c. Foundation of an enlarged hole
In the upper part of the pile, the vibration induced by driving forms an enlarged
hole in stiff to very stiff clay. Radial cracked develop and a gap is formed
between the pile and the soil. Pore water pressure is collected in the gap and the
water lubricates the soil. As a result, the shear strength is reduced.

d. Stain softening
When a pile is driven into a clay soil, large strain is developed. Due to this clay
partials are reoriented. The shear strength is reduced drastically. The reduction
can be of the order of 50% of the peak strength at low strain. The strain softening
effect is pronounced in normally consolidated clays.
The adhesion factor is also influenced by the presence of outer soils overlaying
the clay.
The adhesion factor is also influenced by the presence of other soils overlaying
the clay. Overlaying soft clay result in smaller adhesion factors while overlaying
granular soils give greater factors. The effect of the other soils in the adhesion
factor is described below.
11.6. Construction of per foundation
Introduction
Piers and caissons are underground cylindrical structural member that serve same
purpose as footing or piles. The purpose of these structures is to transmit loads to a
stratum capable supporting it without danger of breaking of the foundation soil or
excessive settlements. Usually, the ratio or depth to width for pies and caisson is
greater than 5.
Differentiate between piers and caissons
 There is no sharp distinction between piers and caissons in simple terms caissons
are large piers: They differ only in the method of installation.
 Piers are constructed by making a whole into the ground to the required depth
and then concrete is poured. It can be said that piers are large bored piles or piles
may be regarded as small pier. If diameter is less than 2m then, they are termed
as piles else, they regarded as piers pier are often solid.
 On the other hand, caissons are hollow structure with diameter over 4.5m. They
are constructed at the site by sinking and made to rest on hard stratum.
Construction of piers
The constructions of piers include excavation placing of the concrete and inspect after
construction. The excavation is done either manually or by machine. Manually
excavation is done where the site is inaccessible to machine.
1. Manual method
The manual methods which are in common use are:
a. Chicago method
This method is used exclusively in clay. In this method, a cylindrical hole is excavated
to a depth of 0.6m in soft clay and 1.8 m is stiff clay. The side of excavation is trimmed
accurately. Walls of excavation are lined with vertical board called lagging and are
secured tightly with two a depth of 0.6m to 1.8m. another set of lagging and rings are
placed. When the excavation reached to the required depth, the hole s filled with
concrete. The steel rings and lagging are left in place.
Problems
In homogeneous clay, the water will cause no problem and the bottom can be enlarged.
In water bearing sand excavation problem is created due to sand blowing out. In such
situation excavation shall be carried out under water in order to avoid ground loss.
b. Gou method
In this method the sides of excavation are supported by a series of steel cylinders. The
cylinders are driven with a light hammer while the soil is being excavated. The lowers
cylinders are 5cm less in diameter than the ones above it. After completion of the
excavation, bottom is usually belled out and the cylinder are with drawn one by one as
the concrete is poured.
1. Mechanical method
This method follows following steps:
a. Drilling
When piers are constructed by drilling they are called drilled pier. The excavation is
carried out by an Auger type of drill which looks like carpenter's Augers. The tools
used are a drill bucket and a chopping bit. The drill bucket has an opening at the bottom
with cutting edges or teeth. It is provided with a door to collect the cut soil. As the
bucket is rotated and force down the cutting edges save the earth and scoop in the
bucket. The bucket is lifted above the ground and implied out by opening bottom

which hinges to the side. A chopping bit is used to break boulders or hard soil.
b. Formation of the bell
When the shaft is excavated upto the required depth, the bearing stratum is example to
examine and the belling bucket is introduced in the shaft. A reamer is attached to the
bucket forms the bell. The get gradually opens when bucket is forced into the soil.
When bucket is roasted the reamer forces the soil in the bell.
c. Concrete placement
Termite pipe or lump bucket used to pour concrete. A dump bucket is a bucket with
door at bottom. During concerting segregation is the main problem. The mix is usually
made stiff with a slump less than 3. The concrete shall not hit the side of the whole so
as to cause sloughing of the soil. Casing if any shall be retracted as the concrete is
poured.
Compaction of the concrete is carried out only at the top 3m of the pier. At depth below
3m it is believed that the self wt. of the concrete by vibration as caving in may result.
Concerting should be done in dry condition as far as practical. Under water concreting
shall be done if there is excessive seepage pressure.
Inspecting of construction
The inspection is done for:
a. Accuracy of alignment and dimension
b. Bearing capacity of soil at the bottom
c. Removal of loose soil from bottom
d. Risk of loss of ground
e. Process of concrete placement
11.7. Sinking of caissons
Caissons
The term 'caissons' is derived from Latin which means box or case. Caissons are hallow
inside and usually constructed at site and sunk in place into a hard bearing stratum.
Often the caissons have high construction cost and their construction is cost and their
construction is restricted to major foundation works.

