International Journal of Geobotanical Research, Vol. nº 6. 2016. pp.

27-36

The Place of Geobotany in Geology

Beneah D. ODHIAMBO (1)

(1) University of Venda, Private Bag X5050, Thohoyandou, 0950; Limpopo Province, South Africa. Tel: +27159628587, Mobile:
+27607786672,E-Mail: odhiambobdo@gmail.com; beneah.odhiambo@univen.ac.za

Abstract:
Geobotany is the study of plants as related to the geological substrate. In this article, the term geobotany is defined as it
is understood and used among the geological fraternity. It is the visual survey and analysis of vegetation in order to
discriminate geological differences in the subsurface. This chapter demonstrates the place of geobotany in geology by
giving a reflective historical perspective on the use of plants in geology. Geobotany is significant in exploration of
mineral resources and is of strategic importance in geologic mapping in vegetated terrain. For this purpose, the uses of
plants in mineral exploration, and the entry levels at which plants are used to discriminate geological differences in the
landscape are presented. These entry levels include the use of plants for general geological mapping (regional
geobotany) purposes, and for specific identification of mineral deposits (indicator or target geobotany). How mineral
uptake influences the spectral reflectance characteristics of plants (spectral geobotany) is presented in the last section of
the chapter as a geobotanical technique that uses remote sensing technology. This historical review of the place of
geobotany in geology, underscores the genesis and paradigmatic shift in research and development through which the
discipline has evolved over time.

Keywords: Geobotany, element uptake, spectral reflectance, bioremediation, Kenya.

Introduction research and development through which the discipline

‘Rocks produce soils in which plants grow’.
Geobotany is the study of plants as related to the
geological substrate. In this article, the term geobotany is
defined as it is understood and used among the geo-
logical fraternity. It is the visual survey and analysis of
vegetation in order to discriminate geological differences
in the subsurface. This chapter demonstrates the place of
geobotany in geology by giving a reflective historical
perspective on the use of plants in geology. Geobotany is
significant in exploration of mineral resources and is of
strategic importance in geologic mapping in vegetated
terrain. For this purpose, the uses of plants in mineral
exploration, and the entry levels at which plants are used
to discriminate geological differences in the landscape
are presented. These entry levels include the use of
plants for general geological mapping (regional
geobotany) purposes, and for specific identification of
mineral deposits (indicator or target geobotany). How
mineral uptake influences the spectral reflectance
characteristics of plants (spectral geobotany) is presented
in the last section of the chapter as a geobotanical
technique that uses remote sensing technology. This
historical review of the place of geobotany in geology,
underscores the genesis and paradigmatic shift in
has evolved over time.
Definition of Geobotany
Geobotany encompasses the linkage between geology
and plants; and specifically how plants as an interphase
are or can be used in geological studies, for example in
mineral exploration, in biogeochemical studies, in me-
dical geology and in remote sensing studies, to mention a
few application areas.
In this chapter, geobotany is defined and used from a
geological point of view; it is the science that deals with
the visual survey of vegetation in order to identify geolo-
gical differences in the landscape (Malyuga, 1964; Rai-
nes and Canney, 1980). This visual survey often includes
observations of physiological modifications in plants,
such as dwarfism, morphological deformities, and chlo-
rosis (Kovalevsky, 1987). These teratological (Raines
and Canney, 1980) changes can occur in individual
plants or whole plant communities. In this regard, geobo-
tany is also concerned with the relationships between the
form, composition and distribution of vegetation com-
munities and their relationship to environmental factors,
particularly in undisturbed terrain (Cole, 1984). Since
vegetation type and characteristics can change with rock

Corresponding author: Beneah D. Odhiambo University of Venda, Private Bag X5050, Thohoyandou, 0950; Limpopo Province, South
Africa. e-mail: odhiambobdo@gmail.com
ISSN: 22536302 (print)/ISSN: 22536515 (on line) ©Editaefa
DOI: 10.5616/ijgr 160004
28 B.D. Odhiambo
type, vegetation has been used to derive geological infor-
mation and to discriminate parent rock material. This is
because vegetation reflects the interplay of many envi-
ronmental factors including the geochemistry of the soil
at the rooting depth, the type of soil, the aspect, and even
variations of micro-relief. It is therefore useful for geolo-
gical mapping and mineral exploration.
Geobotanical prospecting utilizes the principle of
selective adaptation by plants to variations in geological
conditions in the subsurface. This includes observations
of the presence or absence of certain plant species or
vegetation assemblages, observations of changes in
abundance and vigor around a dispersion halo, and
identification of conspicuous morphological modifi-
cations in individual plants or in a group of plants (Dorr
et al., 1971). Thus, geobotany is based on the premise
that plants, through their root systems, absorb
geochemically available elements from the subsurface
and thereby reflect the underlying geological conditions
(Siegel, 1974).
It is important to realize that the term geobotany is
frequently used to include biogeochemistry. While bio-
geochemistry is concerned with the detection of biogenic
haloes of ore indicator elements in living organisms and
their remains (Kovalevsky, 1987) using rapid and
sensitive analytical instruments (Brooks, 1972), in
practice it is difficult to treat geobotany and biogeo-
chemistry as being mutually exclusive. This is because in
virtually all geobotanical investigations it is common
practice to sample and analyse the vegetal component for
its constituent metallic elements when attempting to
determine the “composition" of the subsurface geology.
In other words, to ascertain that a plant is indeed a
geobotanical indicator species, trace element analysis
must be done in order to correlate the elemental
concentration in the plant species with the substrate
geochemistry. Consequently, this trend of thought has
reached the point where most researchers consider and
treat geobotanical and biogeochemical methods of
prospecting as constituting a single discipline. This is
appropriate since the absence or excess availability of a
certain mineral element may result in the anomalous
appearance and/or development of a plant, or even whole
plant communities. Malyuga (1964) referred to the use of
plants for mineral exploration as the biogeochemical or
geobotanical method. The technique is used widely in the
exploration for ore deposits, in the study of the character
and depth of groundwater, and even in the determination
of the presence of geological structures, which are often
associated with ore deposits. In this chapter these terms
are used interchangeably.
According to Raines and Canney (1980), the appli-
cations of geobotany can be summarized into three
conceptual approaches. First, is the study of plant com-
munities, including characteristic florae and specific
indicator species; second, is the study of vegetation
density, which includes extreme cases of complete
absence or presence of vegetation; and third, is the study
of plant morphology. Each approach involves
investigations of the various ways in which individual
plants or whole plant communities respond to mineral
concentrations in the geochemical environment. It should
be noted that the response can also affect plants in a non-
visual fashion (i.e., in ways that are not detectable by the
human eye), a realisation that led to the development of
remote sensing applications in geobotanical studies. It is
noteworthy that the remote sensing concept was first
envisaged by Socrates in c.400 BC, when he observed
that “man must rise above the earth's surface, to the top
of the atmosphere, in order to understand the environ-
ment in which he lives" (in Odhiambo, 1993).
When vegetation becomes stressed and develops a
distinct spectral characteristic in the infrared part of the
electromagnetic spectrum, identification of “spectral
anomalies" at the red edge has enabled researchers to
identify mineralized areas using remote sensing
(Singhroy, 1989, and Odhiambo, 1993).
Historical Development of Geobotany
The use of plants in the search for subsurface mineral
resources has been in practice since ancient times. In
Rome, during the reign of Augustus Caesar (63 BC to 14
AD) the architect Vitruvius stated that water is to be
sought in areas where certain trees are to be found
growing naturally and not artificially planted (Agricola,
1556). Physiological effects of metal on vegetation were
also observed by Agricola (1556), while Barba described
the use of plants for mineral prospecting in Potosi,
Bolivia in 1637 (Cannon, 1979). Other significant stu-
dies that formed the fundamental basis for geobotanical
methods of mineral prospecting include the works of
Lomonosov (1763) and Kapinsky (1941), both quoted in
Malyuga (1964). In all these studies, emphasis was
placed on observation of the depauperating effects of
mineralization on whole plant communities. However, it
was not until the early parts of the 19th Century that
geobotanists propounded the notion of indicator species
for specific mineral types. Today, more descriptive terms
such as accumulators, specialists, or super tolerant plants
are used more freely, caution being taken in declaring
plants as indicators of specific mineral types (Cannon,
1979).
It is important to underscore what geobotany is
understood to mean among geological fraternity. Ques-
tioning whether ecology, plant geography, and geobota-
ny are three different sciences, or three different view-
points of the same science and whether one is a part of
the others, or if all three are synonymous, Rübel (1927)
strived to correct the misunderstandings by non-ecolo-
gists, by discussing what ecology includes in the minds
of ecologists, what plant geography means to plant geo-
graphers, and what geobotany comprehends. Rübel
(1927) recognized geobotany as that part of botany
which has to do with gea, the earth, the action of all
earthly factors, all changes of plants on the earth, and all
distributional questions over the earth. Essentially what
Rübel stated is that geobotany (plant ecology-plant geo-
graphy) is the science of the relationship of plants to the
environment, the earth. The article by Tadros (in Vege-
tatio, 1949) entitled, Geobotany in Egypt (A historical
review) does not attempt to define the term, but proceeds
to use it from a botanical perspective.