Caissons are used for bridge pier, abutments in rivers and lakes, docks and break water
and other shore protection work and large water front structure such as pump house,
subjected to very heavy vertical and horizontal loads.
Advantages
The construction of caissons is advantageous to other deep foundations when the soil
contain large boulders which obstruct penetration of pier and drill piers when a
massive substructure is required for protection against floating objects and sand scour
or when foundation subjected to lateral forces such as wave. For conditions other than
these caissons are generally more expensive than other deep foundation.
Types of caissons
a. open caissons (well foundation)
b. Pneumatic caissons
c. Box caissons
11.8. Ground water in excavation and method of its control
Ground water is the water levels that occur below the ground surface. This level can
be either in shallow depth or in high depth below the ground level. When water table
is high deep inside the ground level, then it becomes harder for us to obtain the ground
water source but when ground water table is low we can easily obtain ground water
source after excavating few meters.
The main reasons of occurrence of ground water are as follows:
a. Rising of water table
b. Infiltration of rain strength
c. Seepage
d. Permeability
Effect of ground water
a. Decrease soil strength
b. Soil erosion
In many sites, ground water has been causing soil erosion migration of contamination
and disturbance of soil configuration.

Following are some methods to control ground water:.
a. Jet grouting
b. Cement grouting
c. Compaction grouting
Function of bio-engineering system
Any structure is constructed to fulfill a concrete function. This means any structure
fulfills it's engineering as well as other functions. As described earlier, in bio
engineering small scale civil engineering and vegetative structure are used. Generally,
these structures are used for fulfillment of the following six engineering functions:
1. Catch function
Loose materials have the tendency of rolling down the slope because of gravity as well
as erosion. This tendency can be controlled by constructing any structure which would
catch the rolling down materials.
2. Amour function
Some slopes are very water sensitive. It means, they start moving or are liquefied early
when they intercept water or there may be the case of a high rate of infiltration which
later causes shear failure. Therefore, such types of slopes should be covered so that the
water could be diverted easily. It is called the armoring system.
3. Reinforce function
Because of pressure of voids, the soil may not be compacted and it may need bounding
of the grains. The structure constructed for this purpose fulfills the reinforce functions.
4. Support Function
On the slope with the length more than 1.5metre, the lateral earth pressure causes the
lateral and outward movement of the slope materials. This tendency can be controlled
by constructing any retaining types of structure. They fulfill the support function.
5. Anchor function
If there is the case of failure of overlying layer with respect to stable underlying strata,
the upper strata can be pinned up with the underlying ones. This activity fulfills the
anchor functions.

6. Drain functions
Water is the main problem leading to instabilities of slopes. It could be the surface
water or the ground water. Therefore, the water should be diverted safely from the
slopes.
 Small scale civil engineering system
1. Checkdam
2. Toe wall
3. Wattle fence
4. Vegetated riprap
5. Bolster construction
6. French drain
 Vegetation system
Vegetation system in bio-engineering can be defined as the vegetation or plant i.e. can
be woody or non woody (trees, shrubs, bamboo or grasses) plants performing,
engineering, hydrological and ecological functions.
Different types of vegetation system are:
a. Horizontally grass lining
b. Diagonal grass lining
c. Palisade
d. Shrub planting
e. Tree planting
f. Bamboo planting
g. Brush layering
h. Fascines
Section of species
The correct selection of suitable plant species is essential for the success of bio-
engineering practices. Identification of engineering function and structural
characteristics of the plant is required before selection for bio-engineering.

The following criteria should be taken into consideration while selecting the plant
suitable for bio-engineering.
 Purpose site condition and local situation
 Physical and climate factors
 Engineering function required
 Bio engineering techniques required
 Structural characteristics of plant
 Availability of planting materials
 Identification of various alternatives
(Species, choices, methods etc)
Selection of plants should be based on careful studies of engineering functions such as
armoring, anchoring, reinforcing, malting, etc. and the structural characteristics of
plants such as size, shape form and structure of leaf, canopy, stem, roof, etc.
General characteristics of degraded land area low level of soil nutrients, stoniness,
drought and harsh environment. Plants selected for bio-engineering should be able to
with-stand these stresses.
They should;
 establish rapidly
 grow vigorously
 have done and deep root system
 resist drought
 propagate easily
 resist insect and diseases
 withstand harsh environment
Note: The most suitable plants are usually local species.
 Propagation methods.
Plant propagation is the process of creating new plants form a variety of sources i.e.
seeds, cutting, bulbs and other plants parts. Not all grasses/plants can be propagated

by every method. In fact, many are best propagated by only one particular method.
Some of the plant propagated methods are as follows.
a. Culm or stem cuttings
Normally a piece of stem with at least two or three wide is used but the most vigorous
species such as happier can be propagated from single node cutting. Select material
that is between one and two years old. Cut the stem horizontally about 3 cm above the
higher m = node and at about 45;3cm below the lower node. The different cut means
that you can easily see which way up to cutting should be planted.
Inserts the cutting into loosened moist soil so that the level of the soil is about half,
way up. Cuttings can be inserted at an angle of 45o but vertical insertion is equally well
if cuttings are planted horizontally often the upper node gives shoots and the lower
nodes gives roots, but a larger strong shoot may also emerge from the lower node.
After planting lay a sheet of essin over the tops of the cutting to give shade. Keep it in
place until the new shoots are about 5cm long and then remove it in stages, starting
with a few hours a day.
b. Stolon cutting
If the grass produces a stolen, it is usually possible to make cutting from the individual
nodes. This is particularly easy with dubnkikyu
Often roots grove naturally from the nodes on the stolen. This is called layering. If this
happens you only have to cut the stolen mid-way between the nodes and carefully
transplant it with it's roots and shoot intact. It is already a new plant if roots and shoot
intact. It is already a new plant if roots have not yet appeared. You can cut off a node
and plant it nor more than 10mm below the surface keep any leaves attached to it and
plant the cutting with them above the ground. Avoid damaging any shoots or buds that
exist. The node will shoot and root very quickly.
c. Slip Cuttings
These are used where grasses do not have a rhizomatous root system. An example is
khas.
Take a crumb of the grass cut the shoots cut off about 10 to15cm above the ground
and then split the whole clump carefully into section. Each section should include

several old shoots and if possible any new buds that are visible and as much roots as
possible. You need balance getting the maximum number of transplants from one
clump while making sure each is a viable plant.
When you are planting the slips bury the roots parts carefully into loose, moist soil,
trying to keep them as straight as possible and about 2cm below the surface. If they
are more shallow, they may dry out. The tops can be neither at an angle or vertical.
After planting lay a sheet of tension over the tops of the cutting to give shade. Keep it
there until the new shoots are about 5cm long and then remove it in stages starting with
a few hours a day.
d. Rhizome Cuttings
This method is used for grasses such as Amliso which has a rhizome system.
Take a lump of the grass and cut off the shoots above the first or sewed node above
the ground. Separate the clump carefully causing as little damage as possible to the
rhizomes and fine roots. Keep at least 5cm of the rhizome or at least a few cm of the
horizontal part, per cutting. Each cutting should have same buds or the rhizome but
often these are difficult to see the new growth will come from the buds in the rhizome.
When you plant them, keep the level of the soil as it was originally, making sure the
rhizomes is well covered. The method of planting and covering is similar to that of slip
cuttings.
e. Management is the nursery
Grasses can be multiplied rapidly in the nursery using the best method for each
particular species. When they have grown up and completely filled the beds, lift them
out, split them up and plant them again. One bed of large plants ready for splitting
usually fills three beds once they are transplanted this can be repeated three times a
year in a fertile nursery below 500 meters altitude and correspondingly less frequently
with increasing altitude.
2. Assessment
1. Define foundation.
2. Define caisson.
1. Describe types of foundation.
2. Discuss about loads on foundation.
1. What are the steps in design of spread foundation?
2. What are the methods used for pile driving?
Glossary
 Foundation : A lowest part of any structure
 Investigation : To find out.
 Failure : Fail something due to internal and external load.