In the 3rd Edition of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia
(1970-1979; in Free Dictionary, 2010) geobotany is re-
ferred to as phytogeography, a science concerned with
the Earth’s vegetation as an aggregate of plant commu-
 The Place of Geobotany in Geology 29

nities, or phytocoenoses. Essentially, these positions Fortescue (1980) designed to illustrate the complexity
stem from the statement of the German naturalist A. and the caution necessary when attempting to interpret
Humboldt, which dates back to the beginning of the 19th the geology of an area using vegetation, particularly with
Century, that vegetation is a unique element of nature. It the aid of remote sensing data with little or no ground
should be pointed out that in these studies and academic truth and auxiliary data. It is evident from this figure that
discourses the use of plants from a geological perspec- a given vegetation community can represent several
tive as originally envisaged by architect Vitruvius (in geological conditions.
Agricola, 1556) is not addressed. The term geobotany Thus, regional geobotanical remote sensing studies
cannot be stretched to include palaeobotany; a view pro- have been met with varying degrees of success. This is
pounded in the Great Soviet Encyclopaedia. because the success of the technique depends to a large
Recent geobotanical studies have been undertaken in extent on plant response to the varied and complex
several countries, especially in New Zealand and environmental factors, from the species level to the
Australia (Brooks, 1972), in the Scandinavian countries community level. From the many case studies on
(Rune, 1953; Talvite, 1979), USSR (Lomonosov, 1763; regional geobotanical remote sensing research carried
Kapinsky, 1941), Canada (Fortescue, 1980; Wagner, et out in different parts of the world, some general trends
al., 1989; Singhroy, 1989), and in the USA (Siegel, 1974, that can be grouped into three main categories have been
2013). In Africa, indicator ground-based geobotanical identified.
work has been done in Botswana and Namibia (Cole,
1980; 1984; Cole et al., 1986), Zaire (Duvigneaud and
Brenan, 1966), and in Zimbabwe (Wild, 1974; Brooks
and Yang, 1984). In the East African region, similar
studies have also been undertaken with respect to fluorite
and chromite mineralization (Odhiambo, 1988;
Odhiambo et al., 1989) and in Burundi (Singhroy, pers.
comm., 1990). Chromite indicator plants were identified
in Zimbabwe by Wild (1974). These plants aided greatly
in the exploration and delineation of chromite deposits in
that region.
The levels at which plants are used to discriminate
geological differences in the landscape include the use of
plants for general geological mapping (regional
geobotany) purposes, and for specific identification of
mineral deposits (indicator or target geobotany). How
mineral uptake influences the spectral reflectance charac-
teristics of plants is an attribute of spectral geobotany. It
should not be over emphasised that these entry levels are
at the forefront of the developments in geobotanical
applications. These entry levels are briefly discussed in
the following sections.
Regional Geobotany
The term regional (or background) geobotany was
Figure 1: Hypothetical vegetation zonation patterns in
introduced by Singhroy (1987) and adopted by Bruce
Alaska (After, Fortescue, 1980)
and Hornsby (1987) in attempts to make the geobotanical
concept more applicable in an exploration setting. It
relies on the geobotanical concept at the community First is the use of vegetation for general geological
level, rather than at the species level. As a result, it does mapping; this is based on the structural factors of
not require the use of special sensors onboard an aircraft vegetation response. Second are analyses of the spectral
and instead, satellite imagery can be used, thereby response characteristics of whole vegetation commu-
reducing exploration costs in terms of data acquisition nities to excess availability (or absence) of certain mi-
and processing. The regional concept is based on the neral elements in the subsurface - which leads to spectral
premise that the nature and distribution of plant anomalies in the vegetation. Third are observations of the
communities occur as a result of environmental taxonomic factors of vegetation response to different
conditions and therefore variations in distribution from geological conditions.
the established norm for an area may be indicative of The application of remote sensing data and different
anomalous changes in the geology. The model, therefore, image enhancement techniques has been used by several
requires an understanding of the general ecological researchers in attempts to identify suitable enhancements
conditions of an area in terms of the relationships for the digital data that best depict distinct lithological
between the bedrock units, the sacrificial materials units.
(including soils, topography and plant communities) and In a study undertaken in the Spanish-Portuguese py-
the resulting spectral patterns observed on remotely rite belt, Banninger (1985) made a comparison between
sensed imagery. Landsat MSS and TM data for geobotanical prospecting.
Figure 1 show five hypothetical case studies by In a similar study, Aranoff et al. (1986) used an integra-
30 B.D. Odhiambo
ted approach in which a deposit model, Landsat imagery,
and sacrificial geochemistry were used to develop a
procedure for locating tungsten mineralization associated
with shallow buried intrusions. Although in these studies
it was found that the mineralized sites with distinct
geological units and mineralization could be delineated
using satellite data, it should be noted that in the
classifications used the pixels that were known to fall on
mineralized areas were given distinct values during
image classification in order to locate the known sites of
the mineral deposits. All the data were represented in the
form of co-registered images which constituted an image
data base.
Cole et al. (1986) used imagery of differing spectral
and spatial resolutions from Landsat MSS, Landsat TM,
SPOT and airborne Daedalus II line scanner for studies
Plate 1: FCC Landsat TM showing the structural geo-
morphology and geobotanical units West Pokot, Kenya
Bedell (1987) used edge-detection analysis of
satellite imagery for detecting gold deposits in Tanzania.
He found that remote sensing can assist the exploration
geologist by differentiating structures both temporally
and spatially when investigating the frequency and
geometry of edges in plan view. He found that this is
particularly important when use is made of different
Gaussian filters and false colour composites of
multitextural data, as they provide suitable images for
lineament interpretation. However, lithological units
were not discriminated in the study.
Regional geobotanical techniques have also been
used for traversing un-mapped geological terrain
(Singhroy, 1989; Bruce and Hornsby 1987; Bruce, pers.
comm., June, 1992) during helicopter surveys in Guyana.
In this regard, the advancements in geobotanical
techniques using remote sensing data for geological
applications lies in the identification of lithological units
which have been correlated to distinct vegetation
communities (Plate 1). Image classification can involve
application of standard statistically based decision rules
in order to identify the land cover types for pixels in the
image. Unsupervised classification can be undertaken
prior to the fieldwork with the objective being of
identifying natural classes that can be recognised and
described in the field. The result of the classification is
presented in Plate 2. In this classification most of the
of lithological units and the location of mineralized sites
in Africa and in the United Kingdom. In this study,
imagery was also used in monitoring the seasonal
vegetation changes related to water stress in Botswana
and the UK. It was found that the detection of mineral
deposits on remotely sensed images depends on the
identification of the geobotanical anomalies at the
community level. In Botswana, it was found that large
geobotanical anomalies that are confined to the ground
layer can be identified on satellite-based remotely sensed
images if the tree canopy is sufficiently open and if
uptake of a toxic element by the trees causes contrasts in
reflectance with that of the neighbouring vegetation.
They also concluded that the size of a deposit is an
important factor for detection mineral anomalies in these
areas using remotely sensed data.
unclassified pixels correspond to shadowed areas.
Plate 2: Unsupervised classification Landsat TM in which
natural vegetation classes (Geobotanical Units) are
identified
Indicator Geobotany
Indicator geobotany recognizes the vegetation com-
position and/or communities that occur on mineralized
areas as indications of associated mineral deposits. From
a historical perspective, it is emphasised that indicator
geobotany has evolved to include elemental analysis of
the mineral composition in plants that are associated with
specific mineral deposits. In this regard, vast literature
exists with respect to indicator geobotany. Many works
that have been published by the USSR (Russian)
Academy of Sciences were extensively reviewed by
Cannon (1960); Malyuga (1964); Chikishev (1965);
Brooks (1983); Kovalevsky (1987); Cwick (1987);
Odhiambo (1993).
The uptake of chromium and its influence on
vegetation is used in this section to demonstrate the
realm of indicator geobotany. Several researchers (Rune,
1953; Proctor and Woodell, 1971; Morton, 1992; Lamb,
1993) have noted that serpentine rocks have distinct
vegetation communities. Indeed, the presence of unu-
sually sparse flora over ultramafic rocks has led to many
studies of the reasons for this apparent infertility. Dating
back as far as the 16th Century (in 1583), Caesalpino
(cited in Proctor and Woodell, 1971) described a plant
restricted to the Upper Tiber Valley in Tuscany near
Florence, Italy. Such vegetation is sometimes referred to
as the serpentine barrens (Lamb, 1993). Serpentine soils
 The Place of Geobotany in Geology
have been shown to have very toxic effects on vegetation
(Malyuga, 1964; Lyon et al., 1968). The chromium
content of non-serpentinic soils is in the order of
100µg/g (ppm), whereas in serpentinic soils, chromium
values around 5000µg/g (0.5%) are common; however,
the range varies from 1000 to 25,000µg/g, with the latter
commonly found in heavily leached tropical serpentine
soils (Jaffre, cited in Brooks, 1987). As a result, these
soils develop distinct vegetation communities. For
example, Mouat (1982) observed that the foothills of the
Sierra Nevada are covered by an open Ceanothus
chaparral with scattered digger pine (H. sabiniana),
while surrounding metasediments and metavolcanics are
covered by an oak woodland and grassland. Similarly
Miekel (in Mouat, 1982) described serpentine and non-
serpentine vegetation in the Appalachian Piedmont.