Reference Books:
New Delhi

Unit-12
Geo-Synthetics
1. Content
Introduction
Geosynthetic is defined as a planar product manufacture from a polymeric material
that is used with soil, rock or other geo-technical related material as an integral part of
a civil engineering project, structure or system.
Most geo synthetics are typically made from petrochemical based polymer (plastic)
that are biologically inert and will not decompose from bacterial or fungal action.
While most are essentially chemical inert some may be damaged by petrochemicals
and most have same degree of susceptibility to ultraviolet light (sunlight).
Types of geo-synthetics
There are number of different geo synthetic materials and with the similarly of many
of the names as well as many similar sounding trader names, it can be confusing
without an understanding of the basic categories.
1. Geo-textiles
2. Geo-grids
3. Geo-nets
4. Geo-membranes
5. Geo-synthetic clay liners
6. Geo-pipes
7. Geo-composite
8. Geo-textile
They are textiles in the traditional sense but consist of synthetic fibers rather than
natural ones such as cotton, wool or silk.
Thus biodegradation is not a problem
They are made into flexible, porous fabric by standard wearing machinery or are
matted together in a random or non-woven manner.

Geogrids
 Geogrids are plastic formed into a very open grid like configuration i.e. has large
apertures.
 Geo-grids are either stretched in one or two directions for improved physical
properties or made on weaving machinery by unique method.
 Use primarily reinforcement of unstable soil and waste masses.
Geo-nets
 They are usually formed by a continuous extrusion of parallel sets of polymeric
ribs at a cute angle to one another.
 When the ribs are opened relatively large apertures are formed into a net like
configuration.
 Their design function is completely within the drainage area where they have
been used to convey fluids of all types.
 Though, they are used for the drainage function but they have high tensile
strength.
 Generally, used along with one or two geo textile matter one at the top and other
at the bottom to prevent soil intrusion.
Geo membrane
The materials themselves are "impervious" thin sheet of rubber or plastic materials
used primarily for linings and cover of liquid or solid storage or disposal facilities.
Thus, the primary function is always as a liquid or vapor barrier.
Geo-synthetics clay liners (GCLs)
 Geo synthetic clay liners (or GCLs) are the newest subset within Geo synthetic
materials.
 They are roles of factory fabricated thin layer of bentonite clay sandwiched
between two geo-textiles or bonded to a geo membranes.
 Structural integrity is maintained by needle punching, stitching or adhesive
bonding
 They are used as a composite component beneath a geo membrane or by

themselves as primary or secondary liners providing hydraulic barrier.
Geopipes (or Buried plastics pipes)
 Perhaps the original geo synthetic material still available today is buried plastic
pipes.
 The critical nature of leachate collection pipes coupled with high compressive
load make geopipes a bonafied member of the geosynthesics family.
 The function is clearly drainage.
Geo composites
A geo-composite consists of a combination of geo-textile or geo-grid of geo-grid and
geo-membrane or geo-textile, geo-grid and geo-membrane or any one of these three
materials with another material.
Example: various soils, deformed plastic sheets, steel cables or steel anchors
 This exciting area brings out the best creative efforts of the engineers,
manufacture and contractor.
 The application areas are numerous and growing steadily.
The major functions encompass the entire range of function listed for geo synthetics
discussed previously separation, reinforcement, filtration, drainage and liquid vapor
barrier.
Application of geo-system
Geo synthetics applications are normally defined by the primary function of the
following.
a. Filtration
Geo system can be used as filters to prevent soils from migration into the adjacent
materials, such as drainage aggregates, while allowing water to flow through the
system.
Example: use of geo textile in tends drains, silt fence, etc.
b. Drainage
Geo textiles or geo composites can be used as drainage or conduct by allowing water

to drain from or through low permeability soils.
c. Separation
Geo synthetics can be used as a separation to separate the two dissimilar materials and
prevent then from mixing such as the use of geo textile between fine grained subgrade
and granular base coarse below a solid way.
d. Reinforcement
Geo girds or geo textile can be used as reinforcement to increase shear strength of
soils, thereby providing a more component structural materials. Example; use of geo-
grid to reinforce a steep slope or to strengthen a base- course in a pavement system.
e. Erosion control
Geo synthetics can be used to minimize the movement of soil particles due to flow of
water. Example; use between riprap and the steam bank to minimize erosion of soil
below the rip rap.
Extra
Advantage of geo synthetic are:
 Relatively low cost for many applications
 Ease and convenience for many applications
 Quick and effective protection against for many uses
 Wide variety of geosynthesics products are available to meet specific needs
 May be removed and reduce if economically feasible.
Limitations of geo-synthesis
 Effectiveness may be reduced drastically if the geo synthetic is not properly
selected, designed/installed.
 Many geo-synthetics are sensitive to light degradation and must be protected
prior to installation.
 Geo synthetics that are not degradable should not be used where their presence
or appearance is aesthetically unacceptable.
Design consideration

The major properties and it's requirements for different types of geo-synthetics are as
below:
1. Drainage requirements
 The geo-synthetics should allow free drainage of the soft soils to reduce pore
pressure built up below the embankment.
 If geo-textile is used for reinforcement, hydraulic properties to be checked are
opening size and permeability. The minimum requirements for hydraulic
parameters should be according to the specification.
 The regular practice is to give a drainage, gravel or sand layer above the safe soil
and above which reinforcement is laid.
2. Environmental consideration
The resistance to chemical and biological attacks with mainly depends upon the
materials with which geosynthesics are made and the environmental condition
prevailing. Geo-synthetics have a very high resistance to chemical and biological
attacks. However, in unusual situation such as very low (<3) or very high (>9) soil or
other unusual chemical environments such as in industrial areas or near mine or other
waste dumps the chemical compatibility of the polymers in the geo-synthetic should
be checked to assume that if will retain the design strength at least until the underlying
sub soil is strong enough to support the structure without reinforcement.
3. Survivability requirements
 The geosynthesics used for reinforcing embankment should have sufficient
strength in additional to the design strength to withstand the damages occurring
during installation.
 If the geosynthesicsis ripped punctured or form during construction support
strength for the embankment structure will be reduced and failure could result.
4. Fill requirements
Fill materials should conform to the requirements recommended by relevant
specification of the ministry of road, transport and highway.
Construction requirements

The construction procedures for reinforcement embankments or soft foundation
require special attention to the difficulties that can arise from site access, site clearance
and fill replacement. Improper fill placement can lead to geo-synthetics damage, non-
uniform settlements and embankment failure.
The failure aspects shall be followed for efficient holding safe storage and placement
of Geosynthetic materials.
a. Site preparation
 The top foundation soil shall be free from undulations and prepared to the level
as indicated in the construction drawings or as directed by the engineer.
 Materials causing damage to geo synthetic like debris, etc. should be removed
from site.
 Ground should be excavated or brought to the desired level as per approved
drawings. A drainage fine to well graded sand or gravel layer of thickness show
in the approved drawings shall be placed.
b. Reinforcement storage
During storage, reinforcement rolls shall be elevated of the ground and adequately
covered to protect them from site construction damage, precipitation, extends
ultraviolet radiation including sunlight, chemicals that are strong acids or strong bases,
flames including sparks and any other environmental condition that may damage the
physical properties value of the reinforcement.
c. Placing of reinforcement
 The reinforcement shall be laid at the proper elevation and alignment as shown
in construction drawings.
 It shall be placed with main strength directions oriented perpendicular to
centerline of the embankment.
d. Reinforcement Jointing
 Required overlapping length must be detailed in the drawing by the designer.
 An overlap of 300 mm or indicated by engineer shall be provided between the
adjacent rolls.

e. End Anchorages
The roll should be unwound a small amount by pushing the roll in the direction of the
reinforcement run. The base end of the reinforcement now exposed should be secured
by weighing or pinning it to the formation. When the roll is completely unwound the
free end of the reinforcement should be hard lightened and secured by weighting or
pinning.
2. Assessment
1. Define geo-synthetics.
2. Define geo-textile.
1. What are the different synthetic material used in road?
2. Explain about the geo-grid and geo-net.
1. Explain the function of synthetic material.
Glossary
 Geosynthetic: A planar product manufacture from a polymeric material
 Geo textile: Consists of synthetic fiber.
Reference Books:
New Delhi


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11

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2076 BS Ministry of Education, Science and Technology

Geo-Technical Engineering Revised : Grade 11 1

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v. Saturated unit weight

vi. Submerged Unit weight

2.5 Determination of bulk unit weight and dry unit weight by :-

a) Core cutter method

In this method a cylindrical core cutter with a dolly of known dimension is

Geo-Technical Engineering Revised : Grade 11 7

viii. Volume of hole = v

1.6 Specific gravity

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1.9 Grain size analysis

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Co-efficient of curvature (Cc)

In a well graded gravel, Cu is greater than 4 and Cc is in between 1 and 3. In a well

Sieve Size (mm) Soil retained (g)

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3.1 Permeability of soil

S.N. Types of soil Range of permeability (K) cm/sec

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3. Void ratio k𝑘 ∝ 𝑒 𝐾 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐾

Geo-Technical Engineering Revised : Grade 11 25

Also, we know that,

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or, -a 𝑘. . 𝐴 [A=area where soil is kept]

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or, 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ℎ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒ℎ 𝑡

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Discharge (g) = 1.52𝑐𝑚 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

Constant head (h) = 30cm

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In undrained condition volume does not change, so Aoho= Afhf

Now, let us have a look at the Mohr's circle;