Miekel noted that the serpentine is characterized by a
stunted tree flora with an open canopy dominated by
Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana), post oak (Quercus
stelleta), and blackjack oak (Q. Marilandica). Non-
serpentine flora on the other hand is dominated by a
robust tree flora with a closed canopy often dominated
by chestnut oak (Q. prinus L.) and white oak (Q. alba).
Proctor and Woodell (1971) stated that the most
conspicuous feature of the Lizard Peninsula in Cornwall
is the restriction of Minuartia verna to serpentine soils.
In the serpentine endemic plants of the Great Dyke in
Zimbabwe, Brooks and Yang (1984) reported a maxi-
mum chromium concentration of 77µg/g (ppm).
Similarly, Jaffre et al. (1979) reported a mean of 45µg/g
in 17 species (132 specimens) of Geissois from New
Caledonia, where Lee et al. (1977) found less than
10µg/g chromium in plants growing in soils containing
up to 1% (10,000µg/g) of this element. Wild (1974a)
also recorded high concentration of chromium
(2400µg/g) in dried and upto 48,000ppm in ashed leaves
of Sutera fodina, a Zimbabwean serpentine endemic.
Wild (1974) also found 30,000ppm in the leaves of
Dicoma niccolifera, and up to 15,000ppm in the leaves
of Pearsonia metallifera. Brooks (1987) believed that the
very high concentration values of chromium in plant ash
could be due to contamination by wind-blown dust from
the Noro chrome mine, since other specimens of the
same species from other parts of the Great Dyke gave a
maximum value of only 2µg/g chromium in dried1 leaves
(Brooks and Yang, 1984). It should be noted that the
geochemical conditions (mainly pH and Eh values) may
be completely different in the area where Wild's (1974)
samples were collected, when compared with the sites
where Brooks and Yang (1984) sampled. These
environmental conditions are not stated in either study.
How the samples were prepared (i.e., whether ashed, or
just dried and then digested) is also not indicated.
Geobotanical results, presented by Odhiambo (1993)
reveal a clear decrease in species diversity from non-
mineralized Precambrian Basement gneisses to mine-
ralized serpentine host rocks. Variation in species com-
position is exemplified by the characteristic Protea -
Faurea - Maerua - Satureja vegetation community that
occurs on the mineralized geobotanical unit, which can
1
 Researches tend to express results differently (e.g. ppm or  quantify the distinct spectral changes. The variations in
µg/g). Samples are also prepared differently. 
31
also be clearly identified on remotely sensed data. The
species Protea kilimandischarica is a characteristic
indicator of the area around the chromite mineralization.
It is an evergreen and does not shed its leaves. Satureja
abyssinica is closely associated with the chromite de-
posits in the area; its tiny purplish-pink flowers together
with its sweet minty smell, makes it a conspicuous herbal
species. The Acacia - Dodonea - Combretum - Ficus ve-
getation community surrounding the chromite mine-
ralization is similar to that recorded by Brooks and
Malaisse (1985) around the Great Dyke in Zimbabwe.
They also noted this vegetation community as not being
exclusive to the known chromium and nickeliferous
soils.
Plate 3 shows a water lily which belongs to the plant
family Nymphaeaceae, growing in the mine water in
abandoned Pb-Zn mine water was found to contain
concentration value of more than 10,000ppm lead
(Odhiambo, 2014). Since water lily is an apparent
accumulator of lead, it can be effectively used in
bioremediation of the mine waters that have high lead
concentrations. The analytical data obtained from the
study justifies detoxification of the mine waters.
Plate 3: Water lily (family Nymphaeaceae) in
Pb-Zn mine waters.
Spectral Geobotany
This section elucidates the historical advancement of
the remote sensing concept that was first envisaged by
Socrates in c.400 BC. Spectral geobotanical approach in
geobotanical remote sensing has also been referred to as
target geobotany (Singhroy, 1987). It crystallizes the
relationships between spectral properties of plants and
the geochemical stress phenomenon. There is a need
therefore to establish an understanding that the
geochemical condition of the substrate influences
spectral reflectance properties of plants (Odhiambo,
1993).
Today, spectral geobotanical investigations are
widely used in geobotany since leaves of healthy,
actively growing plants produce broadly similar spectral
reflectance curves (Horler et al., 1980; Goetz et al.,
1983; Milton and Mouat, 1984; Singhroy, 1989).
Spectroradiometers with narrow spectral band working
in the vegetation reflectance edge (the near infrared
portion, also called the red-edge) of the electromagnetic
spectrum have been developed in order to measure and
32 B.D. Odhiambo
absorption and spectral reflectance characteristics of
plants have been related to pigment content, cellular
structure, and to the moisture content of leaves (Cwick,
1987). Odhiambo (1993; 2008) used the SE590
Spectroradiometer to analyse spectral reflectance
characteristics (from 380nm to 1200nm) of vegetation in
relation to mineral concentrations.
Hyperspectral (imaging spectroscopy) remote sensing
is currently being investigated by researchers with regard
to the detection and identification of minerals, terrestrial
vegetation, and man-made materials. The concept of
hyperspectral remote sensing began in the mid-80 and is
currently being used widely by geologists for the
mapping of minerals. In hyperspectral imaging, actual
detection of materials is dependent on the spectral
coverage, spectral resolution, signal-to-noise ratio of the
spectrometer, on the abundance of the material and the
strength of absorption features for that material in the
wavelength region measured (Lee and Landgrebe, 1993).
The degree of association between chromite
pathfinder elements and independent spectral parameters
at the red edge of the electromagnetic spectrum raises the
question as to whether or not a purely prospective (as
opposed to a retrospective) approach to mineral
exploration using geobotanical methods is feasible. The
results presented by Odhiambo (1993) indicate that it is
possible both at the general level of interpretation and at
the species specific level. In either case, a positive
correlation implies that as the concentration of an
element increases in the sample, the value of the
independent spectral parameter also increases.
Conversely, a negative correlation implies a decrease in
the value of the independent spectral parameter as the
concentration of the element increases.
General Methodology for Geobotanical Studies
The historical aspects of the methodologies used in
geobotanical studies for mineral exploration are not
clearly elucidated in the literature surveyed. The
methodology is to be found only in the contemporary
studies summarized in this section.
In planning a geobotanical study, the sampling
procedures adopted should take into account the
potential differences in metal uptake by different plant
species and plant parts. In addition, the stages of
maturity and seasonal cycles should be considered, as
recommended by Thornton (1986). This is of practical
importance because in temperate countries the maximum
"elemental peak" in plants is restricted to the first week
of spring (Canney et al., 1979; Banninger, 1985). In
these regions, this factor greatly limits the timing of
fieldwork for geobotanical studies. The timing of the
studies also has a bearing on the spectral discrimination
of annual and perennial plants in both temperate and
tropical climates. During the dry season in the tropics,
annual plants are absent and spectral reflectance from
perennial plants becomes more conspicuous on satellite
images.
Normally, a brief reconnaissance survey where
transects and sampling plots are established on the
geobotanical units map should be undertaken in order to
identify locations for collecting samples. Transects
should be established in a direction perpendicular to the
general strike of the lithological units. The data used in
geobotanical sampling research should be collected
during two field seasons that should be selected to
coincide with the driest time (months) of the year when
vegetation is most stressed, and mineral concentrations
in the subsurface are at their highest (Cole, 1983; Lyon et
al., 1982). In both cases the sampling period should take
as short a time as possible in order to minimise climatic
variations that might influence element uptake by plants.
Sampling should be during the same time of day to avoid
any diurnal climatic impacts on the vegetation.
Wet seasons should be avoided since leaching of
elements from plant leaves may occur (Brooks, 1983),
and concentrations in the subsurface may be diluted by
the excess water available in the soil due to heavy
rainfall. A second reason for the dry season being ideal
for geobotanical studies is that the atmosphere is rela-
tively cloud-free. As a result, conditions for collection of
spectral data are ideal and cloud free satellite imagery is
easily selectable (Odhiambo, 1993). Finally, fieldwork is
not impeded by impassable roads, which can occur
during wet seasons in most tropical environments.
Geobotanical Samples
Geobotanical samples should be separated (where
applicable) into twigs and leaves; the reason being that
the two plant parts (organs) are known to concentrate
different amounts of trace elements. In addition, each
sample should be split several times to provide
replicates. This enables repeated determinations to test
the repeatability of analytical results obtained. Standard
plant material should be used (or prepared) with which to
compare the results from the analyses.
Sample preparation in geobotanical trace element
analysis is of utmost importance, since, for example, the
ashing technique preconcentrates the elements in plant
material. The concentration levels so obtained are
usually much higher (sometimes by a factor of about 20
fold) than the values obtained for the same samples when
the material has simply been dried and then digested
(Odhiambo, 1993).
Several studies (Brooks et al., 1985; Odhiambo, 1988;
and Odhiambo, 2015) have shown that strong corre-
lations exist between soil and plant element conce-
ntrations. So, when preparing for fieldwork and data
collection, one should endeavour to find out if any
previous mineral evaluation studies around the study
area had been done. If the results of such a mineral
assessment program are available and the quality of the
results are acceptable for the purposes of the research,
then no additional geochemical analysis of the soils and
rock samples is necessary. It is recommended that only a
few soil samples may be collected from selected sample
sites (from soil sampling pits) in order to determine the
soil pH and Eh, soil organic matter content and soil
texture, since these physicochemical factors control
uptake mineral elements by plants.
Although Malyuga (1964) and Brooks (1972) have
recommended that two or three of the more dominant
plant species be sampled so that at least one of them is
present at each sample point, experience using a pre-
 The Place of Geobotany in Geology
selected sampling grid has shown (Malyuga, 1964;
Kapinsky, 1941 cited in Brooks, 1972; Brooks, 1984;
Cole, 1986; Kovalevsky, 1987; Odhiambo et al., 1989;
Odhiambo and Howarth, 1993a) that geobotanical
indicator plants are not necessarily the dominant species.
Thus, all species should be sampled indiscriminately
from each sample point, during the first field season.
This biogeochemical approach to mineral prospecting
using vegetation is based on the continuum concept
(Elliot, 1983), where vegetation can be used as
biogeochemical samples without the need for mapping
vegetation units. Furthermore, with respect to elemental
uptake by plants, it has been demonstrated (Kovalevsky,
1987) that some plants are more informative (non-
barrier) while others are not (barrier type), as illustrated
Figure 2: Types of biogeochemical samples
in Figure 2.
At every pre-selected sample point, plants should be
sampled after a careful scrutiny of all the plants at that
location in order to observe any visible signs of
morphological anomalies. Each plant sample should
consist of the apical leaves of the plant. In the case of
tree species, leaves are collected from several locations
(limbs or branches) around the canopy. These are then
mixed to make one sample of approximately 10 to 15g in
weight. This recommendation is based on the result of
several studies which have shown that the elemental
content of leaves can vary greatly from one side of a
plant to another, depending on the location of the mineral
deposit. There seems to be a longitudinal passage of
inorganic material from the roots of one side of a plant to
the limbs on the same side (Cannon, 1964; Singhroy,
pers. comm., Feb., 1993).
During the second field season, geobotanical
sampling and spectral measurements should be
undertaken simultaneously. Plants found in proximity to
a mineralized site during reconnaissance and are also in
the non-mineralized sites should be sampled. In this case
sampling can then be focused on the two or three
dominant species (as recommended by Malyuga, 1964,
and Brooks, 1972) that were found by analyses from first
season data to respond well to the mineralization.
In the chromite mineralization studies undertaken in
West Pokot District of Kenya, Odhiambo (1993) found
that with the exception of manganese, the other mineral
33
elements that are associated with the chromite
mineralization (the pathfinder elements, namely nickel,
cobalt, and chromium) are non-essential plant micro-
nutrients. These heavy trace elements are not known to
be essential for normal development of vascular plants
(Siegel, 1974; Raven et al., 1976 cited in Singhroy,
1989). The non-essentiality in plant nutrition is an im-
portant factor in geobotanical studies since it has also
been shown that the uptake of essential elements (such as
calcium, potassium, sodium, phosphorous, and sulphur)
is controlled by plants (Kovalevsky, 1987). In trace
element analysis this factor (non-essentiality) usually re-
sults in negative biogeochemical anomalies (Odhiambo,
1988). Availability of the trace elements to plants has
been observed to result in physiological and/or
morphological changes in plants due to their toxicity
(Cannon, 1960; Malyuga, 1964; Brooks, 1972; Rose et
al., 1979).
In plant samples, statistical analyses of the trace
element concentrations show typical negative skewness
which is characteristic of geochemical data (Siegel,
1974; Al Ajely, 1984). The data can therefore be
subjected to standard statistical treatment, in order to
establish whether or not the concentration values
obtained are true geochemical anomalies within the
geochemical environment. Using all the concentration
values obtained for each element assayed in a study,
statistical threshold levels are calculated to determine the
mean element concentration, local background
concentration value, and local threshold concentration
value for all the elements. The local background value
(LBV) is determined as the mean element concentration
plus one standard deviation, while the local threshold
value (LTV) is the mean concentration plus two standard
deviations. Concentration values higher than the local
threshold value are considered to be anomalous, as
recommended originally by Marmo (1958), Sayala
(1979), and Rose et al. (1979). Once these thresholds are
ascertained, concentration plots can be constructed using
the biogeochemical data (Odhiambo, 1993). Results from
a study around the chromite deposits in Kenya showed
that smoothing biogeochemical data rids it of some
spurious concentration values. Further, known sites of
chromite mineralization are clearly depicted and the
serpentinite host rock is also clearly depicted by the
chromium, nickel and manganese anomalies.
The synthesis of the element concentration plots
performed by Odhiambo (1993) using the standard
smoothing technique shows that, even though the
technique rids the data of some spurious concentration
values, it is still fairly accurate in locating the known
sites of the chromite/nickel deposits, especially when
results are compared to those obtained by the
experimental plots.
It is concluded that concentrations of the chromite
pathfinder elements in geobotanical samples causes
measurable spectral shifts at the red spectral edge of
associated vegetation. The spectral response of plants to
element concentration is species specific since, a given
plant species responds uniquely to mineralization when
compared to another plant species. This observation
concurs with observations made in the works of Masuo-
34 B.D. Odhiambo
ka (1981), Labovitz et al., (1983) and Singhroy (1989).
Secondly, the spectral response of plants is element
specific. In this case, the effects of one element on the
independent spectral parameters were observed to be
unique from those of another element. The chromite
mineralization shifts the red edge of the associated plants
towards shorter wavelengths.
Summary
The importance of selecting pathfinder elements for
analysis, together with the need to use high resolution
spectroradiometers for analysis of the spectral reflec-
tance characteristics of plants for mineral concentration
in the subsurface has been underscored (Odhiambo,
2008). The chromite indicator species were identified on
the basis of high accumulations of the pathfinder
elements, coupled with their persistent occurrence in
proximity to the chromite mineral deposits. Results from
West Pokot District of Kenya case study demonstrate
how chromite deposits can influence the associated
vegetation.
The following conclusions are made from the study
undertaken in West Pokot District of Kenya. First is the
concern of lack of standard reference material in
geobotanical studies. These are essential to ensure the
quality of the biogeochemical data. The second
conclusion concerns the use of remote sensing since
mineralized geobotanical unit are unique with respect to
their spectral reflectance characteristics. It is evident that
the delineation of geobotanical units is of particular
importance for geobotanical remote sensing studies.
The anomalous concentrations of chromium were
found in Satureja abyssinica, Leucas tomentosa, and in
Protea kilimandischarica. In these plants, the amount of
chromium does not exceed 500 ppm. These concen-
trations are much lower than the chromium concentration
values obtained by Wild (1974) from the serpentine
endemics around the Noro Chromite Mine area in
Zimbabwe. However, they are similar to the values
obtained by Brooks (1972; 1987) and Brooks and Yang
(1984). Therefore, for purposes of prospective geobo-
tanical mineral exploration, the need to identify non-
barrier plants like Protea kilimandischarica, Faurea
saligna and Satureja abyssinica seems critical.
It is concluded that concentrations of the chromite
pathfinder elements in geobotanical samples causes
measurable spectral shifts at the red spectral edge of
associated vegetation. The spectral response of plants to
element concentration is species specific since, a given
plant species responds uniquely to mineralization when
compared to another plant species. This observation
concurs with observations made in the works of
Masuoka (1981), Labovitz et al., (1983) and Singhroy
(1989). Secondly, the spectral response of plants is
element specific. In this case, the effects of one element
on the independent spectral parameters were observed to
be unique from those of another element. The chromite
mineralization shifts the red edge of the associated plants
towards shorter wavelengths.
Following from the conclusions presented above, five
recommendations made below arise mainly from the
studies undertaken in Kenya and from observations made
over the years in publications on geobotanical appli-
cations.
The first recommendation concerns the lack of
standard reference material for use in geobotanical
studies. There are two issues; first is the lack of any
adequate reference standards. Secondly there are also no
reference standard samples against which the spectra of
different plants and their derived independent spectral
reflectance parameters can be compared. The second
issue necessitates the identification of an appropriate
plant as a reference standard.
The second recommendation stems from the
availability of chromium (and other elements) in the
biogeochemical environment. It is evident that the
chromite-tolerant plant species are associated with the
mineralization. Therefore, the general lack of awareness
among exploration geologists and environmentalists, as
to the power of geobotanical research in mineral
exploration, and the niche it occupies in environmental
biogeochemistry and geoepidemiology raises the need to
carry out further studies. The effectiveness of the
technique in mineral exploration should be assessed, in
exploration programs.
The third recommendation concerns measurement of
pH and conductivity (Eh) conditions of associated soils.
These conditions are not usually presented in the results
of similar studies. They are essential in understanding
geochemical availability of an element around a mineral
deposit. These parameters should always be measured.
Similarly, sample preparation technique used should
always be clearly presented. This is because, for
example, ashing of plant material preconcentrates the
elements present in the sample as compared to plant
material that is simply digested and then analysed. Such
an approach would facilitate comparisons of the
concentration ranges of chromium (or other elements of
interest) in similar geobotanical studies from different
regions.
Lastly, spectral geobotanical datasets are usually very
large and should therefore be archived in a "central
spectral data bank". This would facilitate quick
referencing of the spectral reflectance parameters of
plant samples from different geographical regions of the
world.
